Women in National Governments Around the
April 6, 2022
Globe: Fact Sheet
Susan G. Chesser
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are
Senior Research Librarian
underrepresented in the political process at the national level. As this report shows, women

currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an increase from 14.2% of legislative
seats in 2002 (see Figure 1). As of March 1, 2022, women held 50% or more of the legislative

seats in four countries: Rwanda, Cuba, Nicaragua, and the United Arab Emirates (see Table 3).
At the executive level, 29 countries plus the special administrative region Hong Kong currently have an elected female head
of state or government (see Table 6). Since 1960, more than 140 women have been elected or appointed as head of the
national government in at least 70 countries.
This report provides an overview of women’s roles in national governments and looks at suffrage, representation at the
legislative and executive levels, gender quotas, and violence against women in elections.

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Introduction
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are
underrepresented in the political process at the national level. Possible causes include
discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to
health care, and the disproportionate effect of poverty on women. Many experts, including some
U.S. policymakers and Members of Congress, have found that women’s political participation,
including representation in elected governments, contributes to the overall well-being of women
and their communities.1
As this report shows, women currently hold 26.1% of legislative seats around the world, an
increase from 14.2% of such seats in 2002 (see Figure 1). As of March 1, 2022, women held 50%
or more of the legislative seats in four countries: Cuba, Nicaragua, Rwanda, and the United Arab
Emirates (see Table 3). At the national executive level, 29 countries and the special
administrative region Hong Kong currently have a female chief of state or head of government
who won an election or was selected by elected bodies (see Table 6). Since 1960, more than 140
women have been elected or appointed by elected bodies as the executive in at least 70 countries.2
This report provides a global snapshot of women’s political participation in national governments
worldwide by compiling statistics and other information from a variety of sources, including the
annual Global Gender Gap Report issued by the World Economic Forum, the Inter-Parliamentary
Union, the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, the CIA World
Factbook, news reports, and other sources.
Overview of Congressional Actions
Over the years, Members of Congress have enacted or introduced legislation that, either directly
or indirectly, addresses women’s political participation around the world. For example, from
FY2014 through FY2022, a provision in Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related
Programs (SFOPS) Appropriations Acts appropriated funds for women’s leadership. Most
recently, the FY2022 SFOPS bill states
not less than $50,000,000 shall be made available for programs specifically designed to
increase leadership opportunities for women in countries where women and girls suffer
discrimination due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s
political status, expanding women’s participation in political parties and elections, and
increasing women’s opportunities for leadership positions in the public and private sectors
at the local, provincial, and national levels.3
Members have also enacted laws that address aspects and issues related to women’s participation
in national governments. For example, the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, among other
things, aims to increase the participation of women in conflict prevention and conflict resolution

1 For example, see U.N. document A/RES/66/130, Women and Political Participation, adopted December 19, 2011.
Also see U.S. Department of State’s Office of Global Women’s Issues, “the meaningful participation of women in
political, economic, and public life is critical to building and sustaining representative societies.... Increasing
opportunities for women and girls’ leadership across sectors leads to building stronger and more prosperous societies.”
(Office of Global Women’s Issues, Cross-Cutting Issues, Women’s Leadership at https://www.state.gov/cross-cutting-
issues/#wl.)
2 The Global Gender Gap Report 2021, prepared by The World Economic Forum, March 30, 2021, at
https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021.
3 P.L. 116-260, Division K, Title VII, Section 7059.
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processes as a means to build more inclusive societies and to help stabilize countries and regions.
The act expresses the sense of Congress that “the political participation, and leadership of women
in fragile environments, particularly during democratic transitions, is critical to sustaining lasting
democratic institutions.”4
In the 117th Congress, some Members have proposed legislation addressing aspects of women’s
political participation. For example, the House and Senate versions of the Girls LEAD Act bills5
require the Department of State and the United States Agency for International development
(USAID) to develop strategies and programs to promote adolescents’ participation, particularly
that of girls, in the political processes and civil society of their countries. From a country-specific
perspective, H.R. 116, the Equal Rights and Access for the Women of South Sudan Act,
acknowledges that the government of South Sudan has taken steps to include women in the
legislative assembly and calls for additional support from the United States to reinforce these
steps.6
Selected Tables and Statistics
Voting Rights
The right to vote is a primary step toward involving a populace in the political decisions of a
government. In many countries, voting rights were originally granted only to adult men who
owned property, then were eventually expanded to include all adult male citizens regardless of
property ownership, then to women, and finally to other underrepresented groups. Definitions of
what constituted a “citizen” may also have changed over time, as they did in the United States,
and become more inclusive of minorities and indigenous peoples. In contrast, other countries
enacted universal suffrage from their very founding, granting the right to vote to all adults, male
and female, regardless of ethnicity, religion, economic standing, or other criteria.
Table 1 and Table 2, respectively, list the first and latest countries to extend the right and duty of
voting to women. Although subnational regions (e.g., states, provinces) may have granted the
right to vote earlier, the years in the tables below indicate when suffrage was extended for
national elections to female adult citizens.

