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Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the Globe

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Women in National Governments Around the
April April 46, 2022 , 2022
Globe: Fact Sheet
Susan G. Chesser
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are
Senior Research Librarian Senior Research Librarian
underrepresented in the political process at the national level. As this report shows, women underrepresented in the political process at the national level. As this report shows, women

currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an increase from 14.2% of legislative currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an increase from 14.2% of legislative
seats in 2002 (seeseats in 2002 (see Figure 1). As of March 1, 2022, women held 50% or more of the legislative . As of March 1, 2022, women held 50% or more of the legislative

seats in four countries: Rwanda, Cuba, Nicaragua, and the United Arab Emirates (see seats in four countries: Rwanda, Cuba, Nicaragua, and the United Arab Emirates (see Table 3). .
At the executive level, 29 countries plus the special administrative region Hong Kong currently have an elected female head At the executive level, 29 countries plus the special administrative region Hong Kong currently have an elected female head
of state or government (seeof state or government (see Table 6). Since 1960, more than 140 women have been elected or appointed as head of the . Since 1960, more than 140 women have been elected or appointed as head of the
national government in at least 70 countries. national government in at least 70 countries.
This report provides an overview of women’s roles in national governments and looks at suffrage, representation at the This report provides an overview of women’s roles in national governments and looks at suffrage, representation at the
legislative and executive levels, gender quotas, and violence against women in elections. legislative and executive levels, gender quotas, and violence against women in elections.

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Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Overview of Congressional Actions ................................................................................................ 1
Selected Tables and Statistics .......................................................................................................... 2
Voting Rights ............................................................................................................................. 2
Legislative Representation ........................................................................................................ 3
Gender Quotas .................................................................................................................... 4
Executive Representation .......................................................................................................... 9
Women Leaders in the 21st Century .................................................................................... 9
Women Leaders of the 20th Century.................................................................................. 12
Violence Against Women in Politics ....................................................................................... 13
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. 16

Figures
Figure 1. Worldwide Percentage of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures ...................... 8
Figure 2. Regional Percentages of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures ....................... 9
Figure 3. Trends in Political Violence Targeting Women, by Role in Political Process ................ 14

Tables
Table 1. First Countries to Allow Women to Vote ........................................................................... 3
Table 2. Most Recent Countries to Allow Women to Vote .............................................................. 3
Table 3. National Legislatures with Women Holding 40% or More of Total Seats......................... 4
Table 4. Women in National Legislatures of G-20 Countries .......................................................... 6
Table 5. Countries Where Women Hold 7% or Less of Total Legislative Seats.............................. 7
Table 6. Current Women Executives ............................................................................................. 10
Table 7. Selected Women Executives No Longer in Office ........................................................... 11
Table 8. Selected Women Executives, from 1960 to 2000 ............................................................ 12
Table 9. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Women Legislators ........................... 15
Table 10. Psychological Violence: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors ........................................... 15
Table 11. Risk Factors for Women Legislators .............................................................................. 16
Table 12. Effects of Violence Against Women in Politics ............................................................. 16

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 16

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Introduction
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are
underrepresented in the political process at the national level. Possible causes include underrepresented in the political process at the national level. Possible causes include
discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to
health care, and the disproportionate effect of poverty on women. Many experts, including some health care, and the disproportionate effect of poverty on women. Many experts, including some
U.S. policymakers and Members of Congress, have found that women’s political participation, U.S. policymakers and Members of Congress, have found that women’s political participation,
including representation in elected governments, contributes to the overall well-being of women including representation in elected governments, contributes to the overall well-being of women
and their communities.1 and their communities.1
As this report shows, women currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an As this report shows, women currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an
increase from 14.2% of such seats in 2002 (seeincrease from 14.2% of such seats in 2002 (see Figure 1). As of March 1, 2022, women held 50% . As of March 1, 2022, women held 50%
or more of the legislative seats in four countries: Cuba, Nicaragua, Rwanda, and the United Arab or more of the legislative seats in four countries: Cuba, Nicaragua, Rwanda, and the United Arab
Emirates (seeEmirates (see Table 3). At the national executive level, 29 countries and the special . At the national executive level, 29 countries and the special
administrative region Hong Kong currently have a female chief of state or head of government administrative region Hong Kong currently have a female chief of state or head of government
who won an election or was selected by elected bodies (seewho won an election or was selected by elected bodies (see Table 6). Since 1960, more than 140 . Since 1960, more than 140
women have been elected or appointed by elected bodies as the executive in at least 70 countries.2 women have been elected or appointed by elected bodies as the executive in at least 70 countries.2
This report provides a global snapshot of women’s political participation in national governments This report provides a global snapshot of women’s political participation in national governments
worldwide by compiling statistics and other information from a variety of sources, including the worldwide by compiling statistics and other information from a variety of sources, including the
annual annual Global Gender Gap Report issued by the World Economic Forum, the Inter-Parliamentary issued by the World Economic Forum, the Inter-Parliamentary
Union, the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, the CIA Union, the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, the CIA World
Factbook
, news reports, and other sources. , news reports, and other sources.
Overview of Congressional Actions
Over the years, Members of Congress have enacted or introduced legislation that, either directly Over the years, Members of Congress have enacted or introduced legislation that, either directly
or indirectly, addresses women’s political participation around the world. For example, from or indirectly, addresses women’s political participation around the world. For example, from
FY2014 through FY2022, a provision in Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related FY2014 through FY2022, a provision in Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related
Programs (SFOPS) Appropriations Acts appropriated funds for women’s leadership. Most Programs (SFOPS) Appropriations Acts appropriated funds for women’s leadership. Most
recently, the FY2022 SFOPS bill states recently, the FY2022 SFOPS bill states
not less than $50,000,000 shall be made available for programs specifically designed to not less than $50,000,000 shall be made available for programs specifically designed to
increase leadership opportunities for women in countries where women and girls suffer increase leadership opportunities for women in countries where women and girls suffer
discrimination due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s discrimination due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s
political status, expanding women’s participation in political parties and elections, and political status, expanding women’s participation in political parties and elections, and
increasing women’s opportunities for leadership positions in the public and private sectors increasing women’s opportunities for leadership positions in the public and private sectors
at the local, provincial, and national levels.3 at the local, provincial, and national levels.3
Members have also enacted laws that address aspects and issues related to women’s participation Members have also enacted laws that address aspects and issues related to women’s participation
in national governments. For example, the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, among other in national governments. For example, the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, among other
things, aims to increase the participation of women in conflict prevention and conflict resolution things, aims to increase the participation of women in conflict prevention and conflict resolution

