Women in National Governments Around the
April
April
46, 2022 , 2022
Globe: Fact Sheet
Susan G. Chesser
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are
Senior Research Librarian
Senior Research Librarian
underrepresented in the political process at the national level. As this report shows, women
underrepresented in the political process at the national level. As this report shows, women
currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an increase from 14.2% of legislative
currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an increase from 14.2% of legislative
seats in 2002 (seeseats in 2002 (see
Figure 1). As of March 1, 2022, women held 50% or more of the legislative . As of March 1, 2022, women held 50% or more of the legislative
seats in four countries: Rwanda, Cuba, Nicaragua, and the United Arab Emirates (see
seats in four countries: Rwanda, Cuba, Nicaragua, and the United Arab Emirates (see
Table 3). .
At the executive level, 29 countries plus the special administrative region Hong Kong currently have an elected female head At the executive level, 29 countries plus the special administrative region Hong Kong currently have an elected female head
of state or government (seeof state or government (see
Table 6). Since 1960, more than 140 women have been elected or appointed as head of the . Since 1960, more than 140 women have been elected or appointed as head of the
national government in at least 70 countries. national government in at least 70 countries.
This report provides an overview of women’s roles in national governments and looks at suffrage, representation at the
This report provides an overview of women’s roles in national governments and looks at suffrage, representation at the
legislative and executive levels, gender quotas, and violence against women in elections. legislative and executive levels, gender quotas, and violence against women in elections.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 15 link to page 16 link to page 19 link to page 11 link to page 12 link to page 17 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 18 link to page 18 link to page 19 link to page 19 link to page 19
link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 15 link to page 16 link to page 19 link to page 11 link to page 12 link to page 17 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 18 link to page 18 link to page 19 link to page 19 link to page 19
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Overview of Congressional Actions ................................................................................................ 1
Selected Tables and Statistics .......................................................................................................... 2
Voting Rights ............................................................................................................................. 2
Legislative Representation ........................................................................................................ 3
Gender Quotas .................................................................................................................... 4
Executive Representation .......................................................................................................... 9
Women Leaders in the 21st Century .................................................................................... 9
Women Leaders of the 20th Century.................................................................................. 12
Violence Against Women in Politics ....................................................................................... 13
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. 16
Figures
Figure 1. Worldwide Percentage of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures ...................... 8
Figure 2. Regional Percentages of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures ....................... 9
Figure 3. Trends in Political Violence Targeting Women, by Role in Political Process ................ 14
Tables
Table 1. First Countries to Allow Women to Vote ........................................................................... 3
Table 2. Most Recent Countries to Allow Women to Vote .............................................................. 3
Table 3. National Legislatures with Women Holding 40% or More of Total Seats......................... 4
Table 4. Women in National Legislatures of G-20 Countries .......................................................... 6
Table 5. Countries Where Women Hold 7% or Less of Total Legislative Seats.............................. 7
Table 6. Current Women Executives ............................................................................................. 10
Table 7. Selected Women Executives No Longer in Office ........................................................... 11
Table 8. Selected Women Executives, from 1960 to 2000 ............................................................ 12
Table 9. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Women Legislators ........................... 15
Table 10. Psychological Violence: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors ........................................... 15
Table 11. Risk Factors for Women Legislators .............................................................................. 16
Table 12. Effects of Violence Against Women in Politics ............................................................. 16
Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 16
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
link to page 11 link to page 7 link to page 13
link to page 11 link to page 7 link to page 13
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Introduction
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are
underrepresented in the political process at the national level. Possible causes include underrepresented in the political process at the national level. Possible causes include
discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to
health care, and the disproportionate effect of poverty on women. Many experts, including some health care, and the disproportionate effect of poverty on women. Many experts, including some
U.S. policymakers and Members of Congress, have found that women’s political participation, U.S. policymakers and Members of Congress, have found that women’s political participation,
including representation in elected governments, contributes to the overall well-being of women including representation in elected governments, contributes to the overall well-being of women
and their communities.1 and their communities.1
As this report shows, women currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an
As this report shows, women currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an
increase from 14.2% of such seats in 2002 (seeincrease from 14.2% of such seats in 2002 (see
Figure 1). As of March 1, 2022, women held 50% . As of March 1, 2022, women held 50%
or more of the legislative seats in four countries: Cuba, Nicaragua, Rwanda, and the United Arab or more of the legislative seats in four countries: Cuba, Nicaragua, Rwanda, and the United Arab
Emirates (seeEmirates (see
Table 3). At the national executive level, 29 countries and the special . At the national executive level, 29 countries and the special
administrative region Hong Kong currently have a female chief of state or head of government administrative region Hong Kong currently have a female chief of state or head of government
who won an election or was selected by elected bodies (seewho won an election or was selected by elected bodies (see
Table 6). Since 1960, more than 140 . Since 1960, more than 140
women have been elected or appointed by elected bodies as the executive in at least 70 countries.2 women have been elected or appointed by elected bodies as the executive in at least 70 countries.2
This report provides a global snapshot of women’s political participation in national governments
This report provides a global snapshot of women’s political participation in national governments
worldwide by compiling statistics and other information from a variety of sources, including the worldwide by compiling statistics and other information from a variety of sources, including the
annual annual
Global Gender Gap Report issued by the World Economic Forum, the Inter-Parliamentary issued by the World Economic Forum, the Inter-Parliamentary
Union, the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, the CIA Union, the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, the CIA
World
Factbook, news reports, and other sources. , news reports, and other sources.
Overview of Congressional Actions
Over the years, Members of Congress have enacted or introduced legislation that, either directly Over the years, Members of Congress have enacted or introduced legislation that, either directly
or indirectly, addresses women’s political participation around the world. For example, from or indirectly, addresses women’s political participation around the world. For example, from
FY2014 through FY2022, a provision in Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related FY2014 through FY2022, a provision in Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related
Programs (SFOPS) Appropriations Acts appropriated funds for women’s leadership. Most Programs (SFOPS) Appropriations Acts appropriated funds for women’s leadership. Most
recently, the FY2022 SFOPS bill states recently, the FY2022 SFOPS bill states
not less than $50,000,000 shall be made available for programs specifically designed to
not less than $50,000,000 shall be made available for programs specifically designed to
increase leadership opportunities for women in countries where women and girls suffer increase leadership opportunities for women in countries where women and girls suffer
discrimination due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s discrimination due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s
political status, expanding women’s participation in political parties and elections, and political status, expanding women’s participation in political parties and elections, and
increasing women’s opportunities for leadership positions in the public and private sectors increasing women’s opportunities for leadership positions in the public and private sectors
at the local, provincial, and national levels.3 at the local, provincial, and national levels.3
Members have also enacted laws that address aspects and issues related to women’s participation
Members have also enacted laws that address aspects and issues related to women’s participation
in national governments. For example, the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, among other in national governments. For example, the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, among other
things, aims to increase the participation of women in conflict prevention and conflict resolution things, aims to increase the participation of women in conflict prevention and conflict resolution
1 For example, see U.N. document A/RES/66/130, 1 For example, see U.N. document A/RES/66/130,
Women and Political Participation, adopted December 19, 2011. , adopted December 19, 2011.