4 This act is referenced in both P.L. 116-94 and P.L. 116-260, which include statements that “the Secretary of State
shall promote” the participation of Afghan women in peace and reconciliation processes in the country “in a manner
consistent with the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017.”
5 H.R. 1661 and S. 634.
6 The Girls LEAD Act bills introduced in the 117th Congress are H.R. 1661 and S. 634. The Equal Rights and Access
for the Women of South Sudan Act is H.R. 116. S. 2878 would provide statutory authority for an Office of Global
Women’s Issues within the Department of State in order to advance foreign policy and international programs aimed at
increasing opportunities for women and girls, including in the political processes. H.Res. 801 acknowledges that
violence against women in politics is a global phenomenon and recognizes it as a form of gender-based violence. The
resolution urges the U.S. government to adopt policies to encourage women’s political participation while mitigating
online and in person violence against these women.
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Table 1. First Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year
Country(ies)
Year
Country(ies)
1893
New Zealand
1917
Canada*
Austria, Estonia, Georgia,
Germany, Hungary,
Ireland,* Kyrgyz Republic,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,
1902
Australia*
1918
Russia, United Kingdom*
Belarus, Belgium,*
Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Sweden,*
1906
Finland
1919
Ukraine
Albania, Czech Republic,
Iceland,** Slovak Republic,
1913
Norway
1920
United States
Armenia, Azerbaijan,
1915
Denmark, Iceland*
1921
Sweden**
Source: The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm.
Notes: Some countries granted suffrage in stages, at first denying the right to women of certain racial, ethnic, or
economic groups. One asterisk (*) indicates the first year female citizens were allowed to vote in national
elections with limitations; two asterisks (**) indicate when those limitations were removed. No asterisk indicates
there were no restrictions and all female adult citizens were granted the right to vote.
Table 2. Most Recent Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year
Country(ies)
2003
Indonesia, Qatar
2005
Kuwait
Montenegro, United Arab
2006
Emirates
2008
Bhutan
2011
Saudi Arabia
Sources: Inter-Parliamentary Union at https://data.ipu.org/compare?field=
country%3Afield_suffrage%3Afield_right_to_vote#map; Pamela Paxton and Melanie M. Hughes, Women, Politics,
and Power: A Global Perspective, 2nd edition, SAGE Publications, 2014, p. 50-51; and the CIA World Factbook on
Suffrage, at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/suffrage/; “‘Surprise and Excitement’: Saudi Women
React to Voting Rights Decision,” NPR, September 26, 2011, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2011/09/
26/140819859/surprise-and-excitement-saudi-women-react-to-voting-rights-decision.
Note: Newly independent countries (Kosovo, South Sudan, etc.) would be included only if women had not been
granted suffrage under the preceding country. For example, because Sudan granted women the right to vote in
1964, South Sudan is not included in this list, even though it did not gain independence until 2011.
Legislative Representation
The following tables highlight women’s representation based in national legislatures, including
data on quotas. Several countries and political parties have instituted quotas to ensure that women
are represented on the ballot or in the legislature, which may affect the statistics on women’s
representation in national governments. Some governments also may use quotas to ensure ethnic
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or religious diversity in the national legislature of some countries (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Iraq).
Gender Quotas
The Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas explains that “[g]ender quotas are numerical targets that
stipulate the number or percentage of women that must be included in a candidate list or the
number of seats to be allocated to women in a legislature. They aim to reverse discrimination in
law and practice and to level the playing field for women and men in politics.” The Atlas further
states that “gender quotas have proved to be the single most effective tool for ‘fast-tracking’
women’s representation in elected bodies of government.”7
Three main types of gender quotas are generally recognized, and they may be used at the national
or subnational level, or both:
 Legislated candidate quotas. These quotas are mandated through national
constitutions or legislation to regulate the gender composition of the ballot.
 Legislated “reserved seats.” These quotas reserve a specific number or
percentage of seats in the legislature for women members. The quotas are
mandated through national constitutions or legislation and are implemented
through special electoral procedures.
 Party quotas (also known as voluntary party quotas). Individual political
parties may adopt these quotas through the party’s statutes and rules. Such
adoption is the prerogative of each party, and some parties in a country may
adopt quotas while other parties choose not to do so.
Table 3 lists the countries where women hold 40% or more of the total seats of the national
legislative chamber body.
Table 3. National Legislatures with Women Holding 40% or More of Total Seats
As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
1
Rwanda
Bicameral
RS
106
58
54.7
2
Cuba
Unicameral
No Quota
586
313
53.4
3
Nicaragua
Unicameral
CQ
91
46
50.5
United Arab
4
Unicameral
RS
40
20
50.0
Emirates
5
Mexico
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
628
313
49.8
6
New Zealand
Unicameral
PQ
120
59
49.2
7
Bolivia
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
166
80
48.2
8
Iceland
Unicameral
PQ
63
30
47.6
9
Costa Rica
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
57
27
47.4