1 For example, see U.N. document A/RES/66/130, 1 For example, see U.N. document A/RES/66/130, Women and Political Participation, adopted December 19, 2011. , adopted December 19, 2011.
Also see U.S. Department of State’s Office of Global Women’s Issues, “the meaningful participation of women in Also see U.S. Department of State’s Office of Global Women’s Issues, “the meaningful participation of women in
political, economic, and public life is critical to building and sustaining representative societies.... Increasing political, economic, and public life is critical to building and sustaining representative societies.... Increasing
opportunities for women and girls’ leadership across sectors leads to building stronger and more prosperous societies.” opportunities for women and girls’ leadership across sectors leads to building stronger and more prosperous societies.”
(Office of Global Women’s Issues, Cross-Cutting Issues, Women’s Leadership at https://www.state.gov/cross-cutting-(Office of Global Women’s Issues, Cross-Cutting Issues, Women’s Leadership at https://www.state.gov/cross-cutting-
issues/#wl.) issues/#wl.)
2 2 The Global Gender Gap Report 2021, prepared by The World Economic Forum, March 30, 2021, at , prepared by The World Economic Forum, March 30, 2021, at
https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021. https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021.
3 P.L. 116-260, Division K, Title VII, Section 7059. 3 P.L. 116-260, Division K, Title VII, Section 7059.
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processes as a means to build more inclusive societies and to help stabilize countries and regions. processes as a means to build more inclusive societies and to help stabilize countries and regions.
The act expresses the sense of Congress that “the political participation, and leadership of women The act expresses the sense of Congress that “the political participation, and leadership of women
in fragile environments, particularly during democratic transitions, is critical to sustaining lasting in fragile environments, particularly during democratic transitions, is critical to sustaining lasting
democratic institutions.”4 democratic institutions.”4
In the 117th Congress, some Members have proposed legislation addressing aspects of women’s In the 117th Congress, some Members have proposed legislation addressing aspects of women’s
political participation. For example, the House and Senate versions of the Girls LEAD Act bills5 political participation. For example, the House and Senate versions of the Girls LEAD Act bills5
require the Department of State and the United States Agency for International development require the Department of State and the United States Agency for International development
(USAID) to develop strategies and programs to promote adolescents’ participation, particularly (USAID) to develop strategies and programs to promote adolescents’ participation, particularly
that of girls, in the political processes and civil society of their countries. From a country-specific that of girls, in the political processes and civil society of their countries. From a country-specific
perspective, H.R. 116, the Equal Rights and Access for the Women of South Sudan Act, perspective, H.R. 116, the Equal Rights and Access for the Women of South Sudan Act,
acknowledges that the government of South Sudan has taken steps to include women in the acknowledges that the government of South Sudan has taken steps to include women in the
legislative assembly and calls for additional support from the United States to reinforce these legislative assembly and calls for additional support from the United States to reinforce these
steps.6 steps.6
Selected Tables and Statistics
Voting Rights
The right to vote is a primary step toward involving a populace in the political decisions of a The right to vote is a primary step toward involving a populace in the political decisions of a
government. In many countries, voting rights were originally granted only to adult men who government. In many countries, voting rights were originally granted only to adult men who
owned property, then were eventually expanded to include all adult male citizens regardless of owned property, then were eventually expanded to include all adult male citizens regardless of
property ownership, then to women, and finally to other underrepresented groups. Definitions of property ownership, then to women, and finally to other underrepresented groups. Definitions of
what constituted a “citizen” may also have changed over time, as they did in the United States, what constituted a “citizen” may also have changed over time, as they did in the United States,
and become more inclusive of minorities and indigenous peoples. In contrast, other countries and become more inclusive of minorities and indigenous peoples. In contrast, other countries
enacted universal suffrage from their very founding, granting the right to vote to all adults, male enacted universal suffrage from their very founding, granting the right to vote to all adults, male
and female, regardless of ethnicity, religion, economic standing, or other criteria. and female, regardless of ethnicity, religion, economic standing, or other criteria.
Table 1 and Table 2, respectively, list the first and latest countries to extend the right and duty of respectively, list the first and latest countries to extend the right and duty of
voting to women. Although subnational regions (e.g., states, provinces) may have granted the voting to women. Although subnational regions (e.g., states, provinces) may have granted the
right to vote earlier, the years in the tables below indicate when suffrage was extended for right to vote earlier, the years in the tables below indicate when suffrage was extended for
national elections to female adult citizens. national elections to female adult citizens.

4 This act is referenced in both P.L. 116-94 and P.L. 116-260, which include statements that “the Secretary of State 4 This act is referenced in both P.L. 116-94 and P.L. 116-260, which include statements that “the Secretary of State
shall promote” the participation of Afghan women in peace and reconciliation processes in the country “in a manner shall promote” the participation of Afghan women in peace and reconciliation processes in the country “in a manner
consistent with the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017.” consistent with the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017.”
5 H.R. 1661 and S. 634. 5 H.R. 1661 and S. 634.
6 The Girls LEAD Act bills introduced in the 117th Congress are H.R. 1661 and S. 634. The Equal Rights and Access 6 The Girls LEAD Act bills introduced in the 117th Congress are H.R. 1661 and S. 634. The Equal Rights and Access
for the Women of South Sudan Act is H.R. 116. S. 2878 would provide statutory authority for an Office of Global for the Women of South Sudan Act is H.R. 116. S. 2878 would provide statutory authority for an Office of Global
Women’s Issues within the Department of State in order to advance foreign policy and international programs aimed at Women’s Issues within the Department of State in order to advance foreign policy and international programs aimed at
increasing opportunities for women and girls, including in the political processes. H.Res. 801 acknowledges that increasing opportunities for women and girls, including in the political processes. H.Res. 801 acknowledges that
violence against women in politics is a global phenomenon and recognizes it as a form of gender-based violence. The violence against women in politics is a global phenomenon and recognizes it as a form of gender-based violence. The
resolution urges the U.S. government to adopt policies to encourage women’s political participation while mitigating resolution urges the U.S. government to adopt policies to encourage women’s political participation while mitigating
online and in person violence against these women. online and in person violence against these women.
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Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet

