Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the Globe




Statistics on Women in National Governments
Around the Globe

Updated November 13, 2023
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R45483




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Introduction
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are
underrepresented in the political process at the national level. Possible causes include
discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to
health care, and the disproportionate effect of poverty on women. Many experts have found that
women’s political participation, including representation in elected governments, contributes to
the overall well-being of women and their communities.1
As this report shows, in 2023, women hold 26.7% of legislative seats around the world, an
increase from 15.3% of such seats in 2003 (see Figure 1). As of August 1, 2023, women held
50% or more of the legislative seats in seven countries: Cuba, Rwanda, Nicaragua, Mexico,
Andorra, New Zealand, and the United Arab Emirates (see Table 3).
A 2022 report found that, “for the first time, not a single functioning parliament in the world has
zero women members.”2 At 2022’s rate of growth in women’s representation in parliaments,
however, “parity will not be achieved for nearly 60 years.”3
At the national executive level, 32 countries currently have a female chief of state or head of
government who won an election or was selected by elected bodies (see Table 6).
This report provides a snapshot of women’s political participation in national governments
worldwide by compiling statistics and other information from a variety of sources, including the
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral
Assistance, the CIA World Factbook, news reports, and other sources.4
Selected Congressional Action
Legislation has been enacted that, either directly or indirectly, addresses women’s political
participation around the world. For example, from FY2014 through FY2023, a provision in
Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) Appropriations Acts
appropriated funds for women’s leadership. Most recently, the FY2023 SFOPS Appropriations
Act states:
Of the funds appropriated under title III of this Act, not less than $50,000,000 shall be
made available for programs specifically designed to increase leadership opportunities for
women in countries where women and girls suffer discrimination due to law, policy, or
practice, by strengthening protections for women’s political status, expanding women’s
participation in political parties and elections, and increasing women’s opportunities for

1 For example, see U.N. document, A/RES/66/130, Women and Political Participation, adopted December 19, 2011;
UN Women, “In Brief: Women’s Leadership and Political Participation,” at https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/
leadership-and-political-participation; U.S. Department of State, Office of Global Women’s Issues, “Cross-Cutting
Issues, Women’s Leadership,” at https://www.state.gov/cross-cutting-issues/#wl; Aaron Reeves, Chris Brown, and
Johanna Hanefeld, “Female Political Representation and the Gender Health Gap: A Cross-National Analysis of 49
European Countries,” European Journal of Public Health, vol. 32, no. 5 (October 2022): pp. 684-689; and
Niharika Rustagi and Sonia Akter, “The Impact of Women’s Political Representation on Child Health Outcomes during
1990-2020: Evidence from a Global Dataset,” Social Science & Medicine, vol. 312 (November 2022).
2 IPU, Women in Parliament 2022, March 2023, p. 2.
3 Ibid., p. 2.
4 For information on global women’s issues more broadly, see CRS In Focus IF11804, Global Women’s Issues:
Background and Selected U.S. Efforts
.
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leadership positions in the public and private sectors at the local, provincial, and national
levels.5
Members have also enacted laws that address aspects and issues related to women’s political
participation. For example, the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, among other things,
aims to increase the participation of women in conflict prevention and conflict resolution
processes as a means to build more inclusive societies and to help stabilize countries and regions.
The act expresses the sense of Congress that “the political participation, and leadership of women
in fragile environments, particularly during democratic transitions, is critical to sustaining lasting
democratic institutions.”6
Statistics on Selected Issues
Voting Rights
The right to vote is a primary step toward involving a populace in the political decisions of a
government. In many countries, voting rights were originally granted only to adult men who
owned property, then were eventually expanded to include adult male citizens regardless of
property ownership, then to women, and finally to other underrepresented groups. Definitions of
what constituted a “citizen” may also have changed over time, as they did in the United States,
and become more inclusive of minority groups and Indigenous peoples.
Table 1 and Table 2, respectively, list the first and latest countries to extend the right and duty of
voting to women according to the IPU. Although subnational regions (e.g., states, provinces) may
have granted the right to vote earlier, the years in the tables below indicate when sex as a barrier
to suffrage was removed from national elections. This does not mean that all women could vote,
but that sex as a barrier to voting was removed. In the United States, for example, many women
of color could not vote until the Civil Rights Act of 1965, even though women were granted the
right to vote in federal elections in 1920.7

5 See Section 7059 of Division K of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 (P.L. 117-328). The act states that such
[women’s leadership] programs shall hereafter be collectively named the ‘‘Madeleine K. Albright Women’s Leadership
Program.”
6 P.L. 115-68, Section 3, Sense of Congress. For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12346, Women, Peace, and
Security: Global Context and U.S. Policy
.
7 Katherine Schaeffer, “Key Facts about Women’s Sufferage around the World, a Century after U.S. Ratified 19th
Amendment,” Pew Research Center, October 5, 2020.
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Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the Globe