Also see U.S. Department of State’s Office of Global Women’s Issues, “the meaningful participation of women in Also see U.S. Department of State’s Office of Global Women’s Issues, “the meaningful participation of women in
political, economic, and public life is critical to building and sustaining representative societies.... Increasing political, economic, and public life is critical to building and sustaining representative societies.... Increasing
opportunities for women and girls’ leadership across sectors leads to building stronger and more prosperous societies.” opportunities for women and girls’ leadership across sectors leads to building stronger and more prosperous societies.”
(Office of Global Women’s Issues, Cross-Cutting Issues, Women’s Leadership at https://www.state.gov/cross-cutting-(Office of Global Women’s Issues, Cross-Cutting Issues, Women’s Leadership at https://www.state.gov/cross-cutting-
issues/#wl.) issues/#wl.)
2
2
The Global Gender Gap Report 2021, prepared by The World Economic Forum, March 30, 2021, at , prepared by The World Economic Forum, March 30, 2021, at
https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021. https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021.
3 P.L. 116-260, Division K, Title VII, Section 7059.
3 P.L. 116-260, Division K, Title VII, Section 7059.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
1
1
link to page 6 link to page 6
link to page 6 link to page 6
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
processes as a means to build more inclusive societies and to help stabilize countries and regions.
processes as a means to build more inclusive societies and to help stabilize countries and regions.
The act expresses the sense of Congress that “the political participation, and leadership of women The act expresses the sense of Congress that “the political participation, and leadership of women
in fragile environments, particularly during democratic transitions, is critical to sustaining lasting in fragile environments, particularly during democratic transitions, is critical to sustaining lasting
democratic institutions.”4 democratic institutions.”4
In the 117th Congress, some Members have proposed legislation addressing aspects of women’s
In the 117th Congress, some Members have proposed legislation addressing aspects of women’s
political participation. For example, the House and Senate versions of the Girls LEAD Act bills5 political participation. For example, the House and Senate versions of the Girls LEAD Act bills5
require the Department of State and the United States Agency for International development require the Department of State and the United States Agency for International development
(USAID) to develop strategies and programs to promote adolescents’ participation, particularly (USAID) to develop strategies and programs to promote adolescents’ participation, particularly
that of girls, in the political processes and civil society of their countries. From a country-specific that of girls, in the political processes and civil society of their countries. From a country-specific
perspective, H.R. 116, the Equal Rights and Access for the Women of South Sudan Act, perspective, H.R. 116, the Equal Rights and Access for the Women of South Sudan Act,
acknowledges that the government of South Sudan has taken steps to include women in the acknowledges that the government of South Sudan has taken steps to include women in the
legislative assembly and calls for additional support from the United States to reinforce these legislative assembly and calls for additional support from the United States to reinforce these
steps.6 steps.6
Selected Tables and Statistics
Voting Rights
The right to vote is a primary step toward involving a populace in the political decisions of a The right to vote is a primary step toward involving a populace in the political decisions of a
government. In many countries, voting rights were originally granted only to adult men who government. In many countries, voting rights were originally granted only to adult men who
owned property, then were eventually expanded to include all adult male citizens regardless of owned property, then were eventually expanded to include all adult male citizens regardless of
property ownership, then to women, and finally to other underrepresented groups. Definitions of property ownership, then to women, and finally to other underrepresented groups. Definitions of
what constituted a “citizen” may also have changed over time, as they did in the United States, what constituted a “citizen” may also have changed over time, as they did in the United States,
and become more inclusive of minorities and indigenous peoples. In contrast, other countries and become more inclusive of minorities and indigenous peoples. In contrast, other countries
enacted universal suffrage from their very founding, granting the right to vote to all adults, male enacted universal suffrage from their very founding, granting the right to vote to all adults, male
and female, regardless of ethnicity, religion, economic standing, or other criteria. and female, regardless of ethnicity, religion, economic standing, or other criteria.
Table 1 and Table 2, respectively, list the first and latest countries to extend the right and duty of respectively, list the first and latest countries to extend the right and duty of
voting to women. Although subnational regions (e.g., states, provinces) may have granted the voting to women. Although subnational regions (e.g., states, provinces) may have granted the
right to vote earlier, the years in the tables below indicate when suffrage was extended for right to vote earlier, the years in the tables below indicate when suffrage was extended for
national elections to female adult citizens. national elections to female adult citizens.
4 This act is referenced in both P.L. 116-94 and P.L. 116-260, which include statements that “the Secretary of State 4 This act is referenced in both P.L. 116-94 and P.L. 116-260, which include statements that “the Secretary of State
shall promote” the participation of Afghan women in peace and reconciliation processes in the country “in a manner shall promote” the participation of Afghan women in peace and reconciliation processes in the country “in a manner
consistent with the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017.” consistent with the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017.”
5 H.R. 1661 and S. 634. 5 H.R. 1661 and S. 634.
6 The Girls LEAD Act bills introduced in the 117th Congress are H.R. 1661 and S. 634. The Equal Rights and Access 6 The Girls LEAD Act bills introduced in the 117th Congress are H.R. 1661 and S. 634. The Equal Rights and Access
for the Women of South Sudan Act is H.R. 116. S. 2878 would provide statutory authority for an Office of Global for the Women of South Sudan Act is H.R. 116. S. 2878 would provide statutory authority for an Office of Global
Women’s Issues within the Department of State in order to advance foreign policy and international programs aimed at Women’s Issues within the Department of State in order to advance foreign policy and international programs aimed at
increasing opportunities for women and girls, including in the political processes. H.Res. 801 acknowledges that increasing opportunities for women and girls, including in the political processes. H.Res. 801 acknowledges that
violence against women in politics is a global phenomenon and recognizes it as a form of gender-based violence. The violence against women in politics is a global phenomenon and recognizes it as a form of gender-based violence. The
resolution urges the U.S. government to adopt policies to encourage women’s political participation while mitigating resolution urges the U.S. government to adopt policies to encourage women’s political participation while mitigating
online and in person violence against these women. online and in person violence against these women.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
2
2
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Table 1. First Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year
Country(ies)
Year
Country(ies)
1893
1893
New Zealand
New Zealand
1917
1917
Canada*
Canada*
Austria, Estonia, Georgia,
Austria, Estonia, Georgia,
Germany, Hungary, Germany, Hungary,
Ireland,* Kyrgyz Republic, Ireland,* Kyrgyz Republic,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,
1902
1902
Australia*
Australia*
1918
1918
Russia, United Kingdom*
Russia, United Kingdom*
Belarus, Belgium,*
Belarus, Belgium,*
Luxembourg, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Sweden,* Netherlands, Sweden,*
1906
1906
Finland
Finland
1919
1919
Ukraine
Ukraine
Albania, Czech Republic,
Albania, Czech Republic,
Iceland,** Slovak Republic, Iceland,** Slovak Republic,
1913
1913
Norway
Norway
1920
1920
United States
United States
Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Armenia, Azerbaijan,
1915
1915
Denmark, Iceland*
Denmark, Iceland*
1921
1921
Sweden**
Sweden**
Source: The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm.
Notes: Some countries granted suffrage in stages, at first denying the right to women of certain racial, ethnic, or Some countries granted suffrage in stages, at first denying the right to women of certain racial, ethnic, or
economic groups. One asterisk (*) indicates the first year female citizens were allowed to vote in national economic groups. One asterisk (*) indicates the first year female citizens were allowed to vote in national
elections with limitations; two asterisks (**) indicate when those limitations were removed. No asterisk indicates elections with limitations; two asterisks (**) indicate when those limitations were removed. No asterisk indicates
there were no restrictions and all female adult citizens were granted the right to vote. there were no restrictions and all female adult citizens were granted the right to vote.