7 The Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas was a joint project of the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral
Assistance (IDEA), the Inter-Parliamentary Union, and Stockholm University, published in June 2014, p. 16, available
at https://www.idea.int/publications/catalogue/atlas-electoral-gender-quotas?lang=en.
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IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
10
Andorra
Unicameral
No Quota
28
13
46.4
11
Sweden
Unicameral
PQ
349
161
46.1
12
South Africa
Bicameral
PQ
450
205
45.6
13
Finland
Unicameral
No Quota
200
91
45.5
14
Norway
Unicameral
PQ
169
76
45.0
15
Argentina
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
329
146
44.4
16
Belgium
Bicameral
CQ
210
92
43.8
17
Senegal
Unicameral
CQ
164
70
42.7
18
Mozambique
Unicameral
PQ
250
106
42.4
North
19
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
120
50
41.7
Macedonia
20
Austria
Bicameral
PQ
244
101
41.4
21
Spain
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
614
254
41.4
22
Moldova
Unicameral
CQ
101
41
40.6
23
Peru
Unicameral
CQ
130
52
40.0
24
Serbia
Unicameral
CQ
250
100
40.0
25
Timor-Leste
Unicameral
CQ
65
26
40.0
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
Notes: The selected countries listed here include those countries identified by the Inter-Parliamentary Union
(IPU) where women hold 40% or more of the total seats in the national legislative chamber(s).
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; Sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the
Gender Quotas Database.
Table 4 shows the number of seats held by women in the national legislative chambers of the 19
nation members of the G-20 (excluding the European Union). Currently, women hold 40% or
more of the total seats in the national legislatures of three G-20 countries (Mexico, South Africa,
and Argentina), and these countries appear in both Table 3 and Table 4.
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Table 4. Women in National Legislatures of G-20 Countries
As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
5
Mexico
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
628
313
49.8
12
South Africa
Bicameral
PQ
450
205
45.6
15
Argentina
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
329
146
44.4
32
Australia
Bicameral
PQ
226
87
38.5
33
France
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
925
350
37.8
37
Italy
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
950
341
35.9
42
Germany
Bicameral
PQ
807
281
34.8
44
Canada
Bicameral
PQ
430
148
34.4
United
59
Bicameral
PQ
1,425
446
31.3
Kingdom
79
United States
Bicameral
No Quota
533
145
27.2
92
China
Unicameral
RS
2,975
742
24.9
108
Indonesia
Unicameral
CQ
575
126
21.9
121
Saudi Arabia
Unicameral
RS
151
30
19.9
131
South Korea
Unicameral
CQ, PQ
295
55
18.6
135
Russia
Bicameral
No Quota
619
110
17.8
138
Turkey
Unicameral
PQ
582
101
17.4
146
Brazil
Bicameral
CQ, PQ
594
90
15.2
152
Japan
Bicameral
No Quota
707
101
14.3
153
India
Bicameral
Sub only
779
110
14.1