Table 1. First Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year
Country/Countries
1893
New Zealand
1902
Australia*
1906
Finland
1913
Norway
1915
Denmark, Iceland*
1917
Canada*
1918
Austria, Estonia, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Ireland,* Kyrgyz Republic,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, United Kingdom*
1919
Belarus, Belgium,* Luxembourg, Netherlands, Sweden,* Ukraine
1920
Albania, Czech Republic, Iceland,** Slovak Republic, United States
1921
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Sweden**
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) using information from IPU, “Women’s
Sufferage,” accessed October 17, 2023.
Notes: Some countries granted suffrage in stages, at first denying the right to women of certain racial, ethnic, or
economic groups. One asterisk (*) indicates the first year female citizens were allowed to vote in national
elections with limitations; two asterisks (**) indicate when those limitations were removed. No asterisk indicates
all female adult citizens were granted the right to vote without restrictions.
Table 2. Most Recent Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year
Country/Countries
2015
Saudi Arabia
2008
Bhutan
2006
Montenegro, United Arab Emirates
2005
Kuwait
2003
Indonesia, Qatar, Oman
2002
Bahrain
Sources: Compiled by CRS using information from IPU, “Compare data on parliaments,” accessed October 2,
2023; Pamela Paxton, Melanie M. Hughes, and Tiffany D. Barnes, Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective,
4th ed., Rowman & Littlefield, 2021, pp. 43-44; CIA World Factbook’s “Suffrage” website, accessed January 5, 2023.
Note: Newly independent countries (e.g., Kosovo, South Sudan) would be included only if women had not been
granted suffrage under the preceding country. For example, because Sudan granted women the right to vote in
1964, South Sudan is not included in this list, even though it did not gain independence until 2011.
Legislative Representation
The following tables highlight women’s representation based in national legislatures, including
data on quotas (described below). Several countries and political parties have instituted quotas to
ensure that women are represented on the ballot or in the legislature, which may affect the
statistics on women’s representation in national governments. Some governments also may use
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quotas to ensure ethnic or religious diversity in their national legislatures (e.g., Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Iraq8).
Gender Quotas
The Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas explains that “[g]ender quotas are numerical targets that
stipulate the number or percentage of women that must be included in a candidate list or the
number of seats to be allocated to women in a legislature. They aim to reverse discrimination in
law and practice and to level the playing field for women and men in politics.”9
Three main types of gender quotas are generally recognized, and they may be used at the national
or subnational level, or both:
Legislated candidate quotas. These quotas are mandated through national
constitutions or legislation to regulate the gender composition of the ballot.
Legislated “reserved seats.” These quotas reserve a specific number or
percentage of seats in the legislature for women members. The quotas are
mandated through national constitutions or legislation and are implemented
through special electoral procedures.
Party quotas (also known as voluntary party quotas). Individual political
parties may adopt these quotas through the party’s statutes and rules. Such
adoption is the prerogative of each party, and some parties in a country may
adopt quotas while other parties choose not to do so.10
Table 3 lists the countries where women hold 40% or more of the total seats of the national
legislative chamber body according to the IPU.
Table 3. National Legislatures with Women Holding 40% or More of Total Seats
As of August 1, 2023
IPU Global
Rank by % of
National
Total Seats
Type of
Level Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
#1
Cuba
Unicameral
No Quota
470
262
55.7%
#2
Rwanda
Bicameral
RS
106
58
54.7%
#3
Nicaragua
Unicameral
CQ
91
47
51.6%
#4
Mexico
Bicameral
CQ
627
314
50.1%
#5
Andorra
Unicameral
PQ
28
14
50.0%
#6
New Zealand
Unicameral
PQ
120
60
50.0%
United Arab
#7
Emirates
Unicameral
RS
40
20
50.0%
#8
Boliva
Bicameral
CQ
166
80
48.2%

8 “Bosnia and Herzegovina,” CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bosnia-and-
herzegovina/#government, accessed on October 2, 2023 and “Iraq,” CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/the-
world-factbook/countries/iraq/#government, accessed on October 2, 2023.
9 Drude Dahlerup et al., Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral
Assistance, June 2014, p. 16.
10 Ibid.
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IPU Global
Rank by % of
National
Total Seats
Type of
Level Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
#9
Iceland
Unicameral
PQ
63
30
47.6%
#10
Costa Rica
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
57
27
47.4%
#11
Sweden
Unicameral
PQ
349
162
46.4%
#12
Norway
Unicameral
PQ
169
78
46.2%
#13
Senegal
Unicameral
CQ
165
76
46.1%
#14
Finland
Unicameral
No Quota
200
92
46.0%
#15
Monaco
Unicameral
No Quota
24
11
45.8%
#16
South Africa
Bicameral
PQ
453
206
45.5%
#17
Australia
Bicameral
PQ
227
101
44.5%
#18
Argentina
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
329
146
44.4%
#19
Spain
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
609
266
43.7%
#20
Denmark
Unicameral
No Quota
179
78
43.6%
#21
Belgium
Bicameral
CQ
210
91
43.3%
#22
Mozambique
Unicameral
PQ
250
108
43.2%
North
#23
Macedonia
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
120
51
42.5%
#24
Austria
Bicameral
PQ
243
102
42.0%
#25
Cabo Verde
Unicameral
CQ
72
30
41.7%
#26
Netherlands
Bicameral
PQ
255
91
40.4%
Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from the IPU’s Monthly Ranking of Women in National Parliaments and
the Gender Quotas Database, published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance,
accessed September 18, 2023.
Notes: The countries listed here include those identified by the IPU where women hold 40% or more of the
total seats in the national legislative chamber(s).
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 193 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments. Data was available for only 187
countries. Three countries (Eritrea, Haiti, and Venezuela) had no values recorded and three countries
(Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Sudan) were recorded as having suspended legislatures.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; Sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the
Gender Quotas Database.
Table 4 shows the number of seats held by women in the national legislative chambers of the 19
members of the “Group of 20” (G-20), a forum for advancing international economic cooperation
and coordination among certain countries.11 According to the IPU, women hold 40% or more of
the total seats in the national legislatures of three G-20 countries (Mexico, South Africa, and
Argentina), and these countries appear in both Table 3 and Table 4.