Table 2. Most Recent Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year
Country(ies)
2003
2003
Indonesia, Qatar
Indonesia, Qatar
2005
2005
Kuwait
Kuwait
Montenegro, United Arab
Montenegro, United Arab
2006
2006
Emirates
Emirates
2008
2008
Bhutan
Bhutan
2011
2011
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
Sources: Inter-Parliamentary Union at https://data.ipu.org/compare?field=Inter-Parliamentary Union at https://data.ipu.org/compare?field=
country%3Afield_suffrage%3Afield_right_to_vote#map; Pamela Paxton and Melanie M. Hughes, country%3Afield_suffrage%3Afield_right_to_vote#map; Pamela Paxton and Melanie M. Hughes,
Women, Politics,
and Power: A Global Perspective, 2nd edition, SAGE Publications, 2014, p. 50-51; and the CIA , 2nd edition, SAGE Publications, 2014, p. 50-51; and the CIA
World Factbook on on
Suffrage, at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/suffrage/; “‘Surprise and Excitement’: Saudi Women Suffrage, at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/suffrage/; “‘Surprise and Excitement’: Saudi Women
React to Voting Rights Decision,” NPR, September 26, 2011, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2011/09/React to Voting Rights Decision,” NPR, September 26, 2011, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2011/09/
26/140819859/surprise-and-excitement-saudi-women-react-to-voting-rights-decision. 26/140819859/surprise-and-excitement-saudi-women-react-to-voting-rights-decision.
Note: Newly independent countries (Kosovo, South Sudan, etc.) would be included only if women had not been Newly independent countries (Kosovo, South Sudan, etc.) would be included only if women had not been
granted suffrage under the preceding country. For example, because Sudan granted women the right to vote in granted suffrage under the preceding country. For example, because Sudan granted women the right to vote in
1964, South Sudan is not included in this list, even though it did not gain independence until 2011. 1964, South Sudan is not included in this list, even though it did not gain independence until 2011.
Legislative Representation
The following tables highlight women’s representation based in national legislatures, including The following tables highlight women’s representation based in national legislatures, including
data on quotas. Several countries and political parties have instituted quotas to ensure that women data on quotas. Several countries and political parties have instituted quotas to ensure that women
are represented on the ballot or in the legislature, which may affect the statistics on women’s are represented on the ballot or in the legislature, which may affect the statistics on women’s
representation in national governments. Some governments also may use quotas to ensure ethnic representation in national governments. Some governments also may use quotas to ensure ethnic
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
3
3
link to page 7 link to page 8 link to page 8
link to page 7 link to page 8 link to page 8
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
or religious diversity in the national legislature of some countries (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina,
or religious diversity in the national legislature of some countries (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Iraq). Iraq).
Gender Quotas
The
The
Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas explains that “[g]ender quotas are numerical targets that explains that “[g]ender quotas are numerical targets that
stipulate the number or percentage of women that must be included in a candidate list or the stipulate the number or percentage of women that must be included in a candidate list or the
number of seats to be allocated to women in a legislature. They aim to reverse discrimination in number of seats to be allocated to women in a legislature. They aim to reverse discrimination in
law and practice and to level the playing field for women and men in politics.” law and practice and to level the playing field for women and men in politics.”
The Atlas further further
states that “gender quotas have proved to be the single most effective tool for ‘fast-tracking’ states that “gender quotas have proved to be the single most effective tool for ‘fast-tracking’
women’s representation in elected bodies of government.”7 women’s representation in elected bodies of government.”7
Three main types of gender quotas are generally recognized, and they may be used at the national
Three main types of gender quotas are generally recognized, and they may be used at the national
or subnational level, or both: or subnational level, or both:
Legislated candidate quotas. These quotas are mandated through national These quotas are mandated through national
constitutions or legislation to regulate the gender composition of the ballot.
constitutions or legislation to regulate the gender composition of the ballot.
Legislated “reserved seats.” These quotas reserve a specific number or These quotas reserve a specific number or
percentage of seats in the legislature for women members. The quotas are
percentage of seats in the legislature for women members. The quotas are
mandated through national constitutions or legislation and are implemented mandated through national constitutions or legislation and are implemented
through special electoral procedures. through special electoral procedures.
Party quotas (also known as voluntary party quotas). Individual political Individual political
parties may adopt these quotas through the party’s statutes and rules. Such
parties may adopt these quotas through the party’s statutes and rules. Such
adoption is the prerogative of each party, and some parties in a country may adoption is the prerogative of each party, and some parties in a country may
adopt quotas while other parties choose not to do so. adopt quotas while other parties choose not to do so.
Table 3 lists the countries where women hold 40% or more of the total seats of the national lists the countries where women hold 40% or more of the total seats of the national
legislative chamber body. legislative chamber body.
Table 3. National Legislatures with Women Holding 40% or More of Total Seats
As of March 1, 2022
As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
1
1
Rwanda
Rwanda
Bicameral
Bicameral
RS
RS
106
106
58
58
54.7
54.7
2
2
Cuba
Cuba
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
586
586
313
313
53.4
53.4
3
3
Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ
CQ
, PQ
91
91
46
46
50.5
50.5
United Arab
United Arab
4
4
Unicameral
Unicameral
RS
RS
40
40
20
20
50.0
50.0
Emirates
Emirates
5
5
Mexico
Mexico
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
628
628
313
313
49.8
49.8
6
6
New Zealand
New Zealand
Unicameral
Unicameral
PQ
PQ
120
120
59
59
49.2
49.2
7
7
Bolivia
Bolivia
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
166
166
80
80
48.2
48.2
8
8
Iceland
Iceland
Unicameral
Unicameral
PQ
PQ
63
63
30
30
47.6
47.6
9
9
Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
57
57
27
27
47.4
47.4
7 The 7 The
Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas was a joint project of the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral was a joint project of the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral
Assistance (IDEA), the Inter-Parliamentary Union, and Stockholm University, published in June 2014, p. 16, available Assistance (IDEA), the Inter-Parliamentary Union, and Stockholm University, published in June 2014, p. 16, available
at https://www.idea.int/publications/catalogue/atlas-electoral-gender-quotas?lang=en. at https://www.idea.int/publications/catalogue/atlas-electoral-gender-quotas?lang=en.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
4
4
link to page 8 link to page 8 link to page 9 link to page 7
link to page 8 link to page 8 link to page 9 link to page 7
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
10
10
Andorra
Andorra
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
28
28
13
13
46.4
46.4
11
11
Sweden
Sweden
Unicameral
Unicameral
PQ
PQ
349
349
161
161
46.1
46.1
12
12
South Africa
South Africa
Bicameral
Bicameral
PQ
PQ
450
450
205
205
45.6
45.6
13
13
Finland
Finland
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
200
200
91
91
45.5
45.5
14
14
Norway
Norway
Unicameral
Unicameral
PQ
PQ
169
169
76
76
45.0
45.0
15
15
Argentina
Argentina
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
329
329
146
146
44.4
44.4
16
16
Belgium
Belgium
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ
CQ
210
210
92
92
43.8
43.8
17
17
Senegal
Senegal
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ
CQ
164
164
70
70
42.7
42.7
18
18
Mozambique
Mozambique
Unicameral
Unicameral
PQ
PQ
250
250
106
106
42.4
42.4
North
North
19
19
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
120
120
50
50
41.7
41.7
Macedonia
Macedonia
20
20
Austria
Austria
Bicameral
Bicameral
No QuotaPQ
244
244
101
101
41.4
41.4
21
21
Spain
Spain
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
614
614
254
254
41.4
41.4
22
22
Moldova
Moldova
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ
CQ
101
101
41
41
40.6
40.6
23
23
Peru
Peru
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ
CQ
130
130
52
52
40.0
40.0
24
24
Serbia
Serbia
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ
CQ
250
250
100
100
40.0
40.0
25
25
Timor-Leste
Timor-Leste
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ
CQ
65
65
26
26
40.0
40.0
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022. Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
Notes: The selected countries listed here include those countries identified by the Inter-Parliamentary Union The selected countries listed here include those countries identified by the Inter-Parliamentary Union
(IPU) where women hold 40% or more of the total seats in the national legislative chamber(s). (IPU) where women hold 40% or more of the total seats in the national legislative chamber(s).