Table 1. First Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year
Country(ies)
Year
Country(ies)
1893 1893
New Zealand New Zealand
1917 1917
Canada* Canada*
Austria, Estonia, Georgia, Austria, Estonia, Georgia,
Germany, Hungary, Germany, Hungary,
Ireland,* Kyrgyz Republic, Ireland,* Kyrgyz Republic,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,
1902 1902
Australia* Australia*
1918 1918
Russia, United Kingdom* Russia, United Kingdom*
Belarus, Belgium,* Belarus, Belgium,*
Luxembourg, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Sweden,* Netherlands, Sweden,*
1906 1906
Finland Finland
1919 1919
Ukraine Ukraine
Albania, Czech Republic, Albania, Czech Republic,
Iceland,** Slovak Republic, Iceland,** Slovak Republic,
1913 1913
Norway Norway
1920 1920
United States United States
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Azerbaijan,
1915 1915
Denmark, Iceland* Denmark, Iceland*
1921 1921
Sweden** Sweden**
Source: The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm.
Notes: Some countries granted suffrage in stages, at first denying the right to women of certain racial, ethnic, or Some countries granted suffrage in stages, at first denying the right to women of certain racial, ethnic, or
economic groups. One asterisk (*) indicates the first year female citizens were allowed to vote in national economic groups. One asterisk (*) indicates the first year female citizens were allowed to vote in national
elections with limitations; two asterisks (**) indicate when those limitations were removed. No asterisk indicates elections with limitations; two asterisks (**) indicate when those limitations were removed. No asterisk indicates
there were no restrictions and all female adult citizens were granted the right to vote. there were no restrictions and all female adult citizens were granted the right to vote.
Table 2. Most Recent Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year
Country(ies)
2003 2003
Indonesia, Qatar Indonesia, Qatar
2005 2005
Kuwait Kuwait
Montenegro, United Arab Montenegro, United Arab
2006 2006
Emirates Emirates
2008 2008
Bhutan Bhutan
2011 2011
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia
Sources: Inter-Parliamentary Union at https://data.ipu.org/compare?field=Inter-Parliamentary Union at https://data.ipu.org/compare?field=
country%3Afield_suffrage%3Afield_right_to_vote#map; Pamela Paxton and Melanie M. Hughes, country%3Afield_suffrage%3Afield_right_to_vote#map; Pamela Paxton and Melanie M. Hughes, Women, Politics,
and Power: A Global Perspective
, 2nd edition, SAGE Publications, 2014, p. 50-51; and the CIA , 2nd edition, SAGE Publications, 2014, p. 50-51; and the CIA World Factbook on on
Suffrage, at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/suffrage/; “‘Surprise and Excitement’: Saudi Women Suffrage, at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/suffrage/; “‘Surprise and Excitement’: Saudi Women
React to Voting Rights Decision,” NPR, September 26, 2011, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2011/09/React to Voting Rights Decision,” NPR, September 26, 2011, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2011/09/
26/140819859/surprise-and-excitement-saudi-women-react-to-voting-rights-decision. 26/140819859/surprise-and-excitement-saudi-women-react-to-voting-rights-decision.
Note: Newly independent countries (Kosovo, South Sudan, etc.) would be included only if women had not been Newly independent countries (Kosovo, South Sudan, etc.) would be included only if women had not been
granted suffrage under the preceding country. For example, because Sudan granted women the right to vote in granted suffrage under the preceding country. For example, because Sudan granted women the right to vote in
1964, South Sudan is not included in this list, even though it did not gain independence until 2011. 1964, South Sudan is not included in this list, even though it did not gain independence until 2011.
Legislative Representation
The following tables highlight women’s representation based in national legislatures, including The following tables highlight women’s representation based in national legislatures, including
data on quotas. Several countries and political parties have instituted quotas to ensure that women data on quotas. Several countries and political parties have instituted quotas to ensure that women
are represented on the ballot or in the legislature, which may affect the statistics on women’s are represented on the ballot or in the legislature, which may affect the statistics on women’s
representation in national governments. Some governments also may use quotas to ensure ethnic representation in national governments. Some governments also may use quotas to ensure ethnic
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or religious diversity in the national legislature of some countries (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina, or religious diversity in the national legislature of some countries (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Iraq). Iraq).
Gender Quotas
The The Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas explains that “[g]ender quotas are numerical targets that explains that “[g]ender quotas are numerical targets that
stipulate the number or percentage of women that must be included in a candidate list or the stipulate the number or percentage of women that must be included in a candidate list or the
number of seats to be allocated to women in a legislature. They aim to reverse discrimination in number of seats to be allocated to women in a legislature. They aim to reverse discrimination in
law and practice and to level the playing field for women and men in politics.” law and practice and to level the playing field for women and men in politics.” The Atlas further further
states that “gender quotas have proved to be the single most effective tool for ‘fast-tracking’ states that “gender quotas have proved to be the single most effective tool for ‘fast-tracking’
women’s representation in elected bodies of government.”7 women’s representation in elected bodies of government.”7
Three main types of gender quotas are generally recognized, and they may be used at the national Three main types of gender quotas are generally recognized, and they may be used at the national
or subnational level, or both: or subnational level, or both:
  Legislated candidate quotas. These quotas are mandated through national These quotas are mandated through national
constitutions or legislation to regulate the gender composition of the ballot. constitutions or legislation to regulate the gender composition of the ballot.
  Legislated “reserved seats.” These quotas reserve a specific number or These quotas reserve a specific number or
percentage of seats in the legislature for women members. The quotas are percentage of seats in the legislature for women members. The quotas are
mandated through national constitutions or legislation and are implemented mandated through national constitutions or legislation and are implemented
through special electoral procedures. through special electoral procedures.
  Party quotas (also known as voluntary party quotas). Individual political Individual political
parties may adopt these quotas through the party’s statutes and rules. Such parties may adopt these quotas through the party’s statutes and rules. Such
adoption is the prerogative of each party, and some parties in a country may adoption is the prerogative of each party, and some parties in a country may
adopt quotas while other parties choose not to do so. adopt quotas while other parties choose not to do so.
Table 3 lists the countries where women hold 40% or more of the total seats of the national lists the countries where women hold 40% or more of the total seats of the national
legislative chamber body. legislative chamber body.
Table 3. National Legislatures with Women Holding 40% or More of Total Seats
As of March 1, 2022 As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
1 1
Rwanda Rwanda
Bicameral Bicameral
RS RS
106 106
58 58
54.7 54.7
2 2
Cuba Cuba
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
586 586
313 313
53.4 53.4
3 3
Nicaragua Nicaragua
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ CQ, PQ
91 91
46 46
50.5 50.5
United Arab United Arab
4 4
Unicameral Unicameral
RS RS
40 40
20 20
50.0 50.0
Emirates Emirates
5 5
Mexico Mexico
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
628 628
313 313
49.8 49.8
6 6
New Zealand New Zealand
Unicameral Unicameral
PQ PQ
120 120
59 59
49.2 49.2
7 7
Bolivia Bolivia
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
166 166
80 80
48.2 48.2
8 8
Iceland Iceland
Unicameral Unicameral
PQ PQ
63 63
30 30
47.6 47.6
9 9
Costa Rica Costa Rica
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
57 57
27 27
47.4 47.4