11 The European Union, which is a member of the G-20, is excluded from the table as the IPU’s Monthly Ranking of
Women in National Parliaments does not include international parliaments such as the European Parliament. For more
information on the G-20, see CRS Report R40977, International Economic Policy Coordination at the G-7 and the G-
20
.
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Table 4. Women in National Legislatures of G-20 Countries
As of August 1, 2023
IPU Global
Rank by % of
National
Total Seats
Type of
Level Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
#4
Mexico
Bicameral
CQ
627
314
50.1%
#16
South Africa
Bicameral
PQ
453
206
45.5%
#17
Australia
Bicameral
PQ
227
101
44.5%
#18
Argentina
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
329
146
44.4%
#36
France
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
925
340
36.8%
#41
Canada
Bicameral
PQ
427
152
35.6%
#42
Germany
Bicameral
PQ
805
286
35.5%
#51
Italy
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
605
203
33.6%
United
#59
Kingdom
Bicameral
PQ
1,434
453
31.6%
#77
United States
Bicameral
No Quota
534
150
28.1%
#89
China
Unicameral
RS
2,977
790
26.5%
#112
Indonesia
Unicameral
CQ
575
124
21.6%
#124
Saudi Arabia
Unicameral
RS
151
30
19.9%
#125
Türkiye
Unicameral
PQ
600
119
19.8%
#128
South Korea
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
299
57
19.1%
#133
Russia
Bicameral
No Quota
619
110
17.8%
#135
Brazil
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
594
105
17.7%
#147
Japan
Bicameral
PQ
712
112
15.7%
#150
India
Bicameral
Sub only
776
115
14.8%

TOTAL 193 COUNTRIES




Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from the IPU’s Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments and
the Gender Quotas Database, published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance,
accessed September 18, 2023.
Notes: This list includes the 19 member nations of the G-20 and excludes the European Union.
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 193 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments. Data was available for only 187
countries. Three countries (Eritrea, Haiti, and Venezuela) had no values recorded and three countries
(Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Sudan) were recorded as having suspended legislatures.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the
Gender Quotas Database.
Table 5 lists countries where women hold 10% or less of the total legislative seats according to
the IPU.
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Table 5. Countries Where Women Hold 10% or Less of Total Legislative Seats
As of August 1, 2023
IPU Global
National
Rank by %
Level
of Total
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Seats Held
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
by Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
#167
Oman
Bicameral
No Quota
171
17
9.9%
Guinea-
#168
Bissau
Unicameral
CQ
102
10
9.8%
#169
Liberia
Bicameral
PQ
103
10
9.7%
#170
The Gambia
Unicameral
No Quota
58
5
8.6%
Solomon
#171
Islands
Unicameral
CQ
50
4
8.0%
#172
Tonga
Unicameral
No Quota
28
2
7.1%
#173
Palau
Bicameral
No Quota
29
2
6.9%
#174
Algeria
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
577
39
6.8%
#175
Kiribati
Unicameral
No Quota
45
3
6.7%
#176
Tuvalu
Unicameral
No Quota
16
1
6.3%
#177
Lebanon
Unicameral
No Quota
128
8
6.3%
Marshall
#178
Islands
Unicameral
No Quota
33
2
6.1%
#179
Iran
Unicameral
No Quota
286
16
5.6%
#180
Sri Lanka
Unicameral
Sub only
225
12
5.3%
#181
Maldives
Unicameral
Sub only
87
4
4.6%
#182
Qatar
Unicameral
No Quota
45
2
4.4%
#183
Nigeria
Bicameral
No Quota
467
17
3.6%
#184
Kuwait
Unicameral
No Quota
65
2
3.1%
#185
Vanuatu
Unicameral
Sub only
52
1
1.9%
#186
Papua New
Unicameral
No Quota
115
2
1.7%
Guinea
#187
Yemen
Bicameral
No Quota
335
1
0.3%
Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from the IPU’s Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments and
the Gender Quotas Database, published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance,
accessed September 18, 2023.
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 193 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments. Data was available for only 187
countries. Three countries (Eritrea, Haiti, and Venezuela) had no values recorded and three countries
(Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Sudan) were recorded as having suspended legislatures.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: C=legislated quotas for candidates on the
ballot level; RS=legislated quotas for reserved seats; P=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the
subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database.
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Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the Globe

According to the IPU, over a 20-year period, the percentage of seats held by women in national
legislatures has risen worldwide from 15.3% in August 2003 to 26.7% in August 2023 (see
Figure 1).
Figure 1. Worldwide Percentage of Seats Held
by Women in National Legislatures
August 2003 – August 2023

Source: Created by CRS using data from the IPU.
According to the IPU, in August 2003, Europe and the Americas were the only regions where
women held 16% or more of legislative seats at the national level as shown in Figure 2. In 2023,
women legislators in five regions hold more than 20% of the legislative seats. The Middle
East/Northern Africa is the only region with less than 20% of legislative seats held by women,
although women have increased their representation since 2003 by 10.8%.
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Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the Globe

Figure 2. Regional Percentages of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures
August 2003 - August 2023

Source: Created by CRS using data from the IPU.
Gender-Sensitive Parliaments
The IPU defines a gender-sensitive parliament as “one that responds to the needs and interests of
both men and women in its structures, operations, methods, and work.”12 IPU research focuses on
ways that parliaments can “create mechanisms required to mainstream gender equality concerns
throughout their legislative, oversight and administrative work.”13
In 2012 and then in 2017, the IPU published its Plan of Action for Gender-Sensitive Parliaments,
which includes the following action areas:
• increasing the number of women in parliament and achieving equality in
participation;
• strengthening gender equality legislation and policy;
• mainstreaming gender equality throughout all parliamentary work;
• insituting or improving gender-sensitive infrastructure and parlimentary culture;
• ensuring that responsibility for gender equality is shared by all parliamentarians –
men and women;
• encouraging political parties to be champions of gender equality; and
• enhancing the gender sensitivity of, and gender equality among, parlimentary
staff.14