TOTAL 190 COUNTRIES

45,885
11,959
26.1%
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
Notes: This list includes the 19 member nations of the G-20 and excludes the European Union.
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on
the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive
branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the
Gender Quotas Database.
Table 5 lists countries where women hold 7% or less of the total legislative seats.
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Table 5. Countries Where Women Hold 7% or Less of Total Legislative Seats
As of March 1, 2022
IPU Rank
National
by % of
Level
Total Seats
Type of
Gender
Total
Total Seats
% of Total
Held by
Legislative
Quota
Legislative
Held by
Seats Held
Womena
Country
System
Codesb
Seats
Women
by Women
173
Algeria
Bicameral
CQ
571
40
7.0
174
Palau
Bicameral
No Quota
29
2
6.9
175
Kiribati
Unicameral
No Quota
45
3
6.7
176
Burkina Faso
Unicameral
CQ
127
8
6.3
177
Tuvalu
Unicameral
No Quota
16
1
6.3
Marshall
178
Islands
Unicameral
No Quota
33
2
6.1
179
Iran
Unicameral
No Quota
286
16
5.6
180
Sri Lanka
Unicameral
Sub only
225
12
5.3
181
Lebanon
Unicameral
No Quota
128
6
4.7
182
Maldives
Unicameral
No Quota
87
4
4.6
183
Nigeria
Bicameral
No Quota
469
21
4.5
184
Qatar
Unicameral
No Quota
45
2
4.4
185
Tonga
Unicameral
No Quota
27
1
3.7
186
Kuwait
Unicameral
No Quota
62
1
1.6
187
Yemen
Bicameral
No Quota
340
1
0.3
188
Haiti
Bicameral
RS
10
0
0.0
189
Papua New
Unicameral
No Quota
111
0
0.0
Guinea
190
Vanuatu
Unicameral
Sub only
52
0
0.0
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
at https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking?month=3&year=2022, and the Gender Quotas Database at
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas/database, published by the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance, as viewed on March 24, 2022.
a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women is based on the 190 countries listed in the
complete IPU list of Percentage of Women in National Parliaments, posted at https://data.ipu.org/women-
ranking?month=3&year=2022.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: C=legislated quotas for candidates on the
ballot level; RS=legislated quotas for reserved seats; P=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the
subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database.
Over a 20-year period, the percentage of seats held by women in national legislatures has risen
worldwide from 14.2% in March 2002 to 26.1% in March 2022 (see Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Worldwide Percentage of Seats Held
by Women in National Legislatures
2002-2022

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/
wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages.
As shown in Figure 2, in March 2002, Europe and the Americas were the only regions where
women held 16% or more of legislative seats at the national level. In 2022, women legislators in
six regions hold more than 20% of the legislative seats. Currently, the Middle East/Northern
Africa is the only region with less than 20% of legislative seats held by women, although women
have gained representation since 2002.
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Figure 2. Regional Percentages of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures
2002-2022

