Updated February 8, 2021
Saudi Arabia
Change, Continuity, and Controversy
Figure 1. Saudi Arabia
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ruled by the Al Saud family
since its founding in 1932, wields considerable global
influence through its administration of the birthplace of the
Islamic faith and by virtue of its large oil reserves. Saudi
leaders’ domestic and foreign policy decisions have been
fueling calls from some U.S. leaders for a reassessment of
long-standing bilateral ties. The Al Saud have sought
protection, advice, technology, and armaments from the
United States, along with support in developing their
country’s natural and human resources and in facing
national security threats. U.S. leaders have praised Saudi
cooperation in security and counterterrorism matters and
have sought to preserve the secure, apolitical flow of the
kingdom’s energy resources and capital to global markets.
The Trump Administration and some in Congress differed
over how to approach U.S.-Saudi ties in light of differences
over human rights and the war in Yemen. These issues and
Iran policy remain at the top of the bilateral agenda for
Source: CRS, using ESRI, and U.S. State Department data.
President Joseph Biden and the 117th Congress.
Leadership and Public Confidence
Vision 2030 and Social Change
The centerpiece of Saudi leaders’ domestic agenda is the
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (age 85) assumed the
throne in 2015 after the death of his half-brother, the late
Vision 2030 initiative, which seeks to transform the
kingdom’s economy by diversifying the government’s
King Abdullah bin Abd al Aziz. King Salman has altered
sources of revenue and reducing long-standing oil export
the responsibilities and relative power of leading members
of the next generation of the Al Saud family, the grandsons
dependence through investment and private sector growth.
of the kingdom’s founder. King Salman’s son, Crown
An initial public offering of shares in state oil company
Saudi Aramco raised $26 billion in late 2019. Authorities
Prince Mohammed bin Salman (age 35), is now the central
figure in Saudi policymaking, having asserted control over
have reduced some consumer and industrial subsidies and
have introduced and raised a value-added tax. Amid some
key national security forces, sidelined potential rivals, and
domestic criticism, authorities also have offered some relief
begun implementing ambitious policy changes.
payments, salary increases, and tax exemptions. In 2020,
In parallel, channels for expressing dissent within the
lower oil prices and demand stemming from the global
kingdom appear to have narrowed considerably. Since
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic lowered
2017, security forces have detained dozens of activists,
revenues. The 2021 Saudi budget cuts spending.
clerics, Islamist figures, and journalists representing
Economic transformation has driven social change in the
different ideological trends and perspectives. In late 2017,
kingdom since the early 20th century, and the Vision 2030
authorities also imprisoned dozens of wealthy individuals
(and potential family rivals of the crown prince) for months
initiative is being accompanied by significant changes in
the state’s approach to some sensitive social matters.
in the Ritz Carlton hotel in Riyadh as part of a nominal
Authorities reversed the kingdom’s long-standing ban on
anticorruption campaign. Most of this latter group of
detainees were released after reaching undisclosed financial
women driving in June 2018, in part to expand women’s
participation in the workforce. Parallel changes have
settlement arrangements, amid accounts of abuse. Reports
created more public space for women in some social and
of additional detentions and questioning of leading royals in
cultural events. Authorities have partially amended male
2020 suggest that succession issues could remain contested.
guardianship rules restricting women’s autonomy and have
Saudi decision-making has shifted from what had been a
acted to provide for more uniform judicial rulings in related
relatively risk-averse posture rooted in rulers’ concerns for
cases. Some Saudis welcome changes made to date and call
maintaining elite consensus, to one characterized by bolder,
for more; others express opposition or concern about the
centrally directed changes. Crown Prince Mohammed bin
changes’ potential effects on religious and social values.
Salman’s leadership has challenged key interest groups,
Human Rights
including factions of the royal family, business elites, and
More aggressive human rights restrictions have
conservative religious figures, and has led Saudis and
accompanied recent social change. The imprisonment and
outsiders alike to reexamine their assumptions about the
kingdom’s future
trial of several women’s right activists and other vocal
.
figures has prompted congressional scrutiny of the
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Saudi Arabia
kingdom’s use of its Specialized Criminal Court and anti-
government cited COVID-19 in allowing the voluntary
terrorism laws to confront dissent. Since December 2020,
departure of nonemergency U.S. personnel and dependents.
the kingdom’s courts have reduced or suspended sentences
Saudi Foreign Policy
given to Saudi-American Dr. Walid al Fitaihi and women’s
rights campaigner Loujain al Hathloul. Other U.S.-Saudi
Iran, the JCPOA, and Yemen
nationals have been released conditionally pending trial.
