Saudi Arabia
Updated November 22, 2023
Saudi Arabia
Change, Continuity, and Controversy
Saudi decision-making has shifted from what had been a
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ruled by the Al Saud family
relatively risk-averse posture rooted in rulers’ concerns for
since its founding in 1932, wields considerable global
maintaining elite consensus, to one characterized by bolder,
influence through its administration of the birthplace of the
centrally directed changes. The Crown Prince’s leadership
Islamic faith and by virtue of holding the world’s second
and decisions have challenged key interest groups,
largest proven oil reserves. In exchange for protection,
including factions of the royal family, business elites, and
advice, technology, and armaments from the United States,
conservative religious figures.
the Saudi government has welcomed American investment
Vision 2030 and Social Change
in the kingdom and has served as a U.S. security and
The centerpiece of Saudi leaders’ domestic agenda is the
counterterrorism partner.
Vision 2030 initiative, which seeks to transform the
Since 2015, Saudi leaders’ domestic and foreign policy
kingdom’s economy by diversifying the government’s
decisions have renewed calls from some U.S. leaders for a
sources of revenue and reducing long-standing oil export
reassessment of long-standing bilateral ties. Some in
dependence through investment and private sector growth.
Congress have differed with successive Administrations
over how the United States should pursue human rights
Figure 1. Saudi Arabia
policy toward the kingdom and address the war in Yemen.
The Biden Administration has sought to recalibrate the
U.S.-Saudi partnership while maintaining U.S. support for
the kingdom’s security. President Joe Biden visited Saudi
Arabia in July 2022, ending a period of more limited
engagement with Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin
Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (the central figure in Saudi
policy making) amid human rights concerns. The Biden
Administration has engaged Saudi officials on proposed
agreements to facilitate normalization of relations between
Israel and Saudi Arabia, but the October 2023 terrorist
Source: CRS, using ESRI and U.S. State Department data.
attacks on Israel and ensuing war in the Gaza Strip have
paused these discussions and introduced new challenges.
Successive Saudi leaders have pursued these goals, but with
more narrow and gradual targets than those of Vision 2030.
Leadership and Public Confidence
Historically, Saudi policymakers have faced challenges in
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (age 87) assumed the
balancing these types of reforms with concerns for the
throne in 2015; he named his son, Crown Prince
preservation of regime and national security, social
Mohammed bin Salman (age 38), as his successor in 2017.
stability, and cultural and religious values. The kingdom’s
In the years since the Crown Prince has asserted control
finances and ability to implement its ambitious economic
over key national security forces, sidelined potential rivals,
and green energy transformation agendas remain dependent
and begun implementing ambitious policy changes. In
on revenue derived from oil exports.
September 2022, the Crown Prince assumed the
responsibilities of head of government as Prime Minister, a
Among the G20 countries, Saudi Arabia had the highest
position historically held by the king.
economic growth in 2022 due to high global oil prices
stemming in part from the effects of Russia's invasion of
Saudi leaders appear to have considerably narrowed
Ukraine. Higher oil prices and global economic recovery
opportunities for citizens to express dissent since 2017.
have been a boon for the kingdom, replenishing state
Security forces have detained dozens of activists, clerics,
coffers after a challenging period of lower revenue and
Islamist figures, and journalists, releasing some
higher-than-planned spending to offset the economic effects
conditionally during 2021 and 2022. In late 2017,
of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021. Some
authorities imprisoned dozens of wealthy individuals (and
analysts project that Saudi Arabia's fiscal break-even oil
potential family rivals of the crown prince) for months in
price is $80 per barrel; as of October 2023, with oil prices
the Ritz Carlton hotel in Riyadh as part of a nominal
averaging $90 per barrel, the kingdom projected a deficit
anticorruption campaign. Police released most of this latter
for 2023 through 2026, but reported record low
group of detainees after reaching undisclosed financial
unemployment and low inflation.
settlement arrangements, amid accounts of abuse. Reports
of additional detentions and questioning of leading royals
Along with its Vision 2030 initiative, the state has made
since 2020 drew attention to succession tensions.
major changes in its approach to some sensitive social
matters. Authorities reversed the kingdom’s long-standing
ban on women driving in June 2018, in part to expand
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Saudi Arabia
women’s participation in the workforce. Parallel changes
efforts to reverse Houthi military gains. Iran has provided
have created more public space for women in some social
arms to the Houthis, who have used ballistic missiles and
and cultural events. Authorities have partially amended
drones to attack Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates
male guardianship rules restricting women’s autonomy and
(UAE). An April 2022 truce between the ROYG and the
have acted to provide for more uniform judicial rulings in
Houthis has held, bringing a halt to cross border missile
related cases. Many younger Saudis welcome changes made
attacks from Yemen and to Saudi-led coalition airstrikes.
to date and call for more; roughly two-thirds of Saudi
The Biden Administration continues to provide defensive
nationals are under the age of 35. Other Saudis express
support to the kingdom and endorses Saudi dialogue with
opposition or concern about the changes’ potential effects
Iran and parties to the Yemen conflict.
on religious and social values.