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), available at http://archive.ipu.org/
wmn-e/world-arc.htm and https://data.ipu.org/women-averages.
Executive Representation
Voters in at least 70 countries have chosen a woman as their executive since 1960, when Sri
Lanka selected Sirima Bandaranaike as the world’s first female prime minister. Executives may
be selected through various methods: directly elected from a ballot dedicated to the executive
office; indirectly elected by the legislature; appointed, following legislative elections, as the
leader of the majority political party or majority coalition; or through other means.
The term “executive” refers to persons identified as either the chief of state or head of
government of a country. The CIA World Factbook defines the chief of state as “the titular leader
of the country who represents the state at official and ceremonial functions but may not be
involved with the day-to-day activities of the government.” The head of government is “the top
executive designated to manage the executive branch of the government.” In some countries, a
monarch is identified as the “chief of state,” whereas an elected official (prime minister, premier,
or administrator) is the “head of government.” Other countries, such as the United States, have
one person, the President, filling both positions. Many countries have a “chief of state,” such as a
president, and another person as “head of government,” such as a prime minister, who won their
office through different processes.8
Women Leaders in the 21st Century
Table 6 lists women who are currently the chief of state or head of government of their country,
excluding monarchs.

8 CIA World Factbook, executive branch field listing, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/,
as viewed on March 24, 2022.
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Table 6. Current Women Executives
As of March 25, 2022
Country
Name
Title
Dates in Office
Aruba
Evelyn Wever-Croesa
Prime Minister
Nov. 17, 2017–present
Bangladesh
Sheikh Hasina
Prime Minister
1996–2001; Jan. 6, 2009–
present
Barbados
Mia Mottleya
Prime Minister
May 25, 2018–present
Barbados
Sandra Masona
President
Nov. 30, 2021–present
Denmark
Mette Frederiksen
Prime Minister
June 26, 2019–present
Estonia
Kaja Kallasa
Prime Minister
Jan. 2021–present
Ethiopia
Sahle-Work Zewdea
President
Oct. 25, 2018–present
Finland
Sanna Mirella Marin
Prime Minister
Dec. 10, 2019–present
Gabon
Rose Christiane Ossouka
Prime Minister
July 2020–present
Rapondaa
Georgia
Salome Zourabichvilia
President
Dec. 16, 2018–present
Greece
Ekaterina
President
Mar. 2020–present
Sakellaropouloua
Honduras
Xiomara Castroa
President
Jan. 2022–present
Hong Kongb
Carrie Lama
Chief Executive
July 1, 2017–present
Iceland
Katrin Jakobsdóttir
Prime Minister
Nov. 30, 2017–present
Kosovo
Vjosa Osmani-Sadriu
President
Apr. 2021–present
Lithuania
Ingrida Simonyte
Prime Minister
Nov. 2020–present
Moldova
Maia Sandua
President
Dec. 2020–present
Moldova
Natalia Gavrilita
Prime Minister
Aug. 2021–present
Namibia
Saara Kuugongelwa-
Prime Minister
Mar. 21, 2015–present
Amadhilaa
Nepal
Bidhya Devi Bandharia
President
Oct. 29, 2015–present
New Zealand
Jacinda Ardern
Prime Minister
Oct. 26, 2017–present
Sint Maarten
Silveria Jacobs
Prime Minister
Jan. 16, 2020-present
Samoa
Fiame Naomi
Prime Minister
July 2021–present
Mata’afaa
Serbia
Ana Brnabića
Prime Minister
June 29, 2017–present
Singapore
Halimah Yacoba
President
Sept. 14, 2017–present
Slovakia
Zuzana Čaputováa
President
June 15, 2019–present
Sweden
Magdalena Anderssona
Prime Minister
Nov. 2021–present
Taiwanc
Tsai Ing-wena
President
May 20, 2016–present
Tanzania
Samia Suluhu Hassana
President
Mar. 19, 2021–present
Togo
Victoire Tomegah
Prime Minister
Sept. 2020–present
Dogbea
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Country
Name
Title
Dates in Office
Tunisia
Najla Bouden
Prime Minister
Oct. 11, 2021–present
Romdhanea
Uganda
Robinah Nabbanjaa
Prime Minister
June 21, 2021–present
Sources: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using information from the CIA World Factbook,
available at https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/executive-branch/; the Global Gender Gap 2021,
published by the World Economic Forum, at https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021;
government websites, and media reports.
Notes: Surnames appear in bold face.
a. This woman is the first female to hold this position in her country.
b. Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China, which affords the city a
limited degree of autonomy. Although President Xi Jinping is China’s chief of state, Chief Executive Carrie
Lam is recognized as the head of Hong Kong’s government and, as such, is responsible for the day-to-day
governance of Hong Kong.
c. Taiwan, which officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), has an ambiguous sovereignty status. In joint
communiqués concluded with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1972, 1978, and 1982, the United
States recognized the PRC as the “sole legal government of China”; acknowledged, but did not affirm, “the
Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China”; and pledged to maintain only
unofficial relations with Taiwan. Considering Taiwan’s sovereignty status to be unresolved, the U.S.
government generally does not refer to Taiwan as a country. For further information, see CRS In Focus
IF10275, Taiwan: Political and Security Issues, by Susan V. Lawrence.
Table 7 lists selected women who formerly served as the executive of their country during the
21st century.
Table 7. Selected Women Executives No Longer in Office
Selected women who served as chief of state or head of government after 2000
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Argentina
