Updated March 11, 2020
Saudi Arabia
Change, Continuity, and Controversy
Figure 1. Saudi Arabia
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ruled by the Al Saud family
since its founding in 1932, wields significant global
influence through its administration of the birthplace of the
Islamic faith and by virtue of its large oil reserves. Saudi
leaders’ domestic and foreign policy decisions are fueling
calls from some U.S. leaders for a reassessment of long-
standing bilateral ties. The Al Saud have sought protection,
advice, technology, and armaments from the United States,
along with support in developing their country’s natural and
human resources and in facing national security threats.
U.S. leaders have valued Saudi cooperation in security and
counterterrorism matters and have sought to preserve the
secure, apolitical flow of the kingdom’s energy resources
and capital to global markets. The Trump Administration
seeks to strengthen U.S.-Saudi ties as the kingdom
implements new domestic and foreign policy initiatives,
while some in Congress call for change.
Leadership and Public Confidence
Source: CRS, using ESRI, and U.S. State Department data.
King Salman bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud (age 84) assumed the
Vision 2030 and Social Change
throne in 2015 after the death of his half-brother, the late
The centerpiece of Saudi leaders’ domestic agenda is the
King Abdullah bin Abd al Aziz. King Salman since has
altered the responsibilities and relative power of leading
Vision 2030 initiative, which seeks to transform the
kingdom’s economy by diversifying the government’s
members of the next generation of the Al Saud family, the
grandsons of the kingdom’s founder. King Salman’s son,
sources of revenue and reducing long-standing oil export
Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (age 34), is now the
dependence by promoting investment and private sector
growth. An initial public offering of shares in state oil
central figure in Saudi policymaking, having asserted
company Saudi Aramco raised $26 billion in late 2019.
control over key national security forces, sidelined potential
Authorities have reduced some consumer and industrial
rivals, and begun implementing ambitious policy changes.
subsidies and introduced a value-added tax. Amid some
In parallel, channels for expressing dissent within the
domestic criticism, authorities also have offered citizens
kingdom appear to have narrowed considerably. Since
relief payments, salary increases, and tax exemptions.
2017, security forces have detained dozens of activists,
Budget pressures may increase if March 2020 decisions to
clerics, Islamist figures, and journalists representing
expand oil output persist and result in lower state revenues.
different ideological trends and perspectives. In late 2017,
Economic transformation has driven social change in the
authorities also imprisoned dozens of wealthy individuals
kingdom since the early 20th century, and the Vision 2030
(and potential family rivals of the crown prince) for months
initiative is being accompanied by significant changes in
in the Ritz Carlton hotel in Riyadh as part of a nominal
the state’s approach to some sensitive social matters.
anticorruption campaign. Most of this latter group of
Authorities reversed the kingdom’s long-standing ban on
detainees were released after reaching undisclosed financial
women driving in June 2018, in part to expand women’s
settlement arrangements, amid accounts of abuse. Reports
participation in the workforce. Parallel changes have
of additional detentions and questioning of leading royals in
created more public space for women in some social and
2020 suggest that succession issues could remain contested.
cultural events. Authorities have partially amended male
Many Saudis and outside observers have expressed surprise
guardianship rules restricting women’s activities. Some
about the scope and rapidity of post-2015 developments and
Saudis welcome changes made to date and call for more,
continue to speculate about their potential implications.
while others express opposition or concern about the
changes’
Saudi decision-making had long appeared to be relatively
potential effects on religious and social values.
risk-averse and rooted in rulers’ concerns for maintaining
Human Rights
consensus among different constituencies, including
The October 2018 killing of Saudi journalist Jamal
factions of the royal family, business elites, and
Khashoggi by Saudi government officials in the Saudi
conservative religious figures. Crown Prince Mohammed
consulate in Istanbul, Turkey has led to increased
bin Salman’s bolder and more centralized leadership has
congressional scrutiny of the kingdom’s human rights
challenged each of these interest groups, and is leading
practices. The Trump Administration has described the
Saudis and outsiders alike to reexamine their assumptions.
killing as a “horrific act,” stated its intent to pursue
accountability for those responsible, and imposed travel and
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Saudi Arabia
financial sanctions on some Saudi officials suspected of
reengagement with the Iran-aligned Syrian government of
involvement. The kingdom prosecuted some unidentified
Bashar al Asad. U.S. officials praised past Saudi efforts to
officials on charges of involvement, sentencing five to
strengthen ties with Iraq’s government, including the
death and others to long prison terms. Saudi prosecutors
reopening of border crossings between the two countries.
cleared other suspects, such as Crown Prince Mohammed
bin Salman’s former adviser Saud al Qahtani,
Conflict in Yemen
of
Saudi Arabia has led a military coalition of mostly Arab
involvement. Some in Congress continue to advocate for a
states since March 2015 in efforts to reinstate the
more forceful U.S. response to the Khashoggi killing and
government of Yemeni President Abdu Rabbu Mansour
speak on behalf of Saudi human rights activists.