Saudi officials praised the Trump Administration’s decision
to withdraw from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action
In October 2018, Saudi officials killed Saudi journalist and
(JCPOA) in 2018, and Saudi officials have said they expect
U.S. resident Jamal Khashoggi in the Saudi consulate in
the United States to consult with the kingdom about
Istanbul, Turkey, leading the Trump Administration to
potentially rejoining the agreement. Saudi officials
impose travel and financial sanctions on some Saudi
encourage the United States to confront Iran about Iranian
officials suspected of involvement. The kingdom
support for armed actors across the region, especially the
prosecuted some unidentified officials on related charges,
Ansarallah/Houthi movement in Yemen, Lebanon’s
convicting eight and sentencing five to death. Saudi courts
Hezbollah, and Shia militia groups in Iraq.
later reduced the death sentences to prison terms of varying
lengths. Saudi prosecutors cleared others, such as the
In Yemen, Saudi Arabia has led a military coalition of
Crown Prince’s former adviser, of involvement. In 2019,
mostly Arab states since March 2015 in efforts to reinstate
then-presidential candidate Biden said Saudi leaders “have
the government of President Abdu Rabbu Mansour Hadi,
to be held accountable.”
whom the Houthis ousted in a 2014-2015 offensive. Iran
Saudi Nuclear Plans
has provided the Houthis ballistic missiles and drones used
to attack Saudi Arabia. After a missile and drone strike on
Saudi leaders seek to recast the role of energy resources in
the kingdom’s econom
Saudi oil facilities attributed to Iran temporarily halved the
y and plan to develop domestic
kingdom’s oil output in September 2019, President Trump
civilian nuclear power infrastructure. They have solicited
deployed additional U.S. aircraft and personnel to the
bids for the construction of two nuclear power reactors. The
kingdom. As of January 2021, press reports stated that
Trump Administration expedited consideration of required
roughly 2,500 U.S. military personnel were in the kingdom,
regulatory approvals for U.S. firms to provide marketing
along with air defense systems and aircraft.
information to Saudi officials. Saudi officials have not
forsworn uranium enrichment and state their intent to
Amid concern about civilian casualties in Yemen, the
develop and use domestic resources. Saudi nuclear facilities
Trump Administration ended U.S. refueling of Saudi
are subject to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
coalition aircraft in late 2018. President Biden announced in
safeguards, though some press reports have raised questions
February 2021 that remaining U.S. support for offensive
about possibly undeclared sites. The IAEA has reviewed
Saudi operations in Yemen will end, and he named a new
declared Saudi nuclear infrastructure and recommends
U.S. envoy to support peace talks. U.N. officials consider
adoption and implementation of an Additional Protocol.
Yemen to be the world’s worst humanitarian crisis and cite
Houthi and Saudi coalition policies as contributing factors.
Combatting Terrorism and Extremism
The U.S. government describes U.S.-Saudi cooperation on
Israeli-Palestinian Affairs
counterterrorism as robust and credits Saudi officials with
Saudi Arabia is a leader among Arab states in supporting
reducing the financing of terrorism by Saudi nationals and
key Palestinian demands, and Saudi leaders have engaged
with helping to undermine terrorist propaganda. The
quietly with Israel based on shared concerns about Iran.
Islamic State group has been highly critical of Saudi
Saudi officials continue to condition Saudi normalization
authorities and religious officials, and U.S. threat
with Israel on terms outlined in the 2002 Arab Peace
assessments judge that the Islamic State and Al Qaeda pose
Initiative. Saudi Foreign Minister Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud
continuing risks to the kingdom’s security. The Saudi
said in December 2020 that Saudi Arabia is “completely
government’s relationship with conservative religious
open to full normalization with Israel. ... But in order for
figures is evolving, with the state promoting potentially
that to happen and for that to be sustainable, we do need the
controversial social policy changes while enlisting religious
Palestinians to get their state and we do need to settle that
leaders to counteract extremist messages.
situation.” In late 2020, Saudi Arabia granted Israel flyover
rights within its airspace to facilitate direct Israeli airline
“There is no place among us for an extremist who
travel to the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain.
sees moderation as degeneration.”
Relations with China and Russia
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz, December 2017
Greater Saudi energy exports to China have underwritten
COVID-19
new Sino-Saudi economic and diplomatic ties, leading to
new cooperation initiatives. Saudi leaders also maintain
Saudi authorities have imposed border closures, visa
substantive dialogue with Russia, including on Syria and
restrictions, internal curfews, and travel limits, and reduced
other regional issues. Saudi-Russian coordination on oil
religious pilgrimage access in response to the COVID-19
policy resumed following a breakdown in March 2020 that
pandemic, including limiting the 2020 Hajj pilgrimage. As
helped drive oil prices downward. Saudi Arabia buys some
of February 8, 2021, the World Health Organization
Chinese arms and has discussed purchases from Russia.
confirmed official Saudi reporting of more than 370,000
total cases of COVID-19, including more than 8,000 active
For more information, see CRS Report RL33533, Saudi
cases, and more than 6,400 deaths due to COVID-19. The
Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations.
new case rate has declined since June 2020, when the U.S.
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Saudi Arabia
IF10822
Christopher M. Blanchard, Specialist in Middle Eastern
Affairs
Disclaimer
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10822 · VERSION 14 · UPDATED