Updated August 17, 2020
Saudi Arabia
Change, Continuity, and Controversy
Figure 1. Saudi Arabia
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ruled by the Al Saud family
since its founding in 1932, wields significant global
influence through its administration of the birthplace of the
Islamic faith and by virtue of its large oil reserves. Saudi
leaders’ domestic and foreign policy decisions have been
fueling calls from some U.S. leaders for a reassessment of
long-standing bilateral ties. The Al Saud have sought
protection, advice, technology, and armaments from the
United States, along with support in developing their
country’s natural and human resources and in facing
national security threats. U.S. leaders have valued Saudi
cooperation in security and counterterrorism matters and
have sought to preserve the secure, apolitical flow of the
kingdom’s energy resources and capital to global markets.
The Trump Administration seeks to strengthen U.S.-Saudi
ties as the kingdom implements new domestic and foreign
policy initiatives, while some in Congress call for change.
Leadership and Public Confidence
Source: CRS, using ESRI, and U.S. State Department data.
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (age 84) assumed the
Vision 2030 and Social Change
throne in 2015 after the death of his half-brother, the late
The centerpiece of Saudi leaders’ domestic agenda is the
King Abdullah bin Abd al Aziz. King Salman since has
altered the responsibilities and relative power of leading
Vision 2030 initiative, which seeks to transform the
kingdom’s economy by diversifying the government’s
members of the next generation of the Al Saud family, the
grandsons of the kingdom’s founder. King Salman’s son,
sources of revenue and reducing long-standing oil export
Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (age 34), is now the
dependence by promoting investment and private sector
growth. An initial public offering of shares in state oil
central figure in Saudi policymaking, having asserted
company Saudi Aramco raised $26 billion in late 2019.
control over key national security forces, sidelined potential
rivals, and begun implementing ambitious policy changes.
Authorities have reduced some consumer and industrial
subsidies and introduced a value-added tax. Amid some
The king underwent surgery in July 2020 and is recovering.
domestic criticism, authorities also have offered citizens
In parallel, channels for expressing dissent within the
relief payments, salary increases, and tax exemptions.
kingdom appear to have narrowed considerably. Since
Lower oil prices and reduced oil demand stemming from
2017, security forces have detained dozens of activists,
the global coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic
clerics, Islamist figures, and journalists representing
have reduced revenue projections for 2020 and 2021.
different ideological trends and perspectives. In late 2017,
Economic transformation has driven social change in the
authorities also imprisoned dozens of wealthy individuals
kingdom since the early 20th century, and the Vision 2030
(and potential family rivals of the crown prince) for months
in the Ritz Carlton hotel in Riyadh as part of a nominal
initiative is being accompanied by significant changes in
the state’s approach to some sensitive social matters.
anticorruption campaign. Most of this latter group of
Authorities reversed the kingdom’s long-standing ban on
detainees were released after reaching undisclosed financial
settlement arrangements, amid accounts of abuse. Reports
women driving in June 2018, in part to expand women’s
participation in the workforce. Parallel changes have
of additional detentions and questioning of leading royals in
created more public space for women in some social and
2020 suggest that succession issues could remain contested.
cultural events. Authorities have partially amended male
Many Saudis and outside observers have expressed surprise
guardianship rules restricting women’s activities. Some
about the scope and rapidity of post-2015 developments and
Saudis welcome changes made to date and call for more,
continue to speculate about their potential implications.
while others express opposition or concern about the
Saudi decision-making had long appeared to be relatively
changes’ potential effects on religious and social values.
risk-averse and rooted in rulers’ concerns for maintaining
Human Rights
consensus among different constituencies, including
factions of the royal family, business elites, and
The October 2018 killing of Saudi journalist Jamal
Khashoggi by Saudi government officials in the Saudi
conservative religious figures. Crown Prince Mohammed
bin Salman’s bolder and more centralized leadership has
consulate in Istanbul, Turkey led to increased congressional
scrutiny of the kingdom’s human rights practices. The
challenged each of these interest groups, and is leading
Trump Administration described the killing as a “horrific
Saudis and outsiders alike to reexamine their assumptions.
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Saudi Arabia
act,” stated its intent to pursue accountability for those
the Iranian government’s ties to state and non-state actors in
responsible, and imposed travel and financial sanctions on
these countries. U.S. officials have praised Saudi efforts to
some Saudi officials suspected of involvement. The
strengthen ties with Iraq, including the reopening of border
kingdom prosecuted some unidentified officials on charges
crossings and engagement on energy issues.
of involvement, sentencing five to death and others to long
Conflict in Yemen
prison terms. Saudi prosecutors cleared other suspects, such
Saudi Arabia has led a military coalition of mostly Arab
as Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman’s former adviser
states since March 2015 in efforts to reinstate the
Saud al Qahtani, of involvement. Some in Congress
government of Yemeni President Abdu Rabbu Mansour
advocated for a more forceful U.S. response to Khashoggi’s
Hadi, who was ousted in a 2014-2015 offensive by the
killing and speak on behalf of Saudi human rights activists.