12 Sonia Palmieri, Gender-Sensitive Parliaments: A Global Review of Good Practice, IPU, 2011, p. v.
13 Ibid., p. v.
14 IPU, Plan of Action for Gender-Sensitive Parliaments, 2012, p. 4.
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Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the Globe

In 2018, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) found that
“two-thirds of OECD countries have gender-equity parliamentary committees…. Most of them
draft gender equality legislation and examine selected draft laws from a gender equality
perspective.”15 The most common gender-sensitive mechanisms are as follows:
• hearings with women’s groups;
• document submissions by/for women’s groups, other stakeholders and experts;
and
• requirements to use sex-disaggregated data in legislative work.16
Less commonly used mechanisms in OECD countries include
• gender advisors to provide technical support for legislative work, and
• requirements for gender impact assessments.17
In October 2022, at the end of the 145th IPU Assembly in Kigali, Rwanda, the Kigali Declaration,
Gender Equality and Gender-Sensitive Parliaments as Drivers of Change for a More Resilient
and Peaceful World
, was adopted. It made the following recommendations:
• achieving parity in political decisionmaking, including by using electoral gender
quotas and ensuring that other electoral quotas always have a gender parity
provision;
• ensuring law-making, law-enforcement, and budgeting are gender-responsive
across all policy fields;
• placing vulnerable populations at the centre of parliamentary functions of
legislation, oversight, resource allocation, and representation;
• ending gender-based discrimination, violence, and other harmful practices, and
ensuring access to sexual and reproductive health, rights, and justice for all
women and girls; and
• advancing equality in caring responsibilities among men and women and setting
an example by undertaking 50% of the daily care work for MP’s families,
regardless of being male or female MPs.18
Hybrid work is being examined as a gender-sensitive mechanism. “During the pandemic, 84% of
parliaments introduced new systems that were previously unplanned.”19 These changes are
considered “gender-responsive,” and “parliaments are considering to what extent hybird working
makes parliaments more modern, gender-sensitive and family-friendly workplaces.”20

15 “Gender-Sensitive Parliaments: Integrating a Gender Lens in Parliamentary Work,” OECD, https://www.oecd.org/
gender/data/gender-sensitive-parliaments-integrating-a-gender-lens-in-parliamentary-work.htm#:~:text=Two%2D
thirds%20of%20OECD%20countries, from%20a%20gender%20equality%20perspective., accessed October 6, 2023.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 IPU, Gender Equality and Gender-Sensitive Parliaments as Drivers of Change for a More Resilient and Peaceful
World
, October 2022, p. 2.
19 IPU, World e-Parliament Report 2022, 2022, p. 12.
20 IPU, Women in Parliament 2022, March 2023, p. 20.
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Various international organizations have published research and guidelines to assist parliaments
in achiving gender-sensitivity.21
Executive Representation
Voters in at least 70 countries have chosen a woman as their executive since 1960, when Sri
Lanka selected Sirima Bandaranaike as the world’s first female prime minister. Executives may
be selected through various methods: directly elected from a ballot dedicated to the executive
office; indirectly elected by the legislature; appointed, following legislative elections, as the
leader of the majority political party or majority coalition; or through other means.
The term “executive” refers to persons identified as either the chief of state or head of
government of a country. The CIA World Factbook defines the chief of state as “the titular leader
of the country who represents the state at official and ceremonial functions but may not be
involved with the day-to-day activities of the government.” The head of government is “the top
executive designated to manage the executive branch of the government.” In some countries, a
monarch is identified as the “chief of state,” whereas an elected official (such as the prime
minister, premier, or administrator) is the “head of government.” Other countries, such as the
United States, have one person, the President, filling both positions. Many countries have a “chief
of state,” such as a president, and another person as “head of government,” such as a prime
minister, who won their offices through different processes.22
According to recent analysis from the Pew Research Center, 59 United Nations member states
have had a woman head of government, fewer than one-third of the 193 member states.23
Women Leaders in the 21st Century
Table 6 lists women who are currently the chief of state or head of government of their country,
excluding monarchs, and are listed alphabetically by country.
Table 6. Current Women Executives
As of September 28, 2023
Country
Name
Title
Dates in Office
Aruba
Evelyn Wever-Croesa
Prime Minister
Nov. 17, 2017–present
Bangladesh
Sheikh Hasina Wazed
Prime Minister
1996-2001; Jan. 6, 2009–
present
Barbados
Mia Mottleya
Prime Minister
May 25, 2018–present
Barbados
Sandra Masona
President
Nov. 30, 2021–present