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022. ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; Sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; Sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the
Gender Quotas Database. Gender Quotas Database.
Table 4 shows the number of seats held by women in the national legislative chambers of the 19 shows the number of seats held by women in the national legislative chambers of the 19
nation members of the G-20 (excluding the European Union). Currently, women hold 40% or nation members of the G-20 (excluding the European Union). Currently, women hold 40% or
more of the total seats in the national legislatures of three G-20 countries (Mexico, South Africa, more of the total seats in the national legislatures of three G-20 countries (Mexico, South Africa,
and Argentina), and these countries appear in botand Argentina), and these countries appear in bot
h Table 3 and and
Table 4. .
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
5
5
link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 10
link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 10
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Table 4. Women in National Legislatures of G-20 Countries
As of March 1, 2022
As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
5
5
Mexico
Mexico
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
628
628
313
313
49.8
49.8
12
12
South Africa
South Africa
Bicameral
Bicameral
PQ
PQ
450
450
205
205
45.6
45.6
15
15
Argentina
Argentina
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
329
329
146
146
44.4
44.4
32
32
Australia
Australia
Bicameral
Bicameral
PQ
PQ
226
226
87
87
38.5
38.5
33
33
France
France
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
925
925
350
350
37.8
37.8
37
37
Italy
Italy
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
950
950
341
341
35.9
35.9
42
42
Germany
Germany
Bicameral
Bicameral
PQ
PQ
807
807
281
281
34.8
34.8
44
44
Canada
Canada
Bicameral
Bicameral
PQ
PQ
430
430
148
148
34.4
34.4
United
United
59
59
Bicameral
Bicameral
PQ
PQ
1,425
1,425
446
446
31.3
31.3
Kingdom
Kingdom
79
79
United States
United States
UnicameralBicameral
No Quota
No Quota
533
533
145
145
27.2
27.2
92
92
China
China
Unicameral
Unicameral
RS
RS
2,975
2,975
742
742
24.9
24.9
108
108
Indonesia
Indonesia
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ
CQ
575
575
126
126
21.9
21.9
121
121
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
Unicameral
Unicameral
RS
RS
151
151
30
30
19.9
19.9
131
131
South Korea
South Korea
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
295
295
55
55
18.6
18.6
135
135
Russia
Russia
Bicameral
Bicameral
No Quota
No Quota
619
619
110
110
17.8
17.8
138
138
Turkey
Turkey
Unicameral
Unicameral
PQ
PQ
582
582
101
101
17.4
17.4
146
146
Brazil
Brazil
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
CQ, PQ
594
594
90
90
15.2
15.2
152
152
Japan
Japan
Bicameral
Bicameral
No Quota
No Quota
707
707
101
101
14.3
14.3
153
153
India
India
Bicameral
Bicameral
Sub only
Sub only
779
779
110
110
14.1
14.1
TOTAL 190 COUNTRIES
45,885
11,959
26.1%
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022. Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
Notes: This list includes the 19 member nations of the G-20 and excludes the European Union. This list includes the 19 member nations of the G-20 and excludes the European Union.
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022. ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the
Gender Quotas Database. Gender Quotas Database.
Table 5 lists countries where women hold 7% or less of the total legislative seats. lists countries where women hold 7% or less of the total legislative seats.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
6
6
link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 11
link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 11
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Table 5. Countries Where Women Hold 7% or Less of Total Legislative Seats
As of March 1, 2022
As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
173
173
Algeria
Algeria
Bicameral
Bicameral
CQ
CQ
571
571
40
40
7.0
7.0
174
174
Palau
Palau
Bicameral
Bicameral
No Quota
No Quota
29
29
2
2
6.9
6.9
175
175
Kiribati
Kiribati
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
45
45
3
3
6.7
6.7
176
176
Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso
Unicameral
Unicameral
CQ
CQ
127
127
8
8
6.3
6.3
177
177
Tuvalu
Tuvalu
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
16
16
1
1
6.3
6.3
Marshall
Marshall
178
178
Islands
Islands
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
33
33
2
2
6.1
6.1
179
179
Iran
Iran
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
286
286
16
16
5.6
5.6
180
180
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Unicameral
Unicameral
Sub only
Sub only
225
225
12
12
5.3
5.3
181
181
Lebanon
Lebanon
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
128
128
6
6
4.7
4.7
182
182
Maldives
Maldives
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
87
87
4
4
4.6
4.6
183
183
Nigeria
Nigeria
Bicameral
Bicameral
No Quota
No Quota
469
469
21
21
4.5
4.5
184
184
Qatar
Qatar
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
45
45
2
2
4.4
4.4
185
185
Tonga
Tonga
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
27
27
1
1
3.7
3.7
186
186
Kuwait
Kuwait
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
62
62
1
1
1.6
1.6
187
187
Yemen
Yemen
Bicameral
Bicameral
No Quota
No Quota
340
340
1
1
0.3
0.3
188
188
Haiti
Haiti
Bicameral
Bicameral
RS
RS
10
10
0
0
0.0
0.0
189
189
Papua New
Papua New
Unicameral
Unicameral
No Quota
No Quota
111
111
0
0
0.0
0.0
Guinea
Guinea
190
190
Vanuatu
Vanuatu
Unicameral
Unicameral
Sub only
Sub only
52
52
0
0
0.0
0.0
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022. Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women is based on the 190 countries listed in the a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women is based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022. ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: C=legislated quotas for candidates on the
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: C=legislated quotas for candidates on the
ballot level; RS=legislated quotas for reserved seats; P=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the
ballot level; RS=legislated quotas for reserved seats; P=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the
subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database. subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database.
Over a 20-year period, the percentage of seats held by women in national legislatures has risen
Over a 20-year period, the percentage of seats held by women in national legislatures has risen
worldwide from 14.2% in March 2002 to 26.1% in March 2022 (seeworldwide from 14.2% in March 2002 to 26.1% in March 2022 (see
Figure 1).
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
7
7
link to page 12
link to page 12
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Figure 1. Worldwide Percentage of Seats Held
by Women in National Legislatures
2002-2022
2002-2022
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/
wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages. wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages.