Cristina Fernandez De
President
2007-2015
Kirchner
Austria
Brigitte Bierlein
Chancellor
2019-2020
Bangladesh
Khaleda Zia
Prime Minister
1991-1996 and 2001-2006
Brazil
Dilma Rousseff
President
2011-2016
Burma
Aung San Suu Kyia
State Counsellor
2016-2021
Chile
Michelle Bachelet
President
2006-2010 and 2014-2018
Croatia
Kolinda Grabar-
President
2015-2020
Kitarovic
Estonia
Kersti Kaljulaid
President
2016-2021
Germany
Angela Merkel
Chancellor
2005–2021
India
Pratibha Patil
President
2007-2012
Indonesia
Megawati Sukarnoputri
President
2001-2004
Jamaica
Portia Simpson-Miller
Prime Minister
2006-2007 and 2012-2016
Liberia
El en Johnson Sirleaf
President
2006-2018
Lithuania
Dalia Grybauskaite
President
2009-2019
Malawi
Joyce Banda
President
2012-2014
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Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Malta
Marie-Louise Coleiro
President
2014-2019
Preca
New Zealand
Helen Clark
Prime Minister
1999-2008
Norway
Erna Solberg
Prime Minister
2013-2021
Panama
Mireya Moscoso
President
1999-2004
Philippines
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
President
2001-2010
South Korea
Park Geun-hye
President
2013-2017
Thailand
Yingluck Shinawatra
Prime Minister
2011-2014
Turks and Caicos Islands
Sharlene Cartwright-
Premier
2016–2021
Robinson
United Kingdom
Theresa May
Prime Minister
2016-2019
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using media reports, the Encyclopedia Britannica, and
the BBC.
Notes: Surnames appear in bold face.
a. Aung San Suu Kyi, head of the National League for Democracy (NLD), the largest party in Burma’s national
legislature, was selected by the parliament as State Counsellor in April 2016 and was recognized as the de
facto leader of the civilian side of Burma’s government. Fol owing elections in November 2020, in which the
NLD won 83% of the contested seats in parliament, the party, with Aung San Suu Kyi at its head, was set to
begin a new session of government on February 2, 2021. However, on February 1, 2021 the Burmese
military staged a coup, detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other leaders of the civilian government, declaring a
state of emergency, and installing Senior General Min Aung Hlaing as head of the government. For more
information, see CRS Insight IN11594, Coup in Burma (Myanmar): Issues for U.S. Policy, by Ben Dolven and
Kirt Smith.
Women Leaders of the 20th Century
Table 8 identifies several notable female executives who held office in the 20th century.
Table 8. Selected Women Executives, from 1960 to 2000
Executives are listed from the earliest to the latest years in office
Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
Sri Lanka
Sirimavo Bandaranaike
Prime Minister
1960-1965; 1970-1977;
1994-2000
Bandaranaike was the world’s first female Prime Minister
India
Indira Gandhi
Prime Minister
1966-1977 and 1980-1984
Gandhi was assassinated while in office; she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv.
Israel
Golda Meir
Prime Minister
1969-1974
Meir and her husband immigrated to then Palestine in 1921. She was a founder of the State of Israel and the fourth
prime minister.
Argentina
Isabel Martinez de Perón
President
1974-1976
Perón was world’s first female president when, as vice president, she succeed her husband, President Juan Perón,
upon his death.
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Country
Name
Title
Years in Office
United Kingdom
Margaret Thatcher
Prime Minister
1979-1990
Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in Europe and was the only British prime minister in the 20th
century to be elected to three consecutive terms.
Iceland
Vigdis Finnbogadottir
President
1980-1996
Philippines
Corazon Aquino
President
1986-1992
Pakistan
Benazir Bhutto
Prime Minister
1988-1990 and 1993-1996
In January 1990, Bhutto became the first prime minister to give birth while in office.
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using news and other sources, such as the
Encyclopedia Britannica and Gale Biography in Context.
Note: Surnames appear in bold face.
Violence Against Women in Politics
Some experts and observers have found that, while any candidate or elected politician may
experience violence, women politicians can be targeted because of their gender and subjected to
sexist threats, sexual harassment, and violence.9 Violence may occur during the registration and
voting processes, while campaigning and running for office, and when serving in a government.10
Perpetrators may include both state and non-state actors, such as members of political parties,
other parliamentarians, members of the public, media representatives, and religious or community
leaders.11
Underreporting incidents of violence against women in politics makes addressing the issue
particularly challenging. Information about the problem tends to be anecdotal rather than
statistical, making it difficult to determine the extent and prevalence of the problem. In addition,
many women may be reluctant to report violence out of the belief that doing so may limit a
woman’s political aspirations, and out of fear of reprisals, threats, and possible increased
harassment.12
Figure 3 indicates the prevalence of attacks of “political violence targeting women” (PVTW)
made on women participating in various functions in the political process. Trends in this figure
reflect data gathered periodically from women in 190 countries from January 1997 to January
2020. Globally, women candidates for office, whether for local, regional, or national government,
experience up to 8% of PVTW attacks, while female politicians, those women currently serving
in an elected governmental position, experience 12% of PVTW attacks. Political party
supporters, such as women who campaign and actively support a political party or candidate, face