7 The 7 The Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas was a joint project of the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral was a joint project of the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral
Assistance (IDEA), the Inter-Parliamentary Union, and Stockholm University, published in June 2014, p. 16, available Assistance (IDEA), the Inter-Parliamentary Union, and Stockholm University, published in June 2014, p. 16, available
at https://www.idea.int/publications/catalogue/atlas-electoral-gender-quotas?lang=en. at https://www.idea.int/publications/catalogue/atlas-electoral-gender-quotas?lang=en.
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IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
10 10
Andorra Andorra
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
28 28
13 13
46.4 46.4
11 11
Sweden Sweden
Unicameral Unicameral
PQ PQ
349 349
161 161
46.1 46.1
12 12
South Africa South Africa
Bicameral Bicameral
PQ PQ
450 450
205 205
45.6 45.6
13 13
Finland Finland
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
200 200
91 91
45.5 45.5
14 14
Norway Norway
Unicameral Unicameral
PQ PQ
169 169
76 76
45.0 45.0
15 15
Argentina Argentina
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
329 329
146 146
44.4 44.4
16 16
Belgium Belgium
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ CQ
210 210
92 92
43.8 43.8
17 17
Senegal Senegal
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ CQ
164 164
70 70
42.7 42.7
18 18
Mozambique Mozambique
Unicameral Unicameral
PQ PQ
250 250
106 106
42.4 42.4
North North
19 19
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
120 120
50 50
41.7 41.7
Macedonia Macedonia
20 20
Austria Austria
Bicameral Bicameral
No QuotaPQ
244 244
101 101
41.4 41.4
21 21
Spain Spain
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
614 614
254 254
41.4 41.4
22 22
Moldova Moldova
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ CQ
101 101
41 41
40.6 40.6
23 23
Peru Peru
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ CQ
130 130
52 52
40.0 40.0
24 24
Serbia Serbia
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ CQ
250 250
100 100
40.0 40.0
25 25
Timor-Leste Timor-Leste
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ CQ
65 65
26 26
40.0 40.0
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022. Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
Notes: The selected countries listed here include those countries identified by the Inter-Parliamentary Union The selected countries listed here include those countries identified by the Inter-Parliamentary Union
(IPU) where women hold 40% or more of the total seats in the national legislative chamber(s). (IPU) where women hold 40% or more of the total seats in the national legislative chamber(s).
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women- complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022. ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; Sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; Sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the
Gender Quotas Database. Gender Quotas Database.
Table 4 shows the number of seats held by women in the national legislative chambers of the 19 shows the number of seats held by women in the national legislative chambers of the 19
nation members of the G-20 (excluding the European Union). Currently, women hold 40% or nation members of the G-20 (excluding the European Union). Currently, women hold 40% or
more of the total seats in the national legislatures of three G-20 countries (Mexico, South Africa, more of the total seats in the national legislatures of three G-20 countries (Mexico, South Africa,
and Argentina), and these countries appear in botand Argentina), and these countries appear in both Table 3 and and Table 4. .
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Table 4. Women in National Legislatures of G-20 Countries
As of March 1, 2022 As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
5 5
Mexico Mexico
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
628 628
313 313
49.8 49.8
12 12
South Africa South Africa
Bicameral Bicameral
PQ PQ
450 450
205 205
45.6 45.6
15 15
Argentina Argentina
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
329 329
146 146
44.4 44.4
32 32
Australia Australia
Bicameral Bicameral
PQ PQ
226 226
87 87
38.5 38.5
33 33
France France
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
925 925
350 350
37.8 37.8
37 37
Italy Italy
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
950 950
341 341
35.9 35.9
42 42
Germany Germany
Bicameral Bicameral
PQ PQ
807 807
281 281
34.8 34.8
44 44
Canada Canada
Bicameral Bicameral
PQ PQ
430 430
148 148
34.4 34.4
United United
59 59
Bicameral Bicameral
PQ PQ
1,425 1,425
446 446
31.3 31.3
Kingdom Kingdom
79 79
United States United States
UnicameralBicameral
No Quota No Quota
533 533
145 145
27.2 27.2
92 92
China China
Unicameral Unicameral
RS RS
2,975 2,975
742 742
24.9 24.9
108 108
Indonesia Indonesia
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ CQ
575 575
126 126
21.9 21.9
121 121
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia
Unicameral Unicameral
RS RS
151 151
30 30
19.9 19.9
131 131
South Korea South Korea
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
295 295
55 55
18.6 18.6
135 135
Russia Russia
Bicameral Bicameral
No Quota No Quota
619 619
110 110
17.8 17.8
138 138
Turkey Turkey
Unicameral Unicameral
PQ PQ
582 582
101 101
17.4 17.4
146 146
Brazil Brazil
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ, PQ CQ, PQ
594 594
90 90
15.2 15.2
152 152
Japan Japan
Bicameral Bicameral
No Quota No Quota
707 707
101 101
14.3 14.3
153 153
India India
Bicameral Bicameral
Sub only Sub only
779 779
110 110
14.1 14.1

TOTAL 190 COUNTRIES

45,885
11,959
26.1%
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022. Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
Notes: This list includes the 19 member nations of the G-20 and excludes the European Union. This list includes the 19 member nations of the G-20 and excludes the European Union.
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women- complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022. ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the
Gender Quotas Database. Gender Quotas Database.
Table 5 lists countries where women hold 7% or less of the total legislative seats. lists countries where women hold 7% or less of the total legislative seats.
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Table 5. Countries Where Women Hold 7% or Less of Total Legislative Seats
As of March 1, 2022 As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
173 173
Algeria Algeria
Bicameral Bicameral
CQ CQ
571 571
40 40
7.0 7.0
174 174
Palau Palau
Bicameral Bicameral
No Quota No Quota
29 29
2 2
6.9 6.9
175 175
Kiribati Kiribati
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
45 45
3 3
6.7 6.7
176 176
Burkina Faso Burkina Faso
Unicameral Unicameral
CQ CQ
127 127
8 8
6.3 6.3
177 177
Tuvalu Tuvalu
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
16 16
1 1
6.3 6.3
Marshall Marshall
178 178
Islands Islands
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
33 33
2 2
6.1 6.1
179 179
Iran Iran
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
286 286
16 16
5.6 5.6
180 180
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka
Unicameral Unicameral
Sub only Sub only
225 225
12 12
5.3 5.3
181 181
Lebanon Lebanon
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
128 128
6 6
4.7 4.7
182 182
Maldives Maldives
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
87 87
4 4
4.6 4.6
183 183
Nigeria Nigeria
Bicameral Bicameral
No Quota No Quota
469 469
21 21
4.5 4.5
184 184
Qatar Qatar
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
45 45
2 2
4.4 4.4
185 185
Tonga Tonga
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
27 27
1 1
3.7 3.7
186 186
Kuwait Kuwait
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
62 62
1 1
1.6 1.6
187 187
Yemen Yemen
Bicameral Bicameral
No Quota No Quota
340 340
1 1
0.3 0.3
188 188
Haiti Haiti
Bicameral Bicameral
RS RS
10 10
0 0
0.0 0.0
189 189
Papua New Papua New
Unicameral Unicameral
No Quota No Quota
111 111
0 0
0.0 0.0
Guinea Guinea
190 190
Vanuatu Vanuatu
Unicameral Unicameral
Sub only Sub only
52 52
0 0
0.0 0.0
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022. Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women is based on the 190 countries listed in the a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women is based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women- complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022. ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: C=legislated quotas for candidates on the b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: C=legislated quotas for candidates on the
ballot level; RS=legislated quotas for reserved seats; P=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the ballot level; RS=legislated quotas for reserved seats; P=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the
subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database. subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database.
Over a 20-year period, the percentage of seats held by women in national legislatures has risen Over a 20-year period, the percentage of seats held by women in national legislatures has risen
worldwide from 14.2% in March 2002 to 26.1% in March 2022 (seeworldwide from 14.2% in March 2002 to 26.1% in March 2022 (see Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Worldwide Percentage of Seats Held
by Women in National Legislatures
2002-2022 2002-2022

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/
wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages. wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages.
As shown in As shown in Figure 2, in March 2002, Europe and the Americas were the only regions where in March 2002, Europe and the Americas were the only regions where
women held 16% or more of legislative seats at the national level. In 2022, women legislators in women held 16% or more of legislative seats at the national level. In 2022, women legislators in
six regions hold more than 20% of the legislative seats. Currently, the Middle East/Northern six regions hold more than 20% of the legislative seats. Currently, the Middle East/Northern
Africa is the only region with less than 20% of legislative seats held by women, although women Africa is the only region with less than 20% of legislative seats held by women, although women
have gained representation since 2002. have gained representation since 2002.
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Figure 2. Regional Percentages of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures
2002-2022 2002-2022

