Updated February 11, 2020
Saudi Arabia
Change, Continuity, and Controversy
Figure 1. Saudi Arabia
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ruled by the Al Saud family
since its founding in 1932, wields significant global
influence through its administration of the birthplace of the
Islamic faith and by virtue of its large oil reserves. Saudi
leaders’ domestic and foreign policy decisions are fueling
calls from some U.S. leaders for a reassessment of long-
standing bilateral ties. The Al Saud have sought protection,
advice, technology, and armaments from the United States,
along with support in developing their country’s natural and
human resources and in facing national security threats.
U.S. leaders have valued Saudi cooperation in security and
counterterrorism matters and have sought to preserve the
secure, apolitical flow of the kingdom’s energy resources
and capital to global markets. The Trump Administration
seeks to strengthen U.S.-Saudi ties as the kingdom
implements new domestic and foreign policy initiatives,
while some in Congress call for change.
Leadership and Public Confidence
Source: CRS, using ESRI, and U.S. State Department data.
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (age 84) assumed the
Vision 2030 and Social Change
throne in 2015 after the death of his half-brother, the late
The centerpiece of Saudi leaders’ domestic agenda is the
King Abdullah bin Abd al Aziz. King Salman since has
altered the responsibilities and relative power of leading
Vision 2030 initiative, which seeks to transform the
kingdom’s economy by diversifying the government’s
members of the next generation of the Al Saud family, the
grandsons of the kingdom’s founder. King Salman’s son,
sources of revenue and reducing long-standing oil export
Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (age 34), is now the
dependence by promoting investment and private sector
growth. An initial public offering of shares in state oil
central figure in Saudi policymaking, having asserted
company Saudi Aramco raised $26 billion in late 2019.
control over key national security forces, sidelined potential
Authorities have reduced some consumer and industrial
rivals, and begun implementing ambitious policy changes.
subsidies and introduced a value-added tax. Amid some
In parallel, channels for expressing dissent within the
domestic criticism, authorities also have offered citizens
kingdom appear to have narrowed considerably. Since
relief payments, salary increases, and tax exemptions.
2017, security forces have detained dozens of activists,
Economic transformation has driven social change in the
Islamist figures, and journalists. Prosecutors have detained
kingdom since the early 20th century, and the Vision 2030
and/or pursued various charges against some well-known
initiative is being accompanied by significant changes in
figures, including prominent clerics, human rights
the state’s approach to some sensitive social matters.
advocates, and women’s rights campaigners. In late 2017,
Authorities reversed the kingdom’s long-standing ban on
authorities also imprisoned dozens of wealthy individuals
women driving in June 2018, in part to expand women’s
(and potential family rivals of the crown prince) for months
participation in the workforce. Parallel changes have
in the Ritz Carlton hotel in Riyadh as part of a nominal
created more public space for women in some social and
anticorruption campaign. Most of this latter group of
cultural events. Authorities have partially amended male
detainees were released after reaching undisclosed financial
guardianship rules restricting women’s activities. Some
settlement arrangements, amid accounts of abuse.
Saudis welcome changes made to date and call for more,
Many Saudis and outside observers have expressed surprise
while others express opposition or concern about the
changes’
about the scope and rapidity of post-2015 developments and
potential effects on religious and social values.
continue to speculate about their potential implications.
Human Rights
Saudi decision-making had long appeared to be relatively
The October 2018 killing of Saudi journalist Jamal
risk-averse and rooted in rulers’ concerns for maintaining
Khashoggi by Saudi government officials in the Saudi
consensus among different constituencies, including
consulate in Istanbul, Turkey has led to increased
factions of the royal family, business elites, and
congressional scrutiny of the kingdom’s human rights
conservative religious figures. Crown Prince Mohammed
practices. The Trump Administration has described the
bin Salman’s bolder and more centralized leadership has
killing as a “horrific act,” stated its intent to pursue
challenged each of these interest groups, and is leading
accountability for those responsible, and imposed travel and
Saudis and outsiders alike to reexamine their assumptions.
financial sanctions on some Saudi officials suspected of
involvement. The kingdom prosecuted some unidentified
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Saudi Arabia
officials on charges of involvement, sentencing five to
government of Yemeni President Abdu Rabbu Mansour
death and others to long prison terms. Saudi prosecutors
Hadi, who was ousted in a 2014-2015 offensive by the
cleared other suspects, such as Crown Prince Mohammed
Zaydi Shia Houthi movement of northern Yemen. Iranian
bin Salman’s former adviser Saud al Qahtani, of
material and advisory support to the Houthi war effort—
involvement. Some in Congress continue to advocate for a
including the provision of ballistic missiles and drones used
more forceful U.S. response to the Khashoggi killing and
to attack Saudi Arabia—has amplified Saudi leaders’
speak on behalf of Saudi human rights activists.
anxieties and concerns. Following a missile and drone
strike on oil facilities attributed to Iran halved Saudi oil
We want to make sure that everyone understands
output in September 2019, President Trump deployed
that the United States doesn’t believe that the killing
additional U.S. military assets and personnel to the
of Jamal Khashoggi was anything other than a horrific
kingdom. As of January 2020, more than 2,500 U.S.
act. And we hope that we can work together, both
military personnel, air defense systems, and fighter aircraft
with Congress and our allies, to hold those
are present in the kingdom.
responsible accountable.