9 An article in the Journal of Democracy noted that actions to threaten, intimidate, or harass women who are
participating in the political process are attempts to “deter women’s electoral participation, and reinforce prevailing
gender norms.” Such activities “should thus be seen as a serious threat and affront to democracy.” See Mona Lena
Krook, “Violence Against Women in Politics,” Journal of Democracy, January 2017, p. 74-75. The Kofi Annan
Foundation cited research that determined “general political violence occurred against both men and women,” but that
women were “much more likely to experience sexualized forms of violence.” See Carmen Alanis, Violence Against
Women in Politics, Kofi Annan Foundation, November 2020, p. 31.
10 Violence against Women in Politics, A/73/301, Report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on violence against
women, its cause and consequences, August 6, 2018, page 9, paragraph 33, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301.
11 Violence against Women in Politics, page 6, paragraph 15, at https://undocs.org/A/73/301.
12 UN Women, “Data and Violence Against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations,”
December 4-5, 2019, pp. 9, 13.
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24% of PVTW attacks, while women voters undergo 2% of PVTW attacks. Government officials,
women who work in nonelected government positions, including public and civil servants,
experience up to 16% of PVTW attacks. The largest group of women in public life, who
experience 38% of PVTW attacks, includes activists, human rights defenders, and social
leaders.13
Figure 3. Trends in Political Violence Targeting Women, by Role in Political Process

Source: CRS, based on information from Violence Targeting Women in Politics: Trends in Targets, Types, and
Perpetrators of Political Violence, the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021,
pp.4-7, at https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-
perpetrators-of-political-violence/.
Notes: Data on violence targeting women in politics are restricted to acts of physical violence that take place in
a public setting on women who engage in the political process. This does not include acts of bul ying or
intimidation, cases of domestic violence, or aggressive actions on social media or other online settings.
Figure 3 summarizes the aggregate of all data compiled and analyzed by the Armed Conflict Location & Event
Data Project (ACLED). ACLED began col ecting data on 48 African counties in 1997 and has since added more
than 200 countries and territories.
In October 2016, the IPU published the results of a survey of 55 women legislators from 39
countries on their experiences of harassment, intimidation, or violence based on their gender.14
Tables 9 to 12 illustrate the findings of this survey. Broadly, almost 82% of the women surveyed
reported they had personally experienced psychological violence, almost 22% reported incidents
of sexual violence, 25.5% reported experiencing physical violence, and almost 33% had been
subjected to economic violence.