As shown in
As shown in
Figure 2, in March 2002, Europe and the Americas were the only regions where in March 2002, Europe and the Americas were the only regions where
women held 16% or more of legislative seats at the national level. In 2022, women legislators in women held 16% or more of legislative seats at the national level. In 2022, women legislators in
six regions hold more than 20% of the legislative seats. Currently, the Middle East/Northern six regions hold more than 20% of the legislative seats. Currently, the Middle East/Northern
Africa is the only region with less than 20% of legislative seats held by women, although women Africa is the only region with less than 20% of legislative seats held by women, although women
have gained representation since 2002. have gained representation since 2002.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
8
8
link to page 13
link to page 13
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Figure 2. Regional Percentages of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures
2002-2022
2002-2022
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/
wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages. wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages.
Executive Representation
Voters in at least 70 countries have chosen a woman as their executive since 1960, when Sri Voters in at least 70 countries have chosen a woman as their executive since 1960, when Sri
Lanka selected Sirima Bandaranaike as the world’s first female prime minister. Executives may Lanka selected Sirima Bandaranaike as the world’s first female prime minister. Executives may
be selected through various methods: directly elected from a ballot dedicated to the executive be selected through various methods: directly elected from a ballot dedicated to the executive
office; indirectly elected by the legislature; appointed, following legislative elections, as the office; indirectly elected by the legislature; appointed, following legislative elections, as the
leader of the majority political party or majority coalition; or through other means. leader of the majority political party or majority coalition; or through other means.
The term “executive” refers to persons identified as either the chief of state or head of
The term “executive” refers to persons identified as either the chief of state or head of
government of a country. The CIA government of a country. The CIA
World Factbook defines the chief of state as “the titular leader defines the chief of state as “the titular leader
of the country who represents the state at official and ceremonial functions but may not be of the country who represents the state at official and ceremonial functions but may not be
involved with the day-to-day activities of the government.” The head of government is “the top involved with the day-to-day activities of the government.” The head of government is “the top
executive designated to manage the executive branch of the government.” In some countries, a executive designated to manage the executive branch of the government.” In some countries, a
monarch is identified as the “chief of state,” whereas an elected official (prime minister, premier, monarch is identified as the “chief of state,” whereas an elected official (prime minister, premier,
or administrator) is the “head of government.” Other countries, such as the United States, have or administrator) is the “head of government.” Other countries, such as the United States, have
one person, the President, filling both positions. Many countries have a “chief of state,” such as a one person, the President, filling both positions. Many countries have a “chief of state,” such as a
president, and another person as “head of government,” such as a prime minister, who won their president, and another person as “head of government,” such as a prime minister, who won their
office through different processes.8 office through different processes.8
Women Leaders in the 21st Century
Table 6 lists women who are currently the chief of state or head of government of their country, lists women who are currently the chief of state or head of government of their country,
excluding monarchs. excluding monarchs.
8 CIA World Factbook, executive branch field listing, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/, 8 CIA World Factbook, executive branch field listing, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/,
as viewed on March 24, 2022. as viewed on March 24, 2022.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
9
9
link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14
link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Table 6. Current Women Executives
As of March 25, 2022
As of March 25, 2022
Country
Name
Title
Dates in Office
Aruba
Aruba
Evelyn
Evelyn
Wever-Croesa
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Nov. 17, 2017–present
Nov. 17, 2017–present
Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Sheikh
Sheikh
Hasina
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
1996–2001; Jan. 6, 2009–
1996–2001; Jan. 6, 2009–
present present
Barbados
Barbados
Mia
Mia
Mottleya
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
May 25, 2018–present
May 25, 2018–present
Barbados
Barbados
Sandra
Sandra
Masona
President
President
Nov. 30, 2021–present
Nov. 30, 2021–present
Denmark
Denmark
Mette
Mette
Frederiksen
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
June 26, 2019–present
June 26, 2019–present
Estonia
Estonia
Kaja
Kaja
Kallasa
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Jan. 2021–present
Jan. 2021–present
Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Sahle-Work ZZ
ewdea
President
President
Oct. 25, 2018–present
Oct. 25, 2018–present
Finland
Finland
Sanna Mirella
Sanna Mirella
Marin
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Dec. 10, 2019–present
Dec. 10, 2019–present
Gabon
Gabon
Rose Christiane Ossouka
Rose Christiane Ossouka
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
July 2020–present
July 2020–present
Rapondaa
Georgia
Georgia
Salome
Salome
Zourabichvilia
President
President
Dec. 16, 2018–present
Dec. 16, 2018–present
Greece
Greece
Ekaterina
Ekaterina
President
President
Mar. 2020–present
Mar. 2020–present
Sakellaropouloua
Honduras
Honduras
Xiomara
Xiomara
Castroa
President
President
Jan. 2022–present
Jan. 2022–present
Hong Kon
Hong Kon
gb
Carrie
Carrie
Lama
Chief Executive
Chief Executive
July 1, 2017–present
July 1, 2017–present
Iceland
Iceland
Katrin
Katrin
Jakobsdóttir
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Nov. 30, 2017–present
Nov. 30, 2017–present
Kosovo
Kosovo
Vjosa
Vjosa
Osmani-Sadriu
President
President
Apr. 2021–present
Apr. 2021–present
Lithuania
Lithuania
Ingrida
Ingrida
Simonyte
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Nov. 2020–present
Nov. 2020–present
Moldova
Moldova
Maia
Maia
Sandua
President
President
Dec. 2020–present
Dec. 2020–present
Moldova
Moldova
Natalia
Natalia
Gavrilita
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Aug. 2021–present
Aug. 2021–present
Namibia
Namibia
Saara
Saara
Kuugongelwa-
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Mar. 21, 2015–present
Mar. 21, 2015–present
Amadhilaa
Nepal
Nepal
Bidhya Devi
Bidhya Devi
Bandharia
President
President
Oct. 29, 2015–present
Oct. 29, 2015–present
New Zealand
New Zealand
Jacinda
Jacinda
Ardern
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Oct. 26, 2017–present
Oct. 26, 2017–present
Sint Maarten
Sint Maarten
Silveria
Silveria
Jacobs
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Jan. 16, 2020-present
Jan. 16, 2020-present
Samoa
Samoa
Fiame Naomi
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
July 2021–present
July 2021–present
Mata’afaa
Serbia
Serbia
Ana
Ana
Brnabića
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
June 29, 2017–present
June 29, 2017–present
Singapore
Singapore
Halimah
Halimah
Yacoba
President
President
Sept. 14, 2017–present
Sept. 14, 2017–present
Slovakia
Slovakia
Zuzana
Zuzana
Čaputováa
President
President
June 15, 2019–present
June 15, 2019–present
Sweden
Sweden
Magdalena
Magdalena
Anderssona
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Nov. 2021–present
Nov. 2021–present
Tai
Tai
wanc
Tsai Ing- Ing-
wena
President
President
May 20, 2016–present
May 20, 2016–present
Tanzania
Tanzania
Samia Suluhu
Samia Suluhu
Hassana
President
President
Mar. 19, 2021–present
Mar. 19, 2021–present
Togo
Togo
Victoire Tomegah
Victoire Tomegah
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Sept. 2020–present
Sept. 2020–present
Dogbea
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
10
10
link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 15
link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 14 link to page 15
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Country
Name
Title
Dates in Office
Tunisia
Tunisia
Najla
Najla
Bouden
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
Oct. 11, 2021–present
Oct. 11, 2021–present
Romdhan
Romdhan
ea
Uganda
Uganda
Robinah
Robinah
Nabbanjaa
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
June 21, 2021–present
June 21, 2021–present
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using information from the CIACompiled by the Congressional Research Service using information from the CIA
World Factbook, ,
available at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/; the available at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/; the
Global Gender Gap 2021, ,
published by the World Economic Forum, at https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021; published by the World Economic Forum, at https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021;
government websites, and media reports. government websites, and media reports.