21 For examples not mentioned previously, see IPU, Equality in Politics: A Survey of Women and Men in Parliaments,
2008; IPU, Evaluating the Gender Sensitivity of Parliments: A Self-Assessment Toolkit, 2016; Commonwealth
Parliamentary Association (CPA), Gender Sensitising Parliments Guidelines: Standards and a Checklist for
Parliamentary Change
, 2020; IPU, Guidelines for the Elimination of Sexism, Harassment, and Violence against
Women in Parliament
, 2019; CPA, Gender Sensitising Parliaments: A Seven-Step Field Guide, 2022; and “Chapter 4:
Gender-Sensitive Practices in Parliaments” in OECD, Toolkit for Mainstreaming and Implementing Gender Equality
2023
, 2023.
22 Drawn from CIA World Factbook, executive branch field listing, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/
executive-branch/, accessed on November 20, 2022.
23 Laura Clancy and Sarah Austin, “Fewer than a Third of UN Member States Have Ever Had a Woman Leader,” Pew
Research Center, March 28, 2023.
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Country
Name
Title
Dates in Office
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Željka Cvijanovića
Member of the Presidencyb Nov. 16, 2022–present
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Borjana Krišto
Chair of the Council of
January 25, 2023-present
Ministersc
Denmark
Mette Frederiksen
Prime Minister
June 27, 2019–present
Estonia
Kaja Kallasa
Prime Minister
Jan. 26, 2021–present
Equatorial Guinea
Manuela Roka Boteya
Prime Minister
Feb. 1, 2023-present
Ethiopia
Sahle-Work Zewdea
President
Oct. 25, 2018–present
France
Élisabeth Borne
Prime Minister
May 16, 2022–present
Georgia
Salome Zourabichvilia
President
Dec. 16, 2018–present
Greece
Katerina
President
Mar. 13, 2020–present
Sakellaropouloua
Honduras
Xiomara Castro de
President
Jan. 27, 2022–present
Zelayaa
Hungary
Katalin Novaka
President
May 10, 2022–present
Iceland
Katrin Jakobsdóttir
Prime Minister
Nov. 30, 2017–present
India
Droupadi Murmud
President
July 25, 2022-present
Italy
Giorgia Melonia
Prime Minister
Oct. 22, 2022–present
Kosovo
Vjosa Osmani-Sadriu
President
Apr. 4, 2021–present
Latvia
Evika Siliņa
Prime Minister
September 15, 2023–
present
Lithuania
Ingrida Simonyte
Prime Minister
Nov. 24, 2020–present
Moldova
Maia Sandua
President
Dec. 24, 2020–present
Namibia
Saara Kuugongelwa-
Prime Minister
Mar. 21, 2015–present
Amadhilaa
Peru
Dina Boluartea
Presidente
Dec. 7, 2022–present
Samoa
Fiame Naomi Mata’afaa
Prime Minister
May 24, 2021–present
Serbia
Ana Brnabića
Prime Minister
June 29, 2017–present
Sint Maarten
Silveria Jacobs
Prime Minister
Mar. 28, 2020–present
Slovakia
Zuzana Čaputováa
President
June 15, 2019–present
Slovenia
Nataša Pirc Musara
President
December 23, 2022-
present
Taiwanf
Tsai Ing-wena
President
May 20, 2016–present
Tanzania
Samia Suluhu Hassana
President
Mar. 19, 2021–present
Togo
Victoire Tomegah
Prime Minister
Sept. 28, 2020–present
Dogbea
Trinidad and Tobago
Christine Kangaloo
President
March 20, 2023–present
Uganda
Robinah Nabbanjaa
Prime Minister
June 21, 2021–present
Sources: Compiled by CRS using information from the CIA World Factbook, the World Economic Forum’s
Global Gender Gap 2023, IPU’s Women in Parliament 2022, and government websites.
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Notes: Surnames appear in bold face.
a. This person is the first female to hold this position in her country.
b. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rotating three-member presidency. Željka Cvijanović is the Serb member of
the presidency.
c. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is the head of government in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
d. Droupadi Murmu is the second woman and first member belonging to a tribal community to be elected
President in India.
e. President Boluarte took office December 7, 2022 after the Peruvian Congress removed the former
president Pedro Castil o from office. She had been serving as First Vice President.
f.
Taiwan officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), For information on the status of Taiwan, see CRS
In Focus IF10275, Taiwan: Political and Security Issues, by Susan V. Lawrence and Caitlin Campbell.
Table 7 lists selected women who formerly served as the executive of their country since 2000
and are listed alphabetically by country.
Table 7. Selected Women Who Served as Chief of State or Head of Government
(Executives) from 2000-Present
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Argentina
Cristina Fernandez De
President
2007-2015
Kirchner
Austria
Brigitte Bierlein
Chancellor
2019-2020
Bangladesh
Khaleda Zia
Prime Minister
1991-1996 and 2001-2006
Brazil
Dilma Rousseff
President
2011-2016
Burma
Aung San Suu Kyi
State Counsellor
2016-2021
Chile
Michelle Bachelet
President
2006-2010 and 2014-2018
Croatia
Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovica
President
2015-2020
Estonia
Kersti Kaljulaid
President
2016-2021
Finland
Sanna Mirella Marin
Prime Minister
Dec. 10, 2019–June 20,
2023
Gabon
Rose Christiane Ossouka
Prime Minister
July 16, 2020–Jan. 9, 2023
Rapondab
Germany
Angela Merkel
Chancellor
2005–2021
India
Pratibha Patil
President
2007-2012
Indonesia
Megawati Sukarnoputri
President
2001-2004
Jamaica
Portia Simpson-Miller
Prime Minister
2006-2007 and 2012-2016
Liberia
El en Johnson Sirleaf
President
2006-2018
Lithuania
Dalia Grybauskaite
President
2009-2019
Malawi
Joyce Banda
President
2012-2014
Malta
Marie-Louise Coleiro Preca
President
2014-2019
Nepal
Bidhya Devi Bandhari
President
2015-2023
New Zealand
Helen Clark
Prime Minister
1999-2008
New Zealand
Jacinda Ardern
Prime Minister
2017-2023
Norway
Erna Solberg
Prime Minister
2013-2021
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Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Panama
Mireya Moscoso
President
1999-2004
Philippines
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
President
2001-2010
Singapore
Halimah Yacob
President
Sept. 14, 2017–Sept. 14,
2023
South Korea
Park Geun-hye
President
2013-2017
Sweden
Magdalena Anderssonc
Prime Minister
Nov. 30, 2021–Oct. 18,
2022
Thailand
Yingluck Shinawatra
Prime Minister
2011-2014
Trinidad and Tobago
Paula-Mae Weeks
President
2018-2023
Tunisia
Najla Bouden Romdhane
Prime Minister
2021-2023
Turks and Caicos Islands Sharlene Cartwright-
Premier
2016-2021
Robinson
United Kingdom
Theresa May
Prime Minister
2016-2019
United Kingdom
Mary Elizabeth “Liz” Truss
Prime Minister
September 6–October 25,
2022
Source: Compiled by CRS using media reports and Encyclopedia Britannica.
Notes: Surnames appear in bold face. Hong Kong, although not a country, had female Chief Executive named
Carrie Lam from July 1, 2017 through June 30, 2022.
a. Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovic is the first women to be elected President of Croatia since the first multiparty
elections in 1990 and independence from Yugoslavia in 1991.
b. Rose Christiane Ossouka Raponda was the first woman to hold this position in her country. From January
9, 2020, through August 30, 2023, she served as the first female Vice President of Gabon before being
removed from power by a coup.
c. Magdalena Andersson was the first female to hold this position in her country.
Women Leaders of the 20th Century
Table 8 identifies several female executives who held office in the 20th century with notes
describing notable facts.
Table 8. Selected Notable Women Executives from 1960 to 2000
Executives are listed chronologically by their years in office.
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Sri Lanka
Sirimavo Bandaranaike
Prime Minister
1960-1965; 1970-1977;
1994-2000
Bandaranaike was the world’s first female Prime Minister.
India
Indira Gandhi
Prime Minister
1966-1977 and 1980-1984
Gandhi was assassinated while in office; she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv.
Israel
Golda Meir
Prime Minister
1969-1974
Meir and her husband immigrated to then Palestine in 1921. She was a founder of the State of Israel and the fourth
prime minister.
Argentina
Isabel Martinez de Perón
President
1974-1976
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Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Perón was the world’s first female president when, as vice president, she succeeded her husband, President Juan
Perón, upon his death.
United Kingdom
Margaret Thatcher
Prime Minister
1979-1990
Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in Europe and was the only British prime minister in the 20th
century to be elected to three consecutive terms.
Iceland
Vigdis Finnbogadottir
President
1980-1996
Finnbogadottir was the first woman in the world to be elected head of state in a national election.
Philippines
Corazon Aquino
President
1986-1992
Aquino restored democratic rule after the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos.
Pakistan
Benazir Bhutto
Prime Minister
1988-1990 and 1993-1996
Bhutto was first female prime minister of a majority-Muslim country.
Source: Compiled by CRS using news and other sources, such as the Encyclopedia Britannica and Gale Biography
in Context
.
Note: Surnames appear in bold face.
Violence Against Women in Politics
Some experts and observers have found that, while any candidate or elected politician may
experience violence, women politicians can be targeted because of their gender and subjected to
sexist threats, sexual harassment, and violence.24 Violence may occur during the registration and
voting processes, while campaigning and running for office, and/or while serving in a
government.25 Perpetrators may include both state and non-state actors, such as members of
political parties, other parliamentarians, members of the public, media representatives, and
religious or community leaders.26
Underreporting incidents of violence against women in politics makes addressing the issue
particularly challenging. Information about the problem tends to be anecdotal rather than
statistical, making it difficult to determine the extent and prevalence of the problem. In addition,
many women may be reluctant to report violence out of the belief that doing so may limit a
woman’s political aspirations, and out of fear of reprisals, threats, and possible increased
harassment.27 According to a 2018 United Nations report, “women of color appear to be