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/
wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages. wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages.
Executive Representation
Voters in at least 70 countries have chosen a woman as their executive since 1960, when Sri Voters in at least 70 countries have chosen a woman as their executive since 1960, when Sri
Lanka selected Sirima Bandaranaike as the world’s first female prime minister. Executives may Lanka selected Sirima Bandaranaike as the world’s first female prime minister. Executives may
be selected through various methods: directly elected from a ballot dedicated to the executive be selected through various methods: directly elected from a ballot dedicated to the executive
office; indirectly elected by the legislature; appointed, following legislative elections, as the office; indirectly elected by the legislature; appointed, following legislative elections, as the
leader of the majority political party or majority coalition; or through other means. leader of the majority political party or majority coalition; or through other means.
The term “executive” refers to persons identified as either the chief of state or head of The term “executive” refers to persons identified as either the chief of state or head of
government of a country. The CIA government of a country. The CIA World Factbook defines the chief of state as “the titular leader defines the chief of state as “the titular leader
of the country who represents the state at official and ceremonial functions but may not be of the country who represents the state at official and ceremonial functions but may not be
involved with the day-to-day activities of the government.” The head of government is “the top involved with the day-to-day activities of the government.” The head of government is “the top
executive designated to manage the executive branch of the government.” In some countries, a executive designated to manage the executive branch of the government.” In some countries, a
monarch is identified as the “chief of state,” whereas an elected official (prime minister, premier, monarch is identified as the “chief of state,” whereas an elected official (prime minister, premier,
or administrator) is the “head of government.” Other countries, such as the United States, have or administrator) is the “head of government.” Other countries, such as the United States, have
one person, the President, filling both positions. Many countries have a “chief of state,” such as a one person, the President, filling both positions. Many countries have a “chief of state,” such as a
president, and another person as “head of government,” such as a prime minister, who won their president, and another person as “head of government,” such as a prime minister, who won their
office through different processes.8 office through different processes.8
Women Leaders in the 21st Century
Table 6 lists women who are currently the chief of state or head of government of their country, lists women who are currently the chief of state or head of government of their country,
excluding monarchs. excluding monarchs.