Notes: Surnames appear in bold face. Surnames appear in bold face.
a. This woman is the first female to hold this position in her country. a. This woman is the first female to hold this position in her country.
b. Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China, which affords the city a b. Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China, which affords the city a
limited degree of autonomy. Although President Xi Jinping is China’s chief of state, Chief Executive Carrie
limited degree of autonomy. Although President Xi Jinping is China’s chief of state, Chief Executive Carrie
Lam is recognized as the head of Hong Kong’s government and, as such, is responsible for the day-to-day Lam is recognized as the head of Hong Kong’s government and, as such, is responsible for the day-to-day
governance of Hong Kong. governance of Hong Kong.
c. Taiwan, which officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), has an ambiguous sovereignty status. In joint
c. Taiwan, which officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), has an ambiguous sovereignty status. In joint
communiqués concluded with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1972, 1978, and 1982, the United
communiqués concluded with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1972, 1978, and 1982, the United
States recognized the PRC as the “sole legal government of China”; acknowledged, but did not affirm, “the
States recognized the PRC as the “sole legal government of China”; acknowledged, but did not affirm, “the
Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China”; and pledged to maintain only Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China”; and pledged to maintain only
unofficial relations with Taiwan. Considering Taiwan’s sovereignty status to be unresolved, the U.S. unofficial relations with Taiwan. Considering Taiwan’s sovereignty status to be unresolved, the U.S.
government generally does not refer to Taiwan as a country. For further information, see CRS In Focus government generally does not refer to Taiwan as a country. For further information, see CRS In Focus
IF10275, IF10275,
Taiwan: Political and Security Issues, by Susan V. Lawrence. , by Susan V. Lawrence.
Table 7 lists selected women who formerly served as the executive of their country during the lists selected women who formerly served as the executive of their country during the
21st century. 21st century.
Table 7. Selected Women Executives No Longer in Office
Selected women who served as chief of state or head of government after 2000
Selected women who served as chief of state or head of government after 2000
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Argentina
Argentina
Cristina Fernandez
Cristina Fernandez
De
President
President
2007-2015
2007-2015
Kirchner
Austria
Austria
Brigitte
Brigitte
Bierlein
Chancellor
Chancellor
2019-2020
2019-2020
Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Khaleda
Khaleda
Zia
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
1991-1996 and 2001-2006
1991-1996 and 2001-2006
Brazil
Brazil
Dilma
Dilma
Rousseff
President
President
2011-2016
2011-2016
Burma
Burma
Aung San Suu Kyia
State Counsellor
State Counsellor
2016-2021
2016-2021
Chile
Chile
Michelle
Michelle
Bachelet
President
President
2006-2010 and 2014-2018
2006-2010 and 2014-2018
Croatia
Croatia
Kolinda
Kolinda
Grabar-
President
President
2015-2020
2015-2020
Kitarovic
Estonia
Estonia
Kersti
Kersti
Kaljulaid
President
President
2016-2021
2016-2021
Germany
Germany
Angela
Angela
Merkel
Chancellor
Chancellor
2005–2021
2005–2021
India
India
Pratibha
Pratibha
Patil
President
President
2007-2012
2007-2012
Indonesia
Indonesia
Megawati Sukarnoputri Sukarnoputri
President
President
2001-2004
2001-2004
Jamaica
Jamaica
Portia
Portia
Simpson-Miller
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
2006-2007 and 2012-2016
2006-2007 and 2012-2016
Liberia
Liberia
El en Johnson
El en Johnson
Sirleaf
President
President
2006-2018
2006-2018
Lithuania
Lithuania
Dalia
Dalia
Grybauskaite
President
President
2009-2019
2009-2019
Malawi
Malawi
Joyce
Joyce
Banda
President
President
2012-2014
2012-2014
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
11
11
link to page 15
link to page 15
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Malta
Malta
Marie-Louise Coleiro
Marie-Louise Coleiro
President
President
2014-2019
2014-2019
Preca
New Zealand
New Zealand
Helen
Helen
Clark
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
1999-2008
1999-2008
Norway
Norway
Erna
Erna
Solberg
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
2013-2021
2013-2021
Panama
Panama
Mireya
Mireya
Moscoso
President
President
1999-2004
1999-2004
Philippines
Philippines
Gloria Macapagal
Gloria Macapagal
Arroyo
President
President
2001-2010
2001-2010
South Korea
South Korea
Park Geun-hye Geun-hye
President
President
2013-2017
2013-2017
Thailand
Thailand
Yingluck
Yingluck
Shinawatra
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
2011-2014
2011-2014
Turks and Caicos Islands
Turks and Caicos Islands
Sharlene
Sharlene
Cartwright-
Premier
Premier
2016–2021
2016–2021
Robinson
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Theresa
Theresa
May
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
2016-2019
2016-2019
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using media reports, the Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using media reports, the
Encyclopedia Britannica, and , and
the BBC. the BBC.
Notes: Surnames appear in bold face. Surnames appear in bold face.
a. Aung San Suu Kyi, head of the National League for Democracy (NLD), the largest party in Burma’s national a. Aung San Suu Kyi, head of the National League for Democracy (NLD), the largest party in Burma’s national
legislature, was selected by the parliament as State Counsellor in April 2016 and was recognized as the de
legislature, was selected by the parliament as State Counsellor in April 2016 and was recognized as the de
facto leader of the civilian side of Burma’s government. Fol owing elections in November 2020, in which the facto leader of the civilian side of Burma’s government. Fol owing elections in November 2020, in which the
NLD won 83% of the contested seats in parliament, the party, with Aung San Suu Kyi at its head, was set to NLD won 83% of the contested seats in parliament, the party, with Aung San Suu Kyi at its head, was set to
begin a new session of government on February 2, 2021. However, on February 1, 2021 the Burmese begin a new session of government on February 2, 2021. However, on February 1, 2021 the Burmese
military staged a coup, detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other leaders of the civilian government, declaring a military staged a coup, detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other leaders of the civilian government, declaring a
state of emergency, and installing Senior General Min Aung Hlaing as head of the government. For more state of emergency, and installing Senior General Min Aung Hlaing as head of the government. For more
information, see CRS Insight IN11594, information, see CRS Insight IN11594,
Coup in Burma (Myanmar): Issues for U.S. Policy, by Ben Dolven and , by Ben Dolven and
Kirt Smith. Kirt Smith.
Women Leaders of the 20th Century
Table 8 identifies several notable female executives who held office in the 20th century. identifies several notable female executives who held office in the 20th century.
Table 8. Selected Women Executives, from 1960 to 2000
Executives are listed from the earliest to the latest years in office
Executives are listed from the earliest to the latest years in office
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sirimavo
Sirimavo
Bandaranaike
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
1960-1965; 1970-1977;
1960-1965; 1970-1977;
1994-2000 1994-2000
Bandaranaike was the world’s first female Prime Minister
Bandaranaike was the world’s first female Prime Minister
India
India
Indira
Indira
Gandhi
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
1966-1977 and 1980-1984
1966-1977 and 1980-1984
Gandhi was assassinated while in office; she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv.