24 An article in the Journal of Democracy noted that actions to threaten, intimidate, or harass women who are
participating in the political process are attempts to “deter women’s electoral participation, and reinforce prevailing
gender norms.” Such activities “should thus be seen as a serious threat and affront to democracy.” See Mona Lena
Krook, “Violence Against Women in Politics,” Journal of Democracy, January 2017, p. 74-75. The Kofi Annan
Foundation cited research that determined “general political violence occurred against both men and women,” but that
women were “much more likely to experience sexualized forms of violence.” See Carmen Alanis, Violence Against
Women in Politics
, Kofi Annan Foundation, November 2020, p. 31.
25 United Nations Special Rapporteur on violence against women, Violence against Women in Politics, August 6, 2018,
p. 9.
26 Ibid., p. 6.
27 UN Women, Data and Violence against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations,
December 4-5, 2019, pp. 9-13.
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disproportionately affected, and risks are likely higher for women of marginalized
communities.”28
Figure 3 indicates the prevalence of attacks of “political violence targeting women in politics”
(PVTWIP). PVTWIP affects those who participate in various functions in the political process
according to the Political Violence Targeting Women Research Hub from Armed Conflict
Location and Event Data Project (ACLED). Trends in Figure 3 reflect data gathered periodically
from women in 190 countries from January 2, 2021, through September 29, 2023. Globally,
women candidates for office, whether for local, regional, or national government, experienced up
to 76 PVTWIP attacks (9.0%), while female politicians, those women currently serving in an
elected governmental position, experienced 107 PVTWIP attacks (12.7%). Political party
supporters
, such as women who campaign and actively support a political party or candidate,
faced 123 PVTWIP attacks (14.6%), while women voters underwent 3 PVTWIP attacks (0.3%).
Government officials, women who work in nonelected government positions, including public
and civil servants, experienced up to 218 PVTWIP attacks (25.8%). Protestors experienced 38
PVTWIP attacks (4.5%). The largest group of women in public life, who experienced 280 PVTW
attacks (33.1%), includes activists, human rights defenders, and social leaders.29
Figure 3. Trends in Political Violence Targeting Women in Politics, by Role in
Political Process
January 2, 2021, through September 29, 2023