8 CIA World Factbook, executive branch field listing, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/, 8 CIA World Factbook, executive branch field listing, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/,
as viewed on March 24, 2022. as viewed on March 24, 2022.
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Table 6. Current Women Executives
As of March 25, 2022 As of March 25, 2022
Country
Name
Title
Dates in Office
Aruba Aruba
Evelyn Evelyn Wever-Croesa
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Nov. 17, 2017–present Nov. 17, 2017–present
Bangladesh Bangladesh
Sheikh Sheikh Hasina
Prime Minister Prime Minister
1996–2001; Jan. 6, 2009– 1996–2001; Jan. 6, 2009–
present present
Barbados Barbados
Mia Mia Mottleya
Prime Minister Prime Minister
May 25, 2018–present May 25, 2018–present
Barbados Barbados
Sandra Sandra Masona
President President
Nov. 30, 2021–present Nov. 30, 2021–present
Denmark Denmark
Mette Mette Frederiksen
Prime Minister Prime Minister
June 26, 2019–present June 26, 2019–present
Estonia Estonia
Kaja Kaja Kallasa
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Jan. 2021–present Jan. 2021–present
Ethiopia Ethiopia
Sahle-Work ZZewdea
President President
Oct. 25, 2018–present Oct. 25, 2018–present
Finland Finland
Sanna Mirella Sanna Mirella Marin
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Dec. 10, 2019–present Dec. 10, 2019–present
Gabon Gabon
Rose Christiane Ossouka Rose Christiane Ossouka
Prime Minister Prime Minister
July 2020–present July 2020–present
Rapondaa
Georgia Georgia
Salome Salome Zourabichvilia
President President
Dec. 16, 2018–present Dec. 16, 2018–present
Greece Greece
Ekaterina Ekaterina
President President
Mar. 2020–present Mar. 2020–present
Sakellaropouloua
Honduras Honduras
Xiomara Xiomara Castroa
President President
Jan. 2022–present Jan. 2022–present
Hong Kon Hong Kongb
Carrie Carrie Lama
Chief Executive Chief Executive
July 1, 2017–present July 1, 2017–present
Iceland Iceland
Katrin Katrin Jakobsdóttir
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Nov. 30, 2017–present Nov. 30, 2017–present
Kosovo Kosovo
Vjosa Vjosa Osmani-Sadriu
President President
Apr. 2021–present Apr. 2021–present
Lithuania Lithuania
Ingrida Ingrida Simonyte
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Nov. 2020–present Nov. 2020–present
Moldova Moldova
Maia Maia Sandua
President President
Dec. 2020–present Dec. 2020–present
Moldova Moldova
Natalia Natalia Gavrilita
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Aug. 2021–present Aug. 2021–present
Namibia Namibia
Saara Saara Kuugongelwa-
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Mar. 21, 2015–present Mar. 21, 2015–present
Amadhilaa
Nepal Nepal
Bidhya Devi Bidhya Devi Bandharia
President President
Oct. 29, 2015–present Oct. 29, 2015–present
New Zealand New Zealand
Jacinda Jacinda Ardern
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Oct. 26, 2017–present Oct. 26, 2017–present
Sint Maarten Sint Maarten
Silveria Silveria Jacobs
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Jan. 16, 2020-present Jan. 16, 2020-present
Samoa Samoa
Fiame Naomi
Prime Minister Prime Minister
July 2021–present July 2021–present
Mata’afaa
Serbia Serbia
Ana Ana Brnabića
Prime Minister Prime Minister
June 29, 2017–present June 29, 2017–present
Singapore Singapore
Halimah Halimah Yacoba
President President
Sept. 14, 2017–present Sept. 14, 2017–present
Slovakia Slovakia
Zuzana Zuzana Čaputováa
President President
June 15, 2019–present June 15, 2019–present
Sweden Sweden
Magdalena Magdalena Anderssona
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Nov. 2021–present Nov. 2021–present
Tai Taiwanc
Tsai Ing- Ing-wena
President President
May 20, 2016–present May 20, 2016–present
Tanzania Tanzania
Samia Suluhu Samia Suluhu Hassana
President President
Mar. 19, 2021–present Mar. 19, 2021–present
Togo Togo
Victoire Tomegah Victoire Tomegah
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Sept. 2020–present Sept. 2020–present
Dogbea
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Country
Name
Title
Dates in Office
Tunisia Tunisia
Najla Najla Bouden
Prime Minister Prime Minister
Oct. 11, 2021–present Oct. 11, 2021–present
Romdhan Romdhanea
Uganda Uganda
Robinah Robinah Nabbanjaa
Prime Minister Prime Minister
June 21, 2021–present June 21, 2021–present
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using information from the CIACompiled by the Congressional Research Service using information from the CIA World Factbook, ,
available at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/; the available at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/; the Global Gender Gap 2021, ,
published by the World Economic Forum, at https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021; published by the World Economic Forum, at https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021;
government websites, and media reports. government websites, and media reports.
Notes: Surnames appear in bold face. Surnames appear in bold face.
a. This woman is the first female to hold this position in her country. a. This woman is the first female to hold this position in her country.
b. Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China, which affords the city a b. Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China, which affords the city a
limited degree of autonomy. Although President Xi Jinping is China’s chief of state, Chief Executive Carrie limited degree of autonomy. Although President Xi Jinping is China’s chief of state, Chief Executive Carrie
Lam is recognized as the head of Hong Kong’s government and, as such, is responsible for the day-to-day Lam is recognized as the head of Hong Kong’s government and, as such, is responsible for the day-to-day
governance of Hong Kong. governance of Hong Kong.
c. Taiwan, which officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), has an ambiguous sovereignty status. In joint c. Taiwan, which officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), has an ambiguous sovereignty status. In joint
communiqués concluded with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1972, 1978, and 1982, the United communiqués concluded with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1972, 1978, and 1982, the United
States recognized the PRC as the “sole legal government of China”; acknowledged, but did not affirm, “the States recognized the PRC as the “sole legal government of China”; acknowledged, but did not affirm, “the
Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China”; and pledged to maintain only Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China”; and pledged to maintain only
unofficial relations with Taiwan. Considering Taiwan’s sovereignty status to be unresolved, the U.S. unofficial relations with Taiwan. Considering Taiwan’s sovereignty status to be unresolved, the U.S.
government generally does not refer to Taiwan as a country. For further information, see CRS In Focus government generally does not refer to Taiwan as a country. For further information, see CRS In Focus
IF10275, IF10275, Taiwan: Political and Security Issues, by Susan V. Lawrence. , by Susan V. Lawrence.
Table 7 lists selected women who formerly served as the executive of their country during the lists selected women who formerly served as the executive of their country during the
21st century. 21st century.
Table 7. Selected Women Executives No Longer in Office
Selected women who served as chief of state or head of government after 2000 Selected women who served as chief of state or head of government after 2000
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Argentina Argentina
Cristina Fernandez Cristina Fernandez De
President President
2007-2015 2007-2015
Kirchner
Austria Austria
Brigitte Brigitte Bierlein
Chancellor Chancellor
2019-2020 2019-2020
Bangladesh Bangladesh
Khaleda Khaleda Zia
Prime Minister Prime Minister
1991-1996 and 2001-2006 1991-1996 and 2001-2006
Brazil Brazil
Dilma Dilma Rousseff
President President
2011-2016 2011-2016
Burma Burma
Aung San Suu Kyia
State Counsellor State Counsellor
2016-2021 2016-2021
Chile Chile
Michelle Michelle Bachelet
President President
2006-2010 and 2014-2018 2006-2010 and 2014-2018
Croatia Croatia
Kolinda Kolinda Grabar-
President President
2015-2020 2015-2020
Kitarovic
Estonia Estonia
Kersti Kersti Kaljulaid
President President
2016-2021 2016-2021
Germany Germany
Angela Angela Merkel
Chancellor Chancellor
2005–2021 2005–2021
India India
Pratibha Pratibha Patil
President President
2007-2012 2007-2012
Indonesia Indonesia
Megawati Sukarnoputri Sukarnoputri
President President
2001-2004 2001-2004
Jamaica Jamaica
Portia Portia Simpson-Miller
Prime Minister Prime Minister
2006-2007 and 2012-2016 2006-2007 and 2012-2016
Liberia Liberia
El en Johnson El en Johnson Sirleaf
President President
2006-2018 2006-2018
Lithuania Lithuania
Dalia Dalia Grybauskaite
President President
2009-2019 2009-2019
Malawi Malawi
Joyce Joyce Banda
President President
2012-2014 2012-2014
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Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Malta Malta
Marie-Louise Coleiro Marie-Louise Coleiro
President President
2014-2019 2014-2019
Preca
New Zealand New Zealand
Helen Helen Clark
Prime Minister Prime Minister
1999-2008 1999-2008
Norway Norway
Erna Erna Solberg
Prime Minister Prime Minister
2013-2021 2013-2021
Panama Panama
Mireya Mireya Moscoso
President President
1999-2004 1999-2004
Philippines Philippines
Gloria Macapagal Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
President President
2001-2010 2001-2010
South Korea South Korea
Park Geun-hye Geun-hye
President President
2013-2017 2013-2017
Thailand Thailand
Yingluck Yingluck Shinawatra
Prime Minister Prime Minister
2011-2014 2011-2014
Turks and Caicos Islands Turks and Caicos Islands
Sharlene Sharlene Cartwright-
Premier Premier
2016–2021 2016–2021
Robinson
United Kingdom United Kingdom
Theresa Theresa May
Prime Minister Prime Minister
2016-2019 2016-2019
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using media reports, the Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using media reports, the Encyclopedia Britannica, and , and
the BBC. the BBC.
Notes: Surnames appear in bold face. Surnames appear in bold face.
a. Aung San Suu Kyi, head of the National League for Democracy (NLD), the largest party in Burma’s national a. Aung San Suu Kyi, head of the National League for Democracy (NLD), the largest party in Burma’s national
legislature, was selected by the parliament as State Counsellor in April 2016 and was recognized as the de legislature, was selected by the parliament as State Counsellor in April 2016 and was recognized as the de
facto leader of the civilian side of Burma’s government. Fol owing elections in November 2020, in which the facto leader of the civilian side of Burma’s government. Fol owing elections in November 2020, in which the
NLD won 83% of the contested seats in parliament, the party, with Aung San Suu Kyi at its head, was set to NLD won 83% of the contested seats in parliament, the party, with Aung San Suu Kyi at its head, was set to
begin a new session of government on February 2, 2021. However, on February 1, 2021 the Burmese begin a new session of government on February 2, 2021. However, on February 1, 2021 the Burmese
military staged a coup, detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other leaders of the civilian government, declaring a military staged a coup, detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other leaders of the civilian government, declaring a
state of emergency, and installing Senior General Min Aung Hlaing as head of the government. For more state of emergency, and installing Senior General Min Aung Hlaing as head of the government. For more
information, see CRS Insight IN11594, information, see CRS Insight IN11594, Coup in Burma (Myanmar): Issues for U.S. Policy, by Ben Dolven and , by Ben Dolven and
Kirt Smith. Kirt Smith.
Women Leaders of the 20th Century
Table 8 identifies several notable female executives who held office in the 20th century. identifies several notable female executives who held office in the 20th century.
Table 8. Selected Women Executives, from 1960 to 2000
Executives are listed from the earliest to the latest years in office Executives are listed from the earliest to the latest years in office
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka
Sirimavo Sirimavo Bandaranaike
Prime Minister Prime Minister
1960-1965; 1970-1977; 1960-1965; 1970-1977;
1994-2000 1994-2000
Bandaranaike was the world’s first female Prime Minister Bandaranaike was the world’s first female Prime Minister
India India
Indira Indira Gandhi
Prime Minister Prime Minister
1966-1977 and 1980-1984 1966-1977 and 1980-1984
Gandhi was assassinated while in office; she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv. Gandhi was assassinated while in office; she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv.
Israel Israel
Golda Golda Meir
Prime Minister Prime Minister
1969-1974 1969-1974
Meir and her husband immigrated to then Palestine in 1921. She was a founder of the State of Israel and the fourth Meir and her husband immigrated to then Palestine in 1921. She was a founder of the State of Israel and the fourth
prime minister. prime minister.
Argentina Argentina
Isabel Martinez de Isabel Martinez de Perón
President President
1974-1976 1974-1976
Perón was world’s first female president when, as vice president, she succeed her husband, President Juan Perón, Perón was world’s first female president when, as vice president, she succeed her husband, President Juan Perón,
upon his death. upon his death.
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Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
United Kingdom United Kingdom
Margaret Margaret Thatcher
Prime Minister Prime Minister
1979-1990 1979-1990
Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in Europe and was the only British prime minister in the 20th Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in Europe and was the only British prime minister in the 20th
century to be elected to three consecutive terms. century to be elected to three consecutive terms.
Iceland Iceland
Vigdis Vigdis Finnbogadottir
President President
1980-1996 1980-1996
Philippines Philippines
Corazon Corazon Aquino
President President
1986-1992 1986-1992
Pakistan Pakistan
Benazir Benazir Bhutto
Prime Minister Prime Minister
1988-1990 and 1993-1996 1988-1990 and 1993-1996
In January 1990, Bhutto became the first prime minister to give birth while in office. In January 1990, Bhutto became the first prime minister to give birth while in office.
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using news and other sources, such as the Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using news and other sources, such as the
Encyclopedia Britannica and and Gale Biography in Context. .
Note: Surnames appear in bold face. Surnames appear in bold face.
Violence Against Women in Politics
Some experts and observers have found that, while any candidate or elected politician may Some experts and observers have found that, while any candidate or elected politician may
experience violence, women politicians can be targeted because of their gender and subjected to experience violence, women politicians can be targeted because of their gender and subjected to
sexist threats, sexual harassment, and violence.9 Violence may occur during the registration and sexist threats, sexual harassment, and violence.9 Violence may occur during the registration and
voting processes, while campaigning and running for office, and when serving in a government.10 voting processes, while campaigning and running for office, and when serving in a government.10
Perpetrators may include both state and non-state actors, such as members of political parties, Perpetrators may include both state and non-state actors, such as members of political parties,
other parliamentarians, members of the public, media representatives, and religious or community other parliamentarians, members of the public, media representatives, and religious or community
leaders.11 leaders.11
Underreporting incidents of violence against women in politics makes addressing the issue Underreporting incidents of violence against women in politics makes addressing the issue
particularly challenging. Information about the problem tends to be anecdotal rather than particularly challenging. Information about the problem tends to be anecdotal rather than
statistical, making it difficult to determine the extent and prevalence of the problem. In addition, statistical, making it difficult to determine the extent and prevalence of the problem. In addition,
many women may be reluctant to report violence out of the belief that doing so may limit a many women may be reluctant to report violence out of the belief that doing so may limit a
woman’s political aspirations, and out of fear of reprisals, threats, and possible increased woman’s political aspirations, and out of fear of reprisals, threats, and possible increased
harassment.12 harassment.12
Figure 3 indicates the prevalence of attacks of “political violence targeting women” (PVTW) indicates the prevalence of attacks of “political violence targeting women” (PVTW)
made on women participating in various functions in the political process. Trends in this figure made on women participating in various functions in the political process. Trends in this figure
reflect data gathered periodically from women in 190 countries from January 1997 to January reflect data gathered periodically from women in 190 countries from January 1997 to January
2020. Globally, women 2020. Globally, women candidates for office, whether for local, regional, or national government, , whether for local, regional, or national government,
experience up to 8% of PVTW attacks, while female experience up to 8% of PVTW attacks, while female politicians, those women currently serving , those women currently serving
in an elected governmental position, experience 12% of PVTW attacks. in an elected governmental position, experience 12% of PVTW attacks. Political party
supporters
, such as women who campaign and actively support a political party or candidate, face , such as women who campaign and actively support a political party or candidate, face

