Updated January 27, 2023
Saudi Arabia
Change, Continuity, and Controversy
maintaining elite consensus, to one characterized by bolder,
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ruled by the Al Saud family
centrally directed changes. The Crown Prince’s leadership
since its founding in 1932, wields considerable global
and decisions have challenged key interest groups,
influence through its administration of the birthplace of the
including factions of the royal family, business elites, and
Islamic faith and by virtue of holding the world’s second
conservative religious figures.
largest proven oil reserves. In exchange for protection,
Vision 2030 and Social Change
advice, technology, and armaments from the United States,
The centerpiece of Saudi leaders’ domestic agenda is the
the Saudi government has welcomed American investment
Vision 2030 initiative, which seeks to transform the
in the kingdom and has served as a U.S. security and
kingdom’s economy by diversifying the government’s
counterterrorism partner.
sources of revenue and reducing long-standing oil export
Since 2015, Saudi leaders’ domestic and foreign policy
dependence through investment and private sector growth.
decisions have renewed calls from some U.S. leaders for a
reassessment of long-standing bilateral ties. Some in
Figure 1. Saudi Arabia
Congress have differed with successive Administrations
over how to approach U.S.-Saudi relations in light of
differences over the Saudi government’s human rights
record and participation in the war in Yemen. The Biden
Administration has sought to recalibrate the U.S.-Saudi
partnership while maintaining U.S. support for the
kingdom’s security. President Biden visited Saudi Arabia in
July 2022, ending a period in which some U.S. leaders
limited engagement with Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed
bin Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (the central figure in
Saudi policy making) amid human rights concerns.
Source: CRS, using ESRI, and U.S. State Department data.
Leadership and Public Confidence
Authorities have reduced some consumer and industrial
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (age 87) assumed the
subsidies and have introduced and raised a value-added tax.
throne in 2015 after the death of his half-brother, the late
Amid some domestic criticism, authorities also have offered
King Abdullah bin Abd al Aziz. King Salman has altered
some relief payments, salary increases, and tax exemptions.
the responsibilities and relative power of leading members
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic
of the next generation of the Al Saud family, the grandsons
slowed the kingdom’
of the kingdom’s founder. King Salman
s economy and reduced demand for
named one of his
Saudi oil exports during 2020, but Saudi leaders continued
sons, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (age 37), as his
to implement reform plans, buoyed by economic recovery
successor in 2017. In the years since the Crown Prince has
and higher oil revenues in 2021 and 2022 that moved the
asserted control over key national security forces, sidelined
state budget into surplus.
potential rivals, and begun implementing ambitious policy
changes. In September 2022, the Crown Prince assumed the
Economic transformation has driven social change in the
responsibilities of head of government as Prime Minister, a
kingdom since the early 20th century, and the Vision 2030
position historically held by the king.
initiative is being accompanied by significant changes in
the state’s approach to some sensitive social matters.
Channels for Saudis to express dissent appear to have
Authorities reversed the kingdom’s long-standing ban on
narrowed considerably since 2017. Security forces have
women driving in June 2018, in part to expand women’s
detained dozens of activists, clerics, Islamist figures, and
participation in the workforce. Parallel changes have
journalists, releasing some conditionally during 2021 and
created more public space for women in some social and
2022. In late 2017, authorities imprisoned dozens of
cultural events. Authorities have partially amended male
wealthy individuals (and potential family rivals of the
guardianship rules restricting women’s autonomy and have
crown prince) for months in the Ritz Carlton hotel in
acted to provide for more uniform judicial rulings in related
Riyadh as part of a nominal anticorruption campaign.
cases.
Police released most of this latter group of detainees after
reaching undisclosed financial settlement arrangements,
Many younger Saudis have welcomed changes made to date
amid accounts of abuse. Reports of additional detentions
and call for more; roughly two-thirds of Saudi nationals are
and questioning of leading royals since 2020 suggest that
under the age of 35. Others express opposition or concern
succession issues could remain contested.
about the changes’ potential effects on religious and social
values. As it navigates these issues, the Saudi government’s
Saudi decision-making has shifted from what had been a
relationship with conservative religious figures is evolving,
relatively risk-averse posture rooted in rulers’ concerns for
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Saudi Arabia
even as it continues to enlist religious leaders to counteract
the parties have continued to observe it, and Saudi and U.S.
extremism and promote order.
officials have expressed hope for peace talks.
Human Rights
Israeli-Palestinian Affairs
More aggressive human rights restrictions have
Saudi Arabia publicly supports key Palestinian demands,
accompanied recent social change. The imprisonment and
while Saudi leaders have engaged quietly with Israel based
trial of several women’s right activists and other vocal
on shared concerns about Iran. Saudi officials continue to
figures has prompted congressional scrutiny of the
condition Saudi normalization with Israel on terms in the
kingdom’s use of its Specialized Criminal Court and anti-
2002 Arab Peace Initiative, specifically the establishment of
terrorism laws to confront dissent. Since December 2020,
a Palestinian state. In 2022, Saudi Arabia opened its
Saudi courts have reduced or suspended sentences for some
airspace to civilian aircraft flying to and from Israel.
prominent detainees and released others conditionally,
while imposing new lengthy sentences on others.