Source: Created by CRS, based on aggregate data from “Political Violence Targeting Women,” Armed Conflict
Location and Event Data Project (ACLED), https://acleddata.com/political-violence-targeting-women/, accessed
October 4, 2023.
Notes: Data on violence targeting women in politics are restricted to acts of physical violence that take place in
a public setting on women who engage in the political process. This does not include acts of bul ying or
intimidation, cases of domestic violence, or virtual aggressive actions.
In October 2016, the IPU published the results of a survey of 55 women legislators from 39
countries on their experiences of harassment, intimidation, or violence based on their gender.30
Tables 9 to 12 illustrate the findings of this survey. Broadly, almost 82% of the women surveyed

28 United Nations, Violence against Women in Politics Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations, New
York, NY, March 8-9, 2018, p. 6.
29 “Political Violence Targeting Women,” Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project, https://acleddata.com/
political-violence-targeting-women/, accessed October 4, 2023.
30 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016. Survey participants
included 18 from Africa, 15 from Europe, 10 from the Asia-Pacific region, 8 from the Americas, and 4 from Arab
countries.
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reported they had personally experienced psychological violence, almost 22% reported incidents
of sexual violence, 25.5% reported experiencing physical violence, and almost 33% had been
subjected to economic violence.
Table 9. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Women Legislators
2016 IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries

% of Respondents Answering “Yes”
“Have you witnessed
“Have you been
acts of this violence
subject to one or
committed against
more acts of this
one or more of your
Type of Violence
kind of violence?”
female colleagues?”
Psychological violence (see Table 10 for details)
81.8%
78.1%
Sexual violence (e.g., sexual harassment; efforts to force sexual
21.8%
32.7%
relations inappropriate and unwanted gestures or physical
contact; requests for sexual relations in exchange for material or
political advantages
Physical violence (e.g., actions that inflict or attempt to inflict
25.5%
20.0%
bodily injury to a legislator, or to friends or members of her
family)
Economic violence (e.g., denied funds and other resources that
32.7%
30.9%
legislators are entitled to such as salary, offices, computers, staff,
security; damage to or destruction of personal property)
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016.
Note: Definitions of the various kinds of violence are included in the report.
The 81.8% of respondents in Table 9 who reported they had experienced psychological violence
identified the manifestations of this violence in Table 10.
Table 10. Psychological Violence: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 81.8% of 2016 IPU survey respondents who reported they had experienced
psychological violence
% of Respondents Who Had
Actions of Psychological Violence
Experienced These Actions
Humiliating sexual or sexist remarks
65.5%
Images or disrespectful comments with sexual connotations about you in the
27.3%
traditional media
Extremely humiliating or sexual images of you distributed through social
41.8%
media
Threats of death, rape, beatings, or abduction
44.4%
Harassment (e.g. exposure to insistent and uninvited behavior, including
32.7%
unwanted attention, unwelcome verbal contact, or interaction that may have
frightened you)
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016, p. 3.
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Table 11 lists several factors identified in the IPU study that may make some women legislators a
likely target for gender-based intolerance.
Table 11. Risk Factors for Women Legislators
2016 IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
Reasons for Violence, as reported by women legislators subjected to
% of Survey
gender-based violent acts and behavior
Respondents
Intention to dissuade them and other women from participating in politics
61.5%
Political rivalry
41.7%
Positions of women legislators on specific issues
60.5%
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October
2016, p. 6.
Additional risk factors that appear to lead to violence against women in legislatures include being
a member of the political minority, being under the age of 40, and belonging to a minority ethnic,
religious, or other marginalized social group.31 Table 12 identifies how women legislators have
reacted to the acts of violence they experienced.
Table 12. Effects of Violence Against Women in Politics
2016 IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
% of Survey
Reactions of Women in Politics Subjected to Violent Acts
Respondents
Distressed over the experience
66.7%
Concerned for the security of themselves, their friends, and family members
46.7%
Felt weakened in their ability to complete their mandates and to express their
38.7%
opinions
Reported incidents to the legislative security services or the police
51.7%
Strengthened their determination as a legislator
80.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016, p. 7.
The IPU released regional updates on sexism, harassment and violence against women in
parliaments for Europe (2018) and for Africa (2021).
IPU’s 2018 Europe regional update is based on the results of one-on-one conversations with 123
women from 45 European countries. Eighty-one participants were members of parliament (MPs)
and 42 were members of the parliamentary staff.32 Table 13 identifies the prevalence of various
forms of violence against European women legislators.
Table 13. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against European Women Legislators
2018 IPU survey of 81 European women legislators
% of Survey
Type of Violence
Respondents
Suffered psychological violence during their term of office
85.2%
Received death threats or threats of rape or beating
46.9%

