Updated February 4, 2022
Saudi Arabia
Change, Continuity, and Controversy
Figure 1. Saudi Arabia
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ruled by the Al Saud family
since its founding in 1932, wields considerable global
influence through its administration of the birthplace of the
Islamic faith and by virtue of holding the world’s second
most proven oil reserves. In exchange for protection,
advice, technology, and armaments from the United States,
the Saudi government has welcomed American investment
in the kingdom and has served as a security and
counterterrorism partner. Since 2015, Saudi leaders’
domestic and foreign policy decisions have renewed calls
from some U.S. leaders for a reassessment of long-standing

Source: CRS, using ESRI, and U.S. State Department data.
bilateral ties. Some in Congress have differed with
successive Administrations over how to approach U.S.-
sources of revenue and reducing long-standing oil export
Saudi relations in light of differences over human rights and
dependence through investment and private sector growth.
the war in Yemen. The Biden Administration has stated that
Authorities have reduced some consumer and industrial
it seeks to recalibrate the U.S.-Saudi partnership while
subsidies and have introduced and raised a value-added tax.
maintaining U.S. support for the kingdom’s security.
Amid some domestic criticism, authorities also have offered
Leadership and Public Confidence
some relief payments, salary increases, and tax exemptions.
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (age 86) assumed the
slowed the kingdom’s economy and reduced demand for
throne in 2015 after the death of his half-brother, the late
King Abdullah bin Abd al Aziz. King Salman has altered
Saudi oil exports during 2020, but Saudi leaders continued
to implement reform plans, buoyed by economic recovery
the responsibilities and relative power of leading members
and higher oil revenues in 2021.
of the next generation of the Al Saud family, the grandsons
of the kingdom’s founder. King Salman’s son, Crown
Economic transformation has driven social change in the
Prince Mohammed bin Salman (age 36), is now the central
kingdom since the early 20th century, and the Vision 2030
figure in Saudi policymaking, having asserted control over
initiative is being accompanied by significant changes in
key national security forces, sidelined potential rivals, and
the state’s approach to some sensitive social matters.
begun implementing ambitious policy changes.
Authorities reversed the kingdom’s long-standing ban on
women driving in June 2018, in part to expand women’s
In parallel, channels for expressing dissent within the
kingdom appear to have narrowed considerably. Since
participation in the workforce. Parallel changes have
created more public space for women in some social and
2017, security forces have detained dozens of activists,
cultural events. Authorities have partially amended male
clerics, Islamist figures, and journalists, releasing some
during 2021. In late 2017, authorities imprisoned dozens of
guardianship rules restricting women’s autonomy and have
acted to provide for more uniform judicial rulings in related
wealthy individuals (and potential family rivals of the
cases. Many younger Saudis have welcomed changes made
crown prince) for months in the Ritz Carlton hotel in
Riyadh as part of a nominal anticorruption campaign. Most
to date and call for more; roughly two-thirds of Saudi
nationals are under the age of 35. Others express opposition
of this latter group of detainees were released after reaching
or concern about the changes’ potential effects on religious
undisclosed financial settlement arrangements, amid
accounts of abuse. Reports of additional detentions and
and social values. As it navigates these issues, the Saudi
government’s relationship with conservative religious
questioning of leading royals since 2020 suggest that
figures is evolving, even as it continues to enlist religious
succession issues could remain contested.
leaders to counteract extremism and promote order.
Saudi decision-making has shifted from what had been a
Human Rights
relatively risk-averse posture rooted in rulers’ concerns for
More aggressive human rights restrictions have
maintaining elite consensus, to one characterized by bolder,
centrally directed changes. Crown Prince Mohammed bin
accompanied recent social change. The imprisonment and
Salman’s leadership has challenged
trial of several women’s right activists and other vocal
key interest groups,
figures has prompted congressional scrutiny of the
including factions of the royal family, business elites, and
kingdom’s use of its Specialized Criminal Court and anti-
conservative religious figures.
terrorism laws to confront dissent. Since December 2020,
Vision 2030 and Social Change
Saudi courts have reduced or suspended sentences for some
The centerpiece of Saudi leaders’ domestic agenda is the
prominent detainees and released others conditionally.
Vision 2030 initiative, which seeks to transform the
kingdom’s economy by diversifying the government’s
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Saudi Arabia
In October 2018, Saudi officials killed Saudi journalist and
Figure 2. Reported Attack Incidents from Yemen
U.S. resident Jamal Khashoggi in the Saudi consulate in
Istanbul, Turkey, leading the U.S. government to impose
travel and financial sanctions on some Saudi officials. The
kingdom prosecuted some unidentified officials on related
charges, convicting eight and sentencing five to death,
before reducing the death sentences to varying prison terms.
In February 2021, the U.S. intelligence community released
a report assessing that the crown prince “approved an