Zaydi Shia Houthi movement of northern Yemen. Iranian
Saudi Nuclear Plans
support to the Houthi war effort—including the provision of
Saudi leaders seek to recast the role of energy resources in
ballistic missiles and drones used to attack Saudi Arabia—
the kingdom’s economy and plan to develop domestic
has amplified Saudi leaders’ concerns. After a missile and
civilian nuclear power infrastructure. They have solicited
drone strike on oil facilities attributed to Iran halved Saudi
bids for the construction of two nuclear power reactors. The
oil output in September 2019, President Trump deployed
Trump Administration expedited consideration of required
additional U.S. aircraft and personnel to the kingdom. As of
regulatory approvals for U.S. firms to provide marketing
March 2020, more than 2,500 U.S. military personnel were
information to Saudi officials. Saudi officials have not
in the kingdom, along with air defense systems and aircraft.
forsworn uranium enrichment and state their intent to
Amid concern about civilian casualties in Yemen, the
develop and use domestic resources. Saudi nuclear facilities
Trump Administration has maintained support to Saudi
are subject to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Arabia, but ended U.S. refueling of Saudi coalition aircraft
safeguards, though some press reports have raised questions
in late 2018. The United Nations considers Yemen to be the
about possibly undeclared sites. The IAEA has reviewed
world’s worst humanitarian crisis and cites Houthi and
declared Saudi nuclear infrastructure and recommends
Saudi coalition policies as contributing factors. President
adoption and implementation of an Additional Protocol.
Trump vetoed S.J.Res. 7, which would have directed him to
Combatting Terrorism and Extremism
end some U.S. military involvement in Yemen, and
The U.S. government describes U.S.-Saudi cooperation on
approved several emergency arms sales to the kingdom
counterterrorism as robust and credits Saudi officials with
over congressional objections, citing threats from Iran.
reducing the financing of terrorism by Saudi nationals and
Israeli-Palestinian Affairs
with helping to undermine terrorist propaganda. The
Saudi Arabia is a leader among Arab states in supporting
Islamic State group has been highly critical of Saudi
key Palestinian demands, and Saudi leaders have engaged
authorities and religious officials, and U.S. threat
quietly with Israel based on shared concerns about Iran.
assessments judge that the Islamic State and Al Qaeda pose
After the Arab League and the Organization of Islamic
continuing risks to the kingdom’s security. The Saudi
Cooperation (OIC) rejected the Trump Administration’s
government’s relationship with conservative religious
peace plan in February 2020, the Saudi cabinet
figures is evolving, with the state promoting potentially
“emphasized the centrality of the Palestinian cause to the
controversial social policy changes while enlisting religious
Arab and Islamic nation” and stated “the need to adhere to
leaders to counteract extremist messages.
the peace process as a strategic option for the conflict,
based on the two-state solution, in accordance with
“There is no place among us for an extremist who
legitimate international resolutions, the Arab Peace
sees moderation as degeneration.”
Initiative and adopted international references.” In May, the
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz, December 2017
Foreign Ministry voiced “condemnation of any unilateral
COVID-19
decisions and any violation of legitimate international
decisions” amid reported Israeli annexation plans. The
Saudi authorities have imposed border closures, visa
kingdom did not immediately comment on the August 2020
restrictions, internal curfews, and travel limits, and reduced
Israel-United Arab Emirates normalization agreement.
religious pilgrimage access in response to the COVID-19
pandemic, including significantly limiting the 2020 Hajj
Relations with China and Russia
pilgrimage. As of August 17, the World Health
Greater Saudi energy exports to China have underwritten
Organization confirmed official Saudi reporting of more
new Sino-Saudi economic and diplomatic ties, leading to
than 298,500 cases of COVID-19, including more than
new cooperation initiatives. Saudi leaders also maintain
31,500 active cases, and more than 3400 deaths due to
substantive dialogue with Russia, including on Syria and
COVID-19. Community spread was ongoing, and the rate
other regional issues. Saudi-Russian coordination on oil
of new cases had declined relative to rates in July. In June
policy has resumed following a breakdown in March 2020
2020, the U.S. government allowed the voluntary departure
that helped drive oil prices downward. Saudi Arabia buys
of nonemergency U.S. personnel and dependents from
some Chinese arms and has discussed sales with Russia.
Saudi Arabia, citing the increased spread of COVID-19.
For more information, see CRS Report RL33533, Saudi
Saudi Foreign Policy
Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations.
Iran, Iraq, and the Levant
Christopher M. Blanchard, Specialist in Middle Eastern
Saudi policies toward Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon continue to
Affairs
reflect the kingdom’s overarching concerns about Iran and
IF10822
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Saudi Arabia
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10822 · VERSION 11 · UPDATED