31 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016, p. 6.
32 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 1.
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% of Survey
Type of Violence
Respondents
Been the target of online sexist attacks on social networks
58.2%
Been the target of comments relating to their physical appearance or based
67.9%
on gender stereotypes
Experienced sexual violencea
24.7%
Experienced physical violenceb
14.8%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 4.
a. IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 4. This
report identified two types of sexual violence: sexual harassment (“words or behavior of a degrading or
humiliating sexual nature, sexual advances and/or demands for sexual favors”) and sexual assault (being
forced “engage in sexual acts, have sexual intercourse or carry out something of a sexual nature”).
b. Ibid., p. 4. This report defines physical violence as being slapped, pushed, hit, having something thrown at
you; being threatened with a firearm, knife, or another weapon; or being confined, beaten, or abducted.
More broadly, female MPs in Europe under 40 experienced higher rates of psychological and
sexual harassment than male MPs. Female MPs who actively supported gender equality and
condemned violence against women were often singled out for attack.33
Table 14 identifies the prevelance of forms of violence against European female parliamentary
staff.
Table 14. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against European Women
Parliamentary Staff
2018 IPU survey of 42 European female parlimentary staff
% of Survey
Type of Violence
Respondents
Suffered acts of sexual harassment in their work
40.5%
Received comments of a sexual nature
50.0%
Suffered psychological harassment/bul ying in their work in parliament from MPs and
19.5%
col eagues in the parliamentary staff, mostly from men but also from women
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 2.
Of the 40.5% of European women parliamentary staff who suffered acts of sexual harassment, in
69.2% of such cases the perpetrators were male MPs.34
Of the 50.0% of cases in which European women parliamentary staff received comments of a
sexual nature, in 61.5% of those cases such comments were made by male MPs.35
IPU’s 2021 Africa regional update is based on the results of confidential interviews conducted
with 224 women from 50 countries. One-hundred and thirty-seven participants were women
parliamentarians and 87 were members of the parliamentary staff.36
Table 15 identifies the prevelance of forms of violence against African women parliamentarians.

33 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 1.
34 Ibid., p. 2.
35 Ibid., p. 2.
36 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 2.
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Table 15. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against African
Women Legislators
2021 IPU survey of 137 African women legislators
% of Survey
Type of Violence
Respondents
Experienced pyschological violence.
80.0%
Experienced sexual violence
39.0%
Exposed to economic violencea
29.0%
Experienced physical violence at work
23.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 2.
a. IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 27. In the
report, economic violence is defined as using “economic barriers and deprivation as a means of control,
most often by destroying a person’s property or putting in jeopardy their livelihood as a form of
intimidation.”
The 80.0% of African women legislators in Table 15 who reported they had experienced
pyschological violence identifed manifestations of this violence in Table 16.
Table 16. Psychological Violence Against African Women Legislators:
Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 80.0% of 2021 IPU Africa update women legislator
respondents who reported they had experienced psychological violence
% of Respondents Who Had
Actions of Psychological Violence
Experienced These Actions
Experienced sexist behavior or remarks
67.0%
Target of sexist attacks online
46.0%
Have received death threats, rape threats, or threats of beating or abduction
42.0%
directed at them or their loved ones
Have faced intimidation or psychological harassment
39.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 2.
The 39.0% of African women legislators in Table 15 who reported they had experienced sexual
violence identifed manifestations of this violence in Table 17.
Table 17. Sexual Violence Against African Women Legislators:
Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 39.0% of 2021 IPU Africa update women legislator
respondents who reported they had experienced sexual violence
% of Respondents Who Had
Actions of Sexual Violence
Experienced These Actions
Sexually harassed
40.0%
Affected by sextortion (requests for sexual favors)
9.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 2.
Table 18 identifies the prevelance of forms of violence against African women parliamentariay
staff.
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Table 18. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against
African Women Parliamentariay Staff
2021 IPU survey of 87 African women parlimentariary staff
% of Survey
Type of Violence
Respondents
Sexual harassment at work
45.0%
Received requests for sexual favours in exchange for a benefit a col eague or
18.0%
parliamentarian was empowered to withhold or confer
Psychological violence
69.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.
The 45.0% of African women parliamentary staff in Table 18 who reported they had experienced
pyschological violence identifed types of perpetrators of this violence in Table 19.
Table 19. Sexual Harassment Against African Women
Parliamentariay Staff: Perpetrators
Perpetrators of behaviors described by the 45.0% of 2021 IPU Africa update women
parliamentary staff respondents who reported they had experienced sexual harassment
Type of Perpetrators
% of Perpetrators
Male parliamentarians
53.0%
Male col eagues or parliamentary staff
48.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.
African women parliamentary staff reported that “18% have received requests for sexual favours
from parliamentary colleagues (56% of cases) or from parliamentarians (44% of cases) in
exchange for a benefit that this colleague or parliamentarian was empowered to withhold or
confer.”37
The 69.0% of African women parliamentary staff in Table 18 who reported they had experienced
pyschological violence identifed manifestations of this violence in Table 20.
Table 20. Psychological Violence Against African Women
Parliamentariay Staff: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 69.0% of 2021 IPU Africa update women parliamentariay
staff respondents who reported they had experienced psychological violence
% of Respondents Who Had
Actions of Psychological Violence
Experienced These Actions
Were the target of sexist remarks made by male col agues and / or
56.0%
parliamentarians
Experienced psychological harrassment within the context of their work in
38.0%
parliament
Were attacked online
22.0%
Were threatened online
7.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.

37 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.
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In the 56.0% of African women parliamentary staff who were the target of sexist remarks, 67% of
these cases were by male colleagues working in parliament and 30% of these cases were by male
parliamentarians.38
In the 38.0% of African women parliamentary staff who experienced psychological harassment
within the context of their work in parliament, in 72.0% of those cases the parliamentary
colleagues were the perpetrators (mostly men but some women). In 22.0% of those cases, the
perpetrators were male parliamentarians.39
The 2021 Africa update also includes examples of economic violence reported includes
• 18% of female parliamentary staff have been threatened with losing their job or
with having their career progression blocked, and
• 24% have been refused funds to which they were entitled, such as a salary or
bonus.40



Author Information

Travis A. Ferrell

Research Librarian


Acknowledgments
Susan Chesser was the previous author of this report.

38 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.
39 Ibid., p. 3.
40 Ibid., p. 3.
Congressional Research Service

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Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the Globe




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