13 Kishi, Roudabeh, Violence Targeting Women in Politics: Trends in Targets, Types, and Perpetrators of Political
Violence, the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), December 2021, pp.4-7, at
https://acleddata.com/2021/12/08/violence-targeting-women-in-politics-trends-in-targets-types-and-perpetrators-of-
political-violence/.
14 Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union, October 2016, at
https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download. Survey participants included 18 from Africa, 15 from Europe, 10 from the
Asia-Pacific region, 8 from the Americas, and 4 from Arab countries.
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Table 9. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Women Legislators
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries

% of Respondents Answering “Yes”
“Have you
witnessed acts of
this violence
committed
“Have you been
against one or
subject to one or
more of your
more acts of this
female
Type of Violence
kind of violence?”
colleagues?”
Psychological violence (see Table 10 for details)
81.8%
78.1%
Sexual violence (e.g., sexual harassment; efforts to force sexual
relations inappropriate and unwanted gestures or physical
contact; requests for sexual relations in exchange for material or
21.8%
32.7%
political advantages
Physical violence (e.g., actions that inflict or attempt to inflict
bodily injury to a legislator, or to friends or members of her
25.5%
20.0%
family)
Economic violence (e.g., denied funds and other resources that
legislators are entitled to such as salary, offices, computers, staff,
32.7%
30.9%
security; damage to or destruction of personal property)
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download.
Note: Definitions of the various kinds of violence are included in the report of the Inter-Parliamentary Union.
The 81.8% of respondents in Table 9 who reported they had experienced psychological violence
identified the manifestations of this violence in Table 10.
Table 10. Psychological Violence: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 81.8% of respondents who reported they had experienced psychological
violence, as noted in Table 9
% of Respondents Who Had
Actions of Psychological Violence
Experienced These Actions
Humiliating sexual or sexist remarks
65.5%
Images or disrespectful comments with sexual connotations about you in the
27.3%
traditional media

Extremely humiliating or sexual images of you distributed through social
41.8%
media
Threats of death, rape, beatings, or abduction
44.4%
Harassment (e.g. exposure to insistent and uninvited behavior, including
unwanted attention, unwelcome verbal contact, or interaction that may have
32.7%
frightened you)
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 3.
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Table 11 lists several factors identified in the IPU study that may make some women legislators a
likely target for gender-based intolerance.
Table 11. Risk Factors for Women Legislators
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
Reasons for Violence, as reported by women legislators subjected to
% of Survey
gender-based violent acts and behavior
Respondents
Intention to dissuade them and other women from participating in politics
61.5%
Political rivalry
41.7%
Positions of women legislators on specific issues
60.5%
Additional risk factors that appear to lead to violence against women in legislatures include being a member of the
political minority, being under the age of 40, and belonging to a minority ethnic, religious, or other marginalized
social group.
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 6.
Table 12 identifies how women legislators have reacted to the acts of violence they experienced.
Table 12. Effects of Violence Against Women in Politics
2016 findings of an IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
% of Survey
Reactions of Women in Politics Subjected to Violent Acts
Respondents
Distressed over the experience
66.7%
Concerned for the security of themselves, their friends, and family members
46.7%
Felt weakened in their ability to complete their mandates and to express their
opinions
38.7%
Reported incidents to the legislative security services or the police
51.7%
Strengthened their determination as a legislator
80.0%
Source: Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU),
October 2016, at https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download, p. 7.

Acknowledgements
Sandra Delaney, former CRS Summer Intern, and Jennifer Roscoe, former CRS Research
Assistant, helped in gathering data and presenting key points.

Author Information

Susan G. Chesser

Senior Research Librarian

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Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
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Congressional Research Service
R45483 · VERSION 10 · UPDATED
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