Gandhi was assassinated while in office; she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv.
Israel
Israel
Golda
Golda
Meir
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
1969-1974
1969-1974
Meir and her husband immigrated to then Palestine in 1921. She was a founder of the State of Israel and the fourth
Meir and her husband immigrated to then Palestine in 1921. She was a founder of the State of Israel and the fourth
prime minister. prime minister.
Argentina
Argentina
Isabel Martinez de
Isabel Martinez de
Perón
President
President
1974-1976
1974-1976
Perón was world’s first female president when, as vice president, she succeed her husband, President Juan Perón,
Perón was world’s first female president when, as vice president, she succeed her husband, President Juan Perón,
upon his death. upon his death.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
12
12
link to page 17
link to page 17
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Margaret
Margaret
Thatcher
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
1979-1990
1979-1990
Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in Europe and was the only British prime minister in the 20th
Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in Europe and was the only British prime minister in the 20th
century to be elected to three consecutive terms. century to be elected to three consecutive terms.
Iceland
Iceland
Vigdis
Vigdis
Finnbogadottir
President
President
1980-1996
1980-1996
Philippines
Philippines
Corazon
Corazon
Aquino
President
President
1986-1992
1986-1992
Pakistan
Pakistan
Benazir
Benazir
Bhutto
Prime Minister
Prime Minister
1988-1990 and 1993-1996
1988-1990 and 1993-1996
In January 1990, Bhutto became the first prime minister to give birth while in office.
In January 1990, Bhutto became the first prime minister to give birth while in office.
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using news and other sources, such as the Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using news and other sources, such as the
Encyclopedia Britannica and and
Gale Biography in Context. .
Note: Surnames appear in bold face. Surnames appear in bold face.
Violence Against Women in Politics
Some experts and observers have found that, while any candidate or elected politician may Some experts and observers have found that, while any candidate or elected politician may
experience violence, women politicians can be targeted because of their gender and subjected to experience violence, women politicians can be targeted because of their gender and subjected to
sexist threats, sexual harassment, and violence.9 Violence may occur during the registration and sexist threats, sexual harassment, and violence.9 Violence may occur during the registration and
voting processes, while campaigning and running for office, and when serving in a government.10 voting processes, while campaigning and running for office, and when serving in a government.10
Perpetrators may include both state and non-state actors, such as members of political parties, Perpetrators may include both state and non-state actors, such as members of political parties,
other parliamentarians, members of the public, media representatives, and religious or community other parliamentarians, members of the public, media representatives, and religious or community
leaders.11 leaders.11
Underreporting incidents of violence against women in politics makes addressing the issue
Underreporting incidents of violence against women in politics makes addressing the issue
particularly challenging. Information about the problem tends to be anecdotal rather than particularly challenging. Information about the problem tends to be anecdotal rather than
statistical, making it difficult to determine the extent and prevalence of the problem. In addition, statistical, making it difficult to determine the extent and prevalence of the problem. In addition,
many women may be reluctant to report violence out of the belief that doing so may limit a many women may be reluctant to report violence out of the belief that doing so may limit a
woman’s political aspirations, and out of fear of reprisals, threats, and possible increased woman’s political aspirations, and out of fear of reprisals, threats, and possible increased
harassment.12 harassment.12
Figure 3 indicates the prevalence of attacks of “political violence targeting women” (PVTW) indicates the prevalence of attacks of “political violence targeting women” (PVTW)
made on women participating in various functions in the political process. Trends in this figure made on women participating in various functions in the political process. Trends in this figure
reflect data gathered periodically from women in 190 countries from January 1997 to January reflect data gathered periodically from women in 190 countries from January 1997 to January
2020. Globally, women 2020. Globally, women
candidates for office, whether for local, regional, or national government, , whether for local, regional, or national government,
experience up to 8% of PVTW attacks, while female experience up to 8% of PVTW attacks, while female
politicians, those women currently serving , those women currently serving
in an elected governmental position, experience 12% of PVTW attacks. in an elected governmental position, experience 12% of PVTW attacks.
Political party
supporters, such as women who campaign and actively support a political party or candidate, face , such as women who campaign and actively support a political party or candidate, face
9 An article in the 9 An article in the
Journal of Democracy noted that actions to threaten, intimidate, or harass women who are noted that actions to threaten, intimidate, or harass women who are
participating in the political process are attempts to “deter women’s electoral participation, and reinforce prevailing participating in the political process are attempts to “deter women’s electoral participation, and reinforce prevailing
gender norms.” Such activities “should thus be seen as a serious threat and affront to democracy.” See Mona Lena gender norms.” Such activities “should thus be seen as a serious threat and affront to democracy.” See Mona Lena
Krook, “Violence Against Women in Politics,” Krook, “Violence Against Women in Politics,”
Journal of Democracy, January 2017, p. 74-75. The Kofi Annan , January 2017, p. 74-75. The Kofi Annan
Foundation cited research that determined “general political violence occurred against both men and women,” but that Foundation cited research that determined “general political violence occurred against both men and women,” but that
women were “much more likely to experience sexualized forms of violence.” See Carmen Alanis, women were “much more likely to experience sexualized forms of violence.” See Carmen Alanis,
Violence Against
Women in Politics, Kofi Annan Foundation, November 2020, p. 31. , Kofi Annan Foundation, November 2020, p. 31.
10
10
Violence against Women in Politics, A/73/301, Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on violence against , A/73/301, Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on violence against
women, its cause and consequences, August 6, 2018, page 9, paragraph 33, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301. women, its cause and consequences, August 6, 2018, page 9, paragraph 33, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301.
11
11
Violence against Women in Politics, page 6, paragraph 15, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301. , page 6, paragraph 15, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301.
12 UN Women, “Data and Violence Against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations,” 12 UN Women, “Data and Violence Against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations,”
December 4-5, 2019, pp. 9, 13. December 4-5, 2019, pp. 9, 13.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
13
13
link to page 17
link to page 17
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
24% of PVTW attacks, while women
24% of PVTW attacks, while women
voters undergo 2% of PVTW attacks. undergo 2% of PVTW attacks.
Government officials, ,
women who work in nonelected government positions, including public and civil servants, women who work in nonelected government positions, including public and civil servants,
experience up to 16% of PVTW attacks. The largest group of women in public life, who experience up to 16% of PVTW attacks. The largest group of women in public life, who
experience 38% of PVTW attacks, includes experience 38% of PVTW attacks, includes
activists, human rights defenders, and social
leaders.13 .13
Figure 3. Trends in Political Violence Targeting Women, by Role in Political Process
Source: CRS, based on information from CRS, based on information from
Violence Targeting Women in Politics: Trends in Targets, Types, and
Perpetrators of Political Violence, the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021, , the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021,
pp.4-7, at https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-pp.4-7, at https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-
perpetrators-of-political-violence/. perpetrators-of-political-violence/.
Notes: Data on violence targeting women in politics are restricted to acts of physical violence that take place in Data on violence targeting women in politics are restricted to acts of physical violence that take place in
a public setting on women who engage in the political process. This does not include acts of bul ying or a public setting on women who engage in the political process. This does not include acts of bul ying or
intimidation, cases of domestic violence, or aggressive actions on social media or other online settings. intimidation, cases of domestic violence, or aggressive actions on social media or other online settings.