9 An article in the 9 An article in the Journal of Democracy noted that actions to threaten, intimidate, or harass women who are noted that actions to threaten, intimidate, or harass women who are
participating in the political process are attempts to “deter women’s electoral participation, and reinforce prevailing participating in the political process are attempts to “deter women’s electoral participation, and reinforce prevailing
gender norms.” Such activities “should thus be seen as a serious threat and affront to democracy.” See Mona Lena gender norms.” Such activities “should thus be seen as a serious threat and affront to democracy.” See Mona Lena
Krook, “Violence Against Women in Politics,” Krook, “Violence Against Women in Politics,” Journal of Democracy, January 2017, p. 74-75. The Kofi Annan , January 2017, p. 74-75. The Kofi Annan
Foundation cited research that determined “general political violence occurred against both men and women,” but that Foundation cited research that determined “general political violence occurred against both men and women,” but that
women were “much more likely to experience sexualized forms of violence.” See Carmen Alanis, women were “much more likely to experience sexualized forms of violence.” See Carmen Alanis, Violence Against
Women in Politics
, Kofi Annan Foundation, November 2020, p. 31. , Kofi Annan Foundation, November 2020, p. 31.
10 10 Violence against Women in Politics, A/73/301, Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on violence against , A/73/301, Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on violence against
women, its cause and consequences, August 6, 2018, page 9, paragraph 33, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301. women, its cause and consequences, August 6, 2018, page 9, paragraph 33, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301.
11 11 Violence against Women in Politics, page 6, paragraph 15, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301. , page 6, paragraph 15, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301.
12 UN Women, “Data and Violence Against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations,” 12 UN Women, “Data and Violence Against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations,”
December 4-5, 2019, pp. 9, 13. December 4-5, 2019, pp. 9, 13.
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24% of PVTW attacks, while women 24% of PVTW attacks, while women voters undergo 2% of PVTW attacks. undergo 2% of PVTW attacks. Government officials, ,
women who work in nonelected government positions, including public and civil servants, women who work in nonelected government positions, including public and civil servants,
experience up to 16% of PVTW attacks. The largest group of women in public life, who experience up to 16% of PVTW attacks. The largest group of women in public life, who
experience 38% of PVTW attacks, includes experience 38% of PVTW attacks, includes activists, human rights defenders, and social
leaders
.13 .13
Figure 3. Trends in Political Violence Targeting Women, by Role in Political Process