The Trump Administration lifted some limits on U.S. arms
Secretary of State Michael Pompeo, October 2018
sales to Saudi Arabia that the Obama Administration had
Saudi Nuclear Plans
imposed to protest airstrikes that resulted in civilian
Saudi leaders seek to recast the role of energy resources in
casualties, but announced plans to end U.S. refueling of
the kingdom’s economy and plan to develop domestic
Saudi coalition aircraft in November 2018. The United
civilian nuclear power infrastructure. They have solicited
Nations considers Yemen to be the world’s worst
bids for the construction of two nuclear power reactors. The
humanitarian crisis and cites Houthi malfeasance and Saudi
Trump Administration expedited consideration of required
coalition-enforced limits on air and sea access as
regulatory approvals for U.S. firms to provide marketing
contributing to shortages of food and goods. President
information to Saudi officials, and may propose a bilateral
Trump vetoed S.J.Res. 7, which would have directed him to
nuclear cooperation agreement to the 116th Congress. Saudi
end some U.S. military involvement in Yemen, and has
officials have not forsworn uranium enrichment and have
approved a series of emergency arms sales to the kingdom,
stated their intent to use and develop domestic capabilities.
citing threats from Iran.
Saudi nuclear facilities are subject to International Atomic
Intra-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Tensions
Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards. The IAEA has
The Trump Administration favors negotiation and
reviewed Saudi nuclear infrastructure and recommends
compromise by parties to the ongoing intra-GCC dispute,
adoption and implementation of an additional protocol.
which has seen Saudi Arabia and other countries isolate the
Combatting Terrorism and Extremism
government of neighboring Qatar since mid-2017.
The U.S. government describes U.S.-Saudi cooperation on
Israeli-Palestinian Affairs
counterterrorism as robust and credits Saudi officials with
Saudi Arabia is a leader among Arab states in supporting
reducing the financing of terrorism by Saudi nationals and
key Palestinian demands, and Saudi leaders have engaged
with contributing to global efforts to undermine terrorist
quietly with Israel in light of the two countries’ shared
propaganda. The Islamic State group has been highly
interest in countering Iran. Saudi leaders have welcomed
critical of Saudi authorities and religious officials, and U.S.
the Administration’s efforts in developing its peace plan,
threat assessments judge that the Islamic State and Al
Qaeda pose continuing risks to the kingdom’s security. The
and they encourage the start of Israeli-Palestinian
negotiations to resolve differences. After the Arab League
Saudi government’s relationship with conservative religious
and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) rejected
figures is evolving, with the state promoting potentially
the U.S. plan, the Saudi cabinet “emphasized the centrality
controversial social policy changes while enlisting religious
of the Palestinian cause to the Arab and Islamic nation” and
leaders to counteract extremist messages. In December
stated “the need to adhere to the peace process as a strategic
2017, King Salman said “there is no place among us for an
extremist who sees moderation as degeneration.”
option for the conflict, based on the two-state solution, in
accordance with legitimate international resolutions, the
Saudi Foreign Policy
Arab Peace Initiative and adopted international references.”
Iran, Iraq, and the Levant
Relations with China and Russia
Saudi policies toward Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon continue to
Greater Saudi energy exports to China have underwritten
reflect the kingdom’s overarching concerns about Iran and
new Sino-Saudi economic and diplomatic ties, with several
the Iranian government’s ties to state and non-state actors in
cooperation initiatives announced since 2015. Saudi leaders
these countries. Saudi authorities back the U.N. Security
also have opened substantive dialogue and cooperation with
Council’s call for a negotiated settlement to the conflict in
Russia, encompassing coordination on oil production
Syria and seek more progress in settlement talks before
decisions to bolster global oil prices, discussion of arms
reengagement with the Iran-aligned Syrian government of
sales, and talks on Syria and other regional issues.
Bashar al Asad. U.S. officials praised past Saudi efforts to
For more information, see CRS Report RL33533, Saudi
strengthen ties with Iraq’s government, including the
Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations.
reopening of border crossings between the two countries.
Christopher M. Blanchard, Specialist in Middle Eastern
Conflict in Yemen
Affairs
Saudi Arabia has led a military coalition of mostly Arab
states since March 2015 in efforts to reinstate the
IF10822
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Saudi Arabia
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10822 · VERSION 9 · UPDATED