Israeli-Palestinian Affairs
Human Rights
Saudi Arabia publicly supports key Palestinian demands,
More aggressive human rights restrictions have
while Saudi leaders have engaged quietly with Israel about
accompanied recent social change. The imprisonment and
shared concerns over Iran. Saudi Arabia has called for a
trial of several women’s right activists and other vocal
ceasefire in the war between Israel and Hamas in Gaza, and
figures prompted congressional scrutiny of the kingdom’s
Saudi officials indicate that they remain open to possible
use of its Specialized Criminal Court and anti-terrorism
normalization with Israel while insisting on a solution that
laws to confront dissent. Since December 2020, Saudi
enables Palestinian statehood. Continued or wider conflict
courts have reduced or suspended sentences for some
may make the path to normalization more difficult.
prominent detainees and released others conditionally,
while imposing new lengthy sentences on others.
“....the security of the Middle East region requires
swiftly finding a just, comprehensive solution to the
In February 2021, the U.S. intelligence community released
Palestinian issue; this solution must be based on
a report assessing that the Crown Prince “approved an
legitimate international resolutions and the Arab Peace
operation in Istanbul, Turkey to capture or kill” Saudi
Initiative in a way that guarantees the right of the
journalist and U.S. resident Jamal Khashoggi. Saudi
Palestinian people to establish their independent state
officials disputed the report’s conclusions. The U.S.
on the 1967 borders with its capital in East Jerusalem.”
government placed travel and financial sanctions on some
-- Foreign Minister Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud
Saudi officials. The kingdom prosecuted some unidentified
Speech to UN General Assembly – September 2023
officials, convicting eight and sentencing five to death,
before reducing the death sentences to varying prison terms.
Relations with China and Russia
Saudi Nuclear Plans
Saudi Arabia is a major source of oil imports for the
Saudi leaders seek to recast the role of energy resources in
People’s Republic of China (PRC). Sino-Saudi economic
the kingdom’s economy and plan to develop domestic
and diplomatic ties have deepened since the 1990s. PRC
civilian nuclear power infrastructure. In 2022, they solicited
President Xi Jinping visited Saudi Arabia in 2022, and
technical bids related to the planned construction of two
Saudi officials joined other Arab officials in China in
nuclear power reactors. The Trump Administration
November 2023 to demand a ceasefire in Gaza. Media
expedited consideration of required regulatory approvals for
reports claim that China has provided the kingdom with
U.S. nuclear firms to provide marketing information to
ballistic missile production technology and that the two
Saudi officials. Saudi officials have not forsworn uranium
governments have cooperated on a uranium milling plant.
enrichment. They state that they intend to use domestic
Saudi Arabia coordinates with Russia on oil production
uranium resources to produce nuclear fuel. Saudi nuclear
decisions, although the two producers at times have differed
facilities are subject to International Atomic Energy
over output. Saudi Arabia voted at the United Nations to
Agency (IAEA) safeguards, though some press reports have
condemn Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, but opposed
located possibly undeclared sites. The IAEA has reviewed
Russia’s expulsion from the U.N. Human Rights Council.
declared Saudi nuclear infrastructure and recommends
Saudi officials have offered to mediate between Ukraine
adoption and implementation of an Additional Protocol.
and Russia and have facilitated related prisoner exchanges.
Saudi Foreign Policy
Saudi-U.S. Relations
Iran and Yemen
More than 2,700 U.S. military personnel are deployed to
After a long estrangement, Saudi Arabia and Irani reached
Saudi Arabia “to protect United States forces and interests
an agreement facilitated by Iraq, Oman, and China to
in the region against hostile action by Iran and Iran-backed
reestablish diplomatic relations and reopen embassies in
groups.” Other U.S. personnel implement long-standing
each country. Saudi officials remain concerned about
defense and security cooperation programs. U.S. officials
Iranian support for various armed actors in the MENA
say they still support Saudi-Israeli normalization and seek
region, especially the Ansarallah/Houthi movement in
Yemen, Lebanon’s Hezbollah, and Shia militia
to cooperate with Saudi Arabia on several global energy
s in Iraq.
Saudi officials praised the Trump Administration’s decision
and technology initiatives. U.S.-Saudi cooperation or
differences over the Gaza conflict and its aftermath could
to withdraw from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action
affect prospects for U.S.-Saudi collaboration on other
(JCPOA) in 2018, and the Crown Prince has said that if Iran
issues. For more information, see CRS Report RL33533,
obtains a nuclear weapon, Saudi Arabia will follow suit.
Saudi Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations.
Saudi Arabia opposed the 2014-2015 Houthi ouster of the
Republic of Yemen government (ROYG), and, in March
Christopher M. Blanchard, Specialist in Middle Eastern
2015, organized a military coalition of mostly Arab states in
Affairs
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Saudi Arabia
IF10822
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