Source: CRS, based on information from CRS, based on information from Violence Targeting Women in Politics: Trends in Targets, Types, and
Perpetrators of Political Violence
, the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021, , the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021,
pp.4-7, at https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-pp.4-7, at https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-
perpetrators-of-political-violence/. perpetrators-of-political-violence/.
Notes: Data on violence targeting women in politics are restricted to acts of physical violence that take place in Data on violence targeting women in politics are restricted to acts of physical violence that take place in
a public setting on women who engage in the political process. This does not include acts of bul ying or a public setting on women who engage in the political process. This does not include acts of bul ying or
intimidation, cases of domestic violence, or aggressive actions on social media or other online settings. intimidation, cases of domestic violence, or aggressive actions on social media or other online settings.
Figure 3 summarizes the aggregate of all data compiled and analyzed by the Armed Conflict Location & Event summarizes the aggregate of all data compiled and analyzed by the Armed Conflict Location & Event
Data Project (ACLED). ACLED began col ecting data on 48 African counties in 1997 and has since added more Data Project (ACLED). ACLED began col ecting data on 48 African counties in 1997 and has since added more
than 200 countries and territories. than 200 countries and territories.
In October 2016, the IPU published the results of a survey of 55 women legislators from 39 In October 2016, the IPU published the results of a survey of 55 women legislators from 39
countries on their experiences of harassment, intimidation, or violence based on their gender.14 countries on their experiences of harassment, intimidation, or violence based on their gender.14
Tables 9 to to 12 illustrate the findings of this survey. Broadly, almost 82% of the women surveyed illustrate the findings of this survey. Broadly, almost 82% of the women surveyed
reported they had personally experienced psychological violence, almost 22% reported incidents reported they had personally experienced psychological violence, almost 22% reported incidents
of sexual violence, 25.5% reported experiencing physical violence, and almost 33% had been of sexual violence, 25.5% reported experiencing physical violence, and almost 33% had been
subjected to economic violence. subjected to economic violence.

13 Kishi, Roudabeh, 13 Kishi, Roudabeh, Violence Targeting Women in Politics: Trends in Targets, Types, and Perpetrators of Political
Violence
, the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021, pp.4-7, at , the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021, pp.4-7, at
https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-perpetrators-of-https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-perpetrators-of-
political-violence/. political-violence/.
14 14 Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union, October 2016, at , Inter-Parliamentary Union, October 2016, at
https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download. Survey participants included 18 from Africa, 15 from Europe, 10 from the https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download. Survey participants included 18 from Africa, 15 from Europe, 10 from the
Asia-Pacific region, 8 from the Americas, and 4 from Arab countries. Asia-Pacific region, 8 from the Americas, and 4 from Arab countries.
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Table 9. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Women Legislators
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries 2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries

% of Respondents Answering “Yes”
“Have you
witnessed acts of
this violence
committed
“Have you been
against one or
subject to one or
more of your
more acts of this
female
Type of Violence
kind of violence?”
colleagues?”
Psychological violence (see (see Table 10 for details) for details)
81.8% 81.8%
78.1% 78.1%
Sexual violence (e.g., sexual harassment; efforts to force sexual (e.g., sexual harassment; efforts to force sexual
relations inappropriate and unwanted gestures or physical relations inappropriate and unwanted gestures or physical
contact; requests for sexual relations in exchange for material or contact; requests for sexual relations in exchange for material or
21.8% 21.8%
32.7% 32.7%
political advantages political advantages
Physical violence (e.g., actions that inflict or attempt to inflict (e.g., actions that inflict or attempt to inflict
bodily injury to a legislator, or to friends or members of her bodily injury to a legislator, or to friends or members of her
25.5% 25.5%
20.0% 20.0%
family) family)
Economic violence (e.g., denied funds and other resources that (e.g., denied funds and other resources that
legislators are entitled to such as salary, offices, computers, staff, legislators are entitled to such as salary, offices, computers, staff,
32.7% 32.7%
30.9% 30.9%
security; damage to or destruction of personal property) security; damage to or destruction of personal property)
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), , Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download. October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download.
Note: Definitions of the various kinds of violence are included in the report of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. Definitions of the various kinds of violence are included in the report of the Inter-Parliamentary Union.
The 81.8% of respondents i The 81.8% of respondents in Table 9 who reported they had experienced psychological violence who reported they had experienced psychological violence
identified the manifestations of this violence iidentified the manifestations of this violence in Table 10.
Table 10. Psychological Violence: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 81.8% of respondents who reported they had experienced psychological Behaviors described by the 81.8% of respondents who reported they had experienced psychological
violence, as noted in violence, as noted in Table 9
% of Respondents Who Had
Actions of Psychological Violence
Experienced These Actions
Humiliating sexual or sexist remarks Humiliating sexual or sexist remarks
65.5% 65.5%
Images or disrespectful comments with sexual connotations about you in the Images or disrespectful comments with sexual connotations about you in the
27.3% 27.3%
traditional media traditional media

Extremely humiliating or sexual images of you distributed through social Extremely humiliating or sexual images of you distributed through social
41.8% 41.8%
media media
Threats of death, rape, beatings, or abduction Threats of death, rape, beatings, or abduction
44.4% 44.4%
Harassment (e.g. exposure to insistent and uninvited behavior, including Harassment (e.g. exposure to insistent and uninvited behavior, including
unwanted attention, unwelcome verbal contact, or interaction that may have unwanted attention, unwelcome verbal contact, or interaction that may have
32.7% 32.7%
frightened you) frightened you)
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), , Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 3. October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 3.
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Table 11 lists several factors identified in the IPU study that may make some women legislators a lists several factors identified in the IPU study that may make some women legislators a
likely target for gender-based intolerance. likely target for gender-based intolerance.
Table 11. Risk Factors for Women Legislators
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries 2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
Reasons for Violence, as reported by women legislators subjected to
% of Survey
gender-based violent acts and behavior
Respondents
Intention to dissuade them and other women from participating in politics Intention to dissuade them and other women from participating in politics
61.5% 61.5%
Political rivalry Political rivalry
41.7% 41.7%
Positions of women legislators on specific issues Positions of women legislators on specific issues
60.5% 60.5%
Additional risk factors that appear to lead to violence against women in legislatures include being a member of the Additional risk factors that appear to lead to violence against women in legislatures include being a member of the
political minority, being under the age of 40, and belonging to a minority ethnic, religious, or other marginalized political minority, being under the age of 40, and belonging to a minority ethnic, religious, or other marginalized
social group. social group.
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), , Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 6. October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 6.
Table 12 identifies how women legislators have reacted to the acts of violence they experienced. identifies how women legislators have reacted to the acts of violence they experienced.
Table 12. Effects of Violence Against Women in Politics
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries 2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
% of Survey
Reactions of Women in Politics Subjected to Violent Acts
Respondents
Distressed over the experience Distressed over the experience
66.7% 66.7%
Concerned for the security of themselves, their friends, and family members Concerned for the security of themselves, their friends, and family members
46.7% 46.7%
Felt weakened in their ability to complete their mandates and to express their Felt weakened in their ability to complete their mandates and to express their
opinions opinions
38.7% 38.7%
Reported incidents to the legislative security services or the police Reported incidents to the legislative security services or the police
51.7% 51.7%
Strengthened their determination as a legislator Strengthened their determination as a legislator
80.0% 80.0%
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), , Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 7. October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 7.

Acknowledgements
Sandra Delaney, former CRS Summer Intern, and Jennifer Roscoe, former CRS Research Sandra Delaney, former CRS Summer Intern, and Jennifer Roscoe, former CRS Research
Assistant, helped in gathering data and presenting key points. Assistant, helped in gathering data and presenting key points.


Author Information

Susan G. Chesser Susan G. Chesser

Senior Research Librarian Senior Research Librarian

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Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet




Disclaimer
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