operation in Istanbul, Turkey to capture or kill” Khashoggi.
Source: CRS using ACLED - Armed Conflict Location and Event
Saudi officials disputed the report’s conclusions.
Data on attacks in Saudi Arabia, January 2020-December 2021.
Saudi Nuclear Plans
Notes: UAVs = unmanned aerial vehicles. Incident totals include
reported single incidents involving multiple strikes/attacks.
Saudi leaders seek to recast the role of energy resources in
the kingdom’s economy and plan to develop domestic
Israeli-Palestinian Affairs
civilian nuclear power infrastructure. They have solicited
Saudi Arabia publicly supports key Palestinian demands,
bids for the construction of two nuclear power reactors. The
while Saudi leaders have engaged quietly with Israel based
Trump Administration expedited consideration of required
on shared concerns about Iran. Saudi officials continue to
regulatory approvals for U.S. firms to provide marketing
condition Saudi normalization with Israel on terms outlined
information to Saudi officials. Saudi officials have not
in the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative, specifically the
forsworn uranium enrichment and state their intent to
establishment of a Palestinian state. In late 2020, Saudi
develop and use domestic resources. Saudi nuclear facilities
Arabia granted Israel flyover rights within its airspace to
are subject to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
facilitate Israeli airline travel to the UAE and Bahrain.
safeguards, though some press reports have raised questions
Relations with China and Russia
about possibly undeclared sites. The IAEA has reviewed
Greater Saudi energy exports to China have underwritten
declared Saudi nuclear infrastructure and recommends
deepening Sino-Saudi economic and diplomatic ties,
adoption and implementation of an Additional Protocol.
leading to new cooperation initiatives. Saudi leaders also
COVID-19
maintain substantive dialogue with Russia, including
Saudi authorities have imposed border closures, visa
coordination on oil policy and dialogue on Syria and other
restrictions, internal curfews, and travel limits, and reduced
regional issues. Saudi Arabia buys some Chinese arms and
religious pilgrimage access in response to the COVID-19
has discussed weapons purchases from Russia. In 2021,
pandemic, including limiting the 2020 and 2021 Hajj
media reports claimed the Saudis Arabia has acquired
pilgrimages. As of January 24, 2022, Saudi officials have
ballistic missile production technology from China.
reported more than 652,000 total cases of COVID-19, and
Saudi-U.S Relations
more than 8,900 deaths due to COVID-19.
Saudi Foreign Policy
The Biden Administration ended U.S. support for the
Saudi‑led Coalition’s offensive military operations against
Iran and Yemen
the Houthis, but has pledged to continue defensive support
Saudi officials praised the Trump Administration’s decision
and praised Saudi dialogue with Iran and parties to the
to withdraw from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action
Yemen conflict. The Administration proposed the sale of
(JCPOA) in 2018, but have not expressed opposition to
air-to-air missiles to bolster Saudi defense against cross-
U.S. participation in renewed multilateral talks with Iran.
border attacks and opposed a congressional initiative to
Saudi officials remain concerned about Iranian support for
disapprove of the sale (S.J.Res. 31/H.J.Res. 63). The
various armed actors in the MENA region, especially the
Administration directed the withdrawal of some U.S.
Ansarallah/Houthi movement in Yemen, Lebanon’s
Patriot air defense systems and personnel from the kingdom
Hezbollah, and Shia militias in Iraq. The Saudi government
in 2021, but has approved the sale of Patriot missiles to
engaged Iranian counterparts in “exploratory talks” during
Saudi Arabia by other U.S. partners.
2021, but the talks have not led to any new accords.
As of December 2021, 2,120 U.S. military personnel were
Saudi Arabia opposed the 2014-2015 Houthi campaign that
deployed to Saudi Arabia “to protect United States forces
ousted Yemeni President Abdu Rabbu Mansour Hadi, and,
and interests in the region against hostile action by Iran and
since March 2015, the kingdom has led a military coalition
Iran-backed groups.” Other U.S. troops and contractors
of mostly Arab states in efforts to reinstate Hadi. Iran has
implement longstanding defense and security cooperation
provided arms to the Houthis, who continue to use ballistic
programs in the kingdom.
missiles and drones to attack Saudi Arabia and the United
Arab Emirates (UAE). Cross-border Houthi attacks
For more information, see CRS Report RL33533, Saudi
reportedly are straining Saudi air and missile defenses.
Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations.
Saudi- and UAE-backed Yemeni forces continue to fight to
reverse Houthi gains, with Saudi airstrikes and restrictions
Christopher M. Blanchard, Specialist in Middle Eastern
of air and sea access to Yemen drawing criticism from
Affairs
some in Congress. U.N. officials consider Yemen as one of
IF10822
the world’s worst humanitarian crises and cite Houthi and
Saudi coalition policies as contributing factors.
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Saudi Arabia


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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10822 · VERSION 16 · UPDATED

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