Figure 3 summarizes the aggregate of all data compiled and analyzed by the Armed Conflict Location & Event summarizes the aggregate of all data compiled and analyzed by the Armed Conflict Location & Event
Data Project (ACLED). ACLED began col ecting data on 48 African counties in 1997 and has since added more Data Project (ACLED). ACLED began col ecting data on 48 African counties in 1997 and has since added more
than 200 countries and territories. than 200 countries and territories.
In October 2016, the IPU published the results of a survey of 55 women legislators from 39
In October 2016, the IPU published the results of a survey of 55 women legislators from 39
countries on their experiences of harassment, intimidation, or violence based on their gender.14 countries on their experiences of harassment, intimidation, or violence based on their gender.14
Tables 9 to to
12 illustrate the findings of this survey. Broadly, almost 82% of the women surveyed illustrate the findings of this survey. Broadly, almost 82% of the women surveyed
reported they had personally experienced psychological violence, almost 22% reported incidents reported they had personally experienced psychological violence, almost 22% reported incidents
of sexual violence, 25.5% reported experiencing physical violence, and almost 33% had been of sexual violence, 25.5% reported experiencing physical violence, and almost 33% had been
subjected to economic violence. subjected to economic violence.
13 Kishi, Roudabeh, 13 Kishi, Roudabeh,
Violence Targeting Women in Politics: Trends in Targets, Types, and Perpetrators of Political
Violence, the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021, pp.4-7, at , the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021, pp.4-7, at
https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-perpetrators-of-https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-perpetrators-of-
political-violence/. political-violence/.
14
14
Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union, October 2016, at , Inter-Parliamentary Union, October 2016, at
https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download. Survey participants included 18 from Africa, 15 from Europe, 10 from the https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download. Survey participants included 18 from Africa, 15 from Europe, 10 from the
Asia-Pacific region, 8 from the Americas, and 4 from Arab countries. Asia-Pacific region, 8 from the Americas, and 4 from Arab countries.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
14
14
link to page 18 link to page 18 link to page 18 link to page 18
link to page 18 link to page 18 link to page 18 link to page 18
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Table 9. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Women Legislators
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
% of Respondents Answering “Yes”
“Have you
witnessed acts of
this violence
committed
“Have you been
against one or
subject to one or
more of your
more acts of this
female
Type of Violence
kind of violence?”
colleagues?”
Psychological violence (see (see
Table 10 for details) for details)
81.8%
81.8%
78.1%
78.1%
Sexual violence (e.g., sexual harassment; efforts to force sexual (e.g., sexual harassment; efforts to force sexual
relations inappropriate and unwanted gestures or physical relations inappropriate and unwanted gestures or physical
contact; requests for sexual relations in exchange for material or contact; requests for sexual relations in exchange for material or
21.8%
21.8%
32.7%
32.7%
political advantages
political advantages
Physical violence (e.g., actions that inflict or attempt to inflict (e.g., actions that inflict or attempt to inflict
bodily injury to a legislator, or to friends or members of her bodily injury to a legislator, or to friends or members of her
25.5%
25.5%
20.0%
20.0%
family)
family)
Economic violence (e.g., denied funds and other resources that (e.g., denied funds and other resources that
legislators are entitled to such as salary, offices, computers, staff, legislators are entitled to such as salary, offices, computers, staff,
32.7%
32.7%
30.9%
30.9%
security; damage to or destruction of personal property)
security; damage to or destruction of personal property)
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), , Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download. October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download.
Note: Definitions of the various kinds of violence are included in the report of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. Definitions of the various kinds of violence are included in the report of the Inter-Parliamentary Union.
The 81.8% of respondents i
The 81.8% of respondents i
n Table 9 who reported they had experienced psychological violence who reported they had experienced psychological violence
identified the manifestations of this violence iidentified the manifestations of this violence i
n Table 10.
Table 10. Psychological Violence: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 81.8% of respondents who reported they had experienced psychological
Behaviors described by the 81.8% of respondents who reported they had experienced psychological
violence, as noted in
violence, as noted in
Table 9
% of Respondents Who Had
Actions of Psychological Violence
Experienced These Actions
Humiliating sexual or sexist remarks
Humiliating sexual or sexist remarks
65.5%
65.5%
Images or disrespectful comments with sexual connotations about you in the
Images or disrespectful comments with sexual connotations about you in the
27.3%
27.3%
traditional media
traditional media
Extremely humiliating or sexual images of you distributed through social
Extremely humiliating or sexual images of you distributed through social
41.8%
41.8%
media
media
Threats of death, rape, beatings, or abduction
Threats of death, rape, beatings, or abduction
44.4%
44.4%
Harassment (e.g. exposure to insistent and uninvited behavior, including
Harassment (e.g. exposure to insistent and uninvited behavior, including
unwanted attention, unwelcome verbal contact, or interaction that may have unwanted attention, unwelcome verbal contact, or interaction that may have
32.7%
32.7%
frightened you)
frightened you)
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), , Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 3. October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 3.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
15
15
link to page 19 link to page 19
link to page 19 link to page 19
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Table 11 lists several factors identified in the IPU study that may make some women legislators a lists several factors identified in the IPU study that may make some women legislators a
likely target for gender-based intolerance. likely target for gender-based intolerance.
Table 11. Risk Factors for Women Legislators
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
Reasons for Violence, as reported by women legislators subjected to
% of Survey
gender-based violent acts and behavior
Respondents
Intention to dissuade them and other women from participating in politics
Intention to dissuade them and other women from participating in politics
61.5%
61.5%
Political rivalry
Political rivalry
41.7%
41.7%
Positions of women legislators on specific issues
Positions of women legislators on specific issues
60.5%
60.5%
Additional risk factors that appear to lead to violence against women in legislatures include being a member of the
Additional risk factors that appear to lead to violence against women in legislatures include being a member of the
political minority, being under the age of 40, and belonging to a minority ethnic, religious, or other marginalized political minority, being under the age of 40, and belonging to a minority ethnic, religious, or other marginalized
social group. social group.
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), , Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 6. October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 6.
Table 12 identifies how women legislators have reacted to the acts of violence they experienced. identifies how women legislators have reacted to the acts of violence they experienced.
Table 12. Effects of Violence Against Women in Politics
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
% of Survey
Reactions of Women in Politics Subjected to Violent Acts
Respondents
Distressed over the experience
Distressed over the experience
66.7%
66.7%
Concerned for the security of themselves, their friends, and family members
Concerned for the security of themselves, their friends, and family members
46.7%
46.7%
Felt weakened in their ability to complete their mandates and to express their
Felt weakened in their ability to complete their mandates and to express their
opinions opinions
38.7%
38.7%
Reported incidents to the legislative security services or the police
Reported incidents to the legislative security services or the police
51.7%
51.7%
Strengthened their determination as a legislator
Strengthened their determination as a legislator
80.0%
80.0%
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), , Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 7. October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 7.
Acknowledgements
Sandra Delaney, former CRS Summer Intern, and Jennifer Roscoe, former CRS Research Sandra Delaney, former CRS Summer Intern, and Jennifer Roscoe, former CRS Research
Assistant, helped in gathering data and presenting key points. Assistant, helped in gathering data and presenting key points.
Author Information
Susan G. Chesser Susan G. Chesser
Senior Research Librarian
Senior Research Librarian
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
16
16
Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material. copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
Congressional Research Service
Congressional Research Service
R45483
R45483
· VERSION 710 · UPDATED
17
17