Hadi, who was ousted in a 2014-2015 offensive by the
We want to make sure that everyone understands
Zaydi Shia Houthi movement of northern Yemen. Iranian
that the United States doesn’t believe that the killing
material and advisory support to the Houthi war effort—
of Jamal Khashoggi was anything other than a horrific
including the provision of ballistic missiles and drones used
act. And we hope that we can work together, both
to attack Saudi Arabia—has amplified Saudi leaders’
with Congress and our allies, to hold those
anxieties and concerns. After a missile and drone strike on
responsible accountable.
oil facilities attributed to Iran halved Saudi oil output in
Secretary of State Michael Pompeo, October 2018
September 2019, President Trump deployed additional U.S.
military assets and personnel to the kingdom. As of March
Saudi Nuclear Plans
2020, more than 2,500 U.S. military personnel are in the
Saudi leaders seek to recast the role of energy resources in
kingdom, along with U.S. air defense systems and aircraft.
the kingdom’s economy and plan to develop domestic
Amid concern about civilian casualties in Yemen, the
civilian nuclear power infrastructure. They have solicited
Trump Administration has proceeded with U.S. arms sales
bids for the construction of two nuclear power reactors. The
to Saudi Arabia, but ended U.S. refueling of Saudi coalition
Trump Administration expedited consideration of required
aircraft in November 2018. The United Nations considers
regulatory approvals for U.S. firms to provide marketing
Yemen to be the world’s worst humanitarian crisis and cites
information to Saudi officials, and may propose a bilateral
Houthi malfeasance and Saudi coalition-enforced limits on
nuclear cooperation agreement to the 116th Congress. Saudi
air and sea access as contributing to shortages of food and
officials have not forsworn uranium enrichment and have
goods. President Trump vetoed S.J.Res. 7, which would
stated their intent to use and develop domestic capabilities.
have directed him to end some U.S. military involvement in
Saudi nuclear facilities are subject to International Atomic
Yemen, and has approved a series of emergency arms sales
Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards. The IAEA has
to the kingdom, citing threats from Iran.
reviewed Saudi nuclear infrastructure and recommends
adoption and implementation of an additional protocol.
Israeli-Palestinian Affairs
Saudi Arabia is a leader among Arab states in supporting
Combatting Terrorism and Extremism
key Palestinian demands, and Saudi leaders have engaged
The U.S. government describes U.S.-Saudi cooperation on
quietly with Israel in light of the two countries’ shared
counterterrorism as robust and credits Saudi officials with
interest in countering Iran. Saudi leaders have welcomed
reducing the financing of terrorism by Saudi nationals and
the Administration’s efforts in developing its peace plan,
with contributing to global efforts to undermine terrorist
and they encourage the start of Israeli-Palestinian
propaganda. The Islamic State group has been highly
negotiations to resolve differences. After the Arab League
critical of Saudi authorities and religious officials, and U.S.
and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) rejected
threat assessments judge that the Islamic State and Al
the U.S. plan, the Saudi cabinet “emphasized the centrality
Qaeda pose continuing risks to the kingdom’s security. The
of the Palestinian cause to the Arab and Islamic nation” and
Saudi government’s relationship with conservative religious
stated “the need to adhere to the peace process as a strategic
figures is evolving, with the state promoting potentially
option for the conflict, based on the two-state solution, in
controversial social policy changes while enlisting religious
accordance with legitimate international resolutions, the
leaders to counteract extremist messages. In December
Arab Peace Initiative and adopted international references.”
2017, King Salman said “there is no place among us for an
extremist who sees moderation as degeneration.”
Relations with China and Russia
Greater Saudi energy exports to China have underwritten
COVID-19
new Sino-Saudi economic and diplomatic ties, with several
Saudi Arabia has suspended travel to and from more than a
cooperation initiatives announced since 2015. Saudi leaders
dozen countries to limit the spread of COVID-19. Schools
also have opened substantive dialogue and cooperation with
have been closed, planned events postponed, access to
Russia, including discussion of arms sales and talks on
religious sites restricted, and one area (Qatif) quarantined.
Syria and other regional issues. Saudi-Russian coordination
Saudi Foreign Policy
on oil policy broke down in March 2020, as both countries
increased production and drove global oil prices downward.
Iran, Iraq, and the Levant
For more information, see CRS Report RL33533, Saudi
Saudi policies toward Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon continue to
Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations.
reflect the kingdom’s overarching concerns about Iran and
the Iranian government’s ties to state and non-state actors in
Christopher M. Blanchard, Specialist in Middle Eastern
these countries. Saudi authorities back the U.N. Security
Affairs
Council’s call for a negotiated settlement to the conflict in
IF10822
Syria and seek more progress in settlement talks before
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Saudi Arabia
Disclaimer
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10822 · VERSION 10 · UPDATED