“We have said consistently that we believe
normalization with Israel is something that is very
In October 2018, Saudi officials killed Saudi journalist and
much in the interest of the region. However, true
U.S. resident Jamal Khashoggi in the Saudi consulate in
normalization and true stability will only come through
Istanbul, Turkey, leading the U.S. government to impose
giving the Palestinians hope, through giving the
travel and financial sanctions on some Saudi officials. The
Palestinians dignity. That requires giving the
kingdom prosecuted some unidentified officials on related
Palestinians a state, and that’s the priority,”
charges, convicting eight and sentencing five to death,
before reducing the death sentences to varying prison terms.
- Foreign Minister Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud
In February 2021, the U.S. intelligence community released
Davos, Switzerland – January 2023
a report assessing that the crown prince “approved an
operation in Istanbul, Turkey to capture or kill” Khashoggi.
Saudi officials disputed the report’s conclusions.
Relations with China and Russia
Saudi Arabia is a major source of oil imports for the
Saudi Nuclear Plans
People’s Republic of China (PRC). Sino-Saudi economic
Saudi leaders seek to recast the role of energy resources in
and diplomatic ties have deepened since the 1990s. PRC
the kingdom’s economy and plan to develop domestic
President Xi Jinping visited Saudi Arabia in November
civilian nuclear power infrastructure. In 2022, they solicited
2022, and PRC and Saudi officials signed a series of
technical bids related to the planned construction of two
cooperation agreements. Since 2020, media reports have
nuclear power reactors. The Trump Administration
claimed that Saudi Arabia has acquired ballistic missile
expedited consideration of required regulatory approvals for
production technology from China and that China and
U.S. nuclear firms to provide marketing information to
Saudi Arabia have cooperated on a uranium milling plant.
Saudi officials. Saudi officials have not forsworn uranium
enrichment and state their intent to use domestic uranium
Saudi Arabia coordinates with Russia on oil production
resources to produce nuclear fuel. Saudi nuclear facilities
decisions, although the two producers at times have differed
are subject to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
over output. Saudi Arabia voted at the United Nations to
condemn Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, but opposed
safeguards, though some press reports have raised questions
Russia’s
about possibly undeclared sites. The IAEA has reviewed
expulsion from the U.N. Human Rights Council.
declared Saudi nuclear infrastructure and recommends
Saudi officials have offered to mediate between Ukraine
adoption and implementation of an Additional Protocol.
and Russia and have facilitated related prisoner exchanges.
Saudi Foreign Policy
Saudi-U.S. Relations
Iran and Yemen
The Biden Administration ended U.S. support for the
Saudi officials praised the Trump Administration’s decision
Saudi‑led Coalition’s offensive military operations against
to withdraw from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action
the Houthis, but continues to provide defensive support and
(JCPOA) in 2018, but did not express opposition to the
praises Saudi dialogue with Iran and parties to the Yemen
Biden Administration’s participation in now stalled
conflict. The Administration opposed legislation in the
multilateral talks with Iran. Saudi officials remain
117th Congress that would have disapproved of arms sales
concerned about Iranian support for various armed actors in
to the kingdom or would have withdrawn authorization for
the MENA region, especially the Ansarallah/Houthi
non-counterterrorism related uses of U.S. military force in
movement in Yemen, Lebanon’s Hezbollah, and Shia
Yemen. The Administration directed the withdrawal of
militias in Iraq. Intermittent Saudi-Iranian “exploratory
some U.S. Patriot air defense systems and personnel from
talks” since 2021 have not led to any new accords.
the kingdom in 2021, but approved new sales of Patriot
missiles to Saudi Arabia. As of December 2022, 2,755 U.S.
Saudi Arabia opposed the 2014-2015 Houthi ouster of the
military personnel were deployed to Saudi Arabia “to
Republic of Yemen government (ROYG), and, since March
protect United States forces and interests in the region
2015, the kingdom has led a military coalition of mostly
against hostile action by Iran and Iran-backed groups.”
Arab states in efforts to reverse Houthi military gains. Iran
Other U.S. troops and contractors implement long-standing
has provided arms to the Houthis, who have used ballistic
defense and security cooperation programs in the kingdom.
missiles and drones to attack Saudi Arabia and the United
For more information, see CRS Report RL33533, Saudi
Arab Emirates (UAE). Beginning in April 2022, a truce
Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations.
between the ROYG and the Houthis brought a halt to cross
border missile attacks from Yemen and to Saudi-led
Christopher M. Blanchard, Specialist in Middle Eastern
coalition airstrikes. The truce expired in October 2022, but
Affairs
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Saudi Arabia
IF10822
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