Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job
August 31, 2020
Training Programs
Adrienne L. Fernandes-
In an increasingly global economy, and with retirement underway for the Baby Boomer
Alcantara
generation, Congress has generally indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young
Specialist in Social Policy
people have the educational attainment and employment experience needed to become highly

skilled workers, contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Beginning in the
early 2000s, young people ages 16 to 24 began to experience a more pronounced decline in their

labor force participation rate and employment, along with a corresponding increase in
unemployment. These labor force indicators have generally persisted following the recession of 2007 to 2009. Further,
certain young people—such as high school dropouts, current and former foster youth, and other at-risk populations—face
obstacles to completing school and entering the workforce.
Since the 1930s, federal job training and employment programs and policies have sought to connect vulnerable youth to work
and school. Generally, these young people have been defined as being at-risk because they are economically disadvantaged
and have a barrier to employment. During the Great Depression, the focus was on employing young men who were idle
through public works and other projects. The employment programs from this era included an educational component to
encourage youth to obtain their high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government started funding
programs for low-income youth that address their multiple needs through job training, educational services, and supportive
services.
Currently, there are four major federal youth employment and job training programs, all of which are administered by the
Department of Labor’s (DOL’s) Employment and Training Administration (ETA). These programs generally have a common
purpose—to provide low-income youth with educational and employment opportunities and access to leadership
development and community service activities.
 The Youth Activities program offers job training and other services through what are known as local
workforce development boards, whose members are appointed by the chief local elected official(s). The
program was funded at $903.4 million in FY2019 and $913.4 million in FY2020.
Job Corps provides career and technical training in a number of trades at 121 residential centers throughout
the country. The program received annual FY2019 and FY2020 appropriations of $1.7 billion.
YouthBuild engages youth in educational services and job training that focus on the construction trades.
YouthBuild received FY2019 and FY2020 appropriations of $89.5 million and $94.5 million, respectively.
 The Reentry Employment Opportunities program, formerly known as the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
program, includes job training and other services for juvenile and adult offenders. The youth component of
the program was funded at $49.5 million in FY2019 and $26.6 million in FY2020, out of total
appropriations of $93 million and $98 million, respectively.
Generally, the programs are authorized under the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128) through
FY2020. WIOA does not explicitly authorize the Reentry Employment Opp ortunities program; however, funds have been
appropriated annually under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act, which authorizes supports
for individuals transitioning from confinement to the community. Section 169 authorizes evalu ations and research.
Since the recession began in February 2020, the youth job training and employment programs have not received additional
appropriations beyond the original funds provided for FY2020.
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Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
Context ......................................................................................................................... 2
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job Training Programs.......................................... 2

Depression Era .......................................................................................................... 3
War on Poverty Programs ........................................................................................... 3
Expanding Youth Programs ......................................................................................... 4
Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) and Youth Employment
and Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA) ............................................................. 4
Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)........................................................................ 5
School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA) ........................................................... 6
Workforce Investment Act (WIA) ........................................................................... 6

Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA).................................................. 6
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under WIOA ........................................................ 6
Coordination........................................................................................................... 12
Funding ....................................................................................................................... 12
Funding for FY2000-FY2020 .................................................................................... 13
WIOA Youth Activities Program ..................................................................................... 15
Overview and Purpose.............................................................................................. 15
Program Structure.................................................................................................... 15
Allocations ............................................................................................................. 16
Elements of Local Programs ................................................................................ 17
Participants............................................................................................................. 19
Performance ........................................................................................................... 21
Job Corps..................................................................................................................... 22
Overview and Purpose.............................................................................................. 22
Program Structure.................................................................................................... 22

Services for Students .......................................................................................... 23
Community Engagement ..................................................................................... 24
Allocations ............................................................................................................. 24
Participants............................................................................................................. 24

Performance ........................................................................................................... 25
Performance Oversight........................................................................................ 26
Renewing Contracts and Closing Centers ............................................................... 26
Evaluations ....................................................................................................... 27
Financial Oversight.................................................................................................. 28
YouthBuild .................................................................................................................. 28
Overview and Purpose.............................................................................................. 28
Program Structure.................................................................................................... 28

Participants............................................................................................................. 30
Allocations ............................................................................................................. 30
Performance ........................................................................................................... 31
Reentry Employment Opportunities Program .................................................................... 31
Overview and Purpose.............................................................................................. 31
Program Structure.................................................................................................... 32
Participants............................................................................................................. 32

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Allocations ............................................................................................................. 33
Performance ........................................................................................................... 33


Tables
Table 1. Features of Youth Job Training and Workforce Programs Authorized Under
WIOA ........................................................................................................................ 8
Table 2. Enacted Funding for WIOA Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
FY2000-FY2020 and Under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA,
P.L. 111-5)................................................................................................................. 13

Table 3. Elements of Youth Activities Program .................................................................. 18
Table 4. Eligibility for Youth Activities Program ................................................................ 20
Table 5. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild as Specified Under WIOA ........................ 29

Table A-1. Youth Activities State Al otments, PY2015-PY2020 ............................................ 34

Contacts
Author Information ....................................................................................................... 37

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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

Introduction
In an increasingly competitive economy, and with retirement underway for the Baby Boomer
generation, Congress has general y indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young
people have the educational attainment and employment experience necessary to become highly
skil ed workers, contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Chal enges in the
current economy, however, have heightened concern among some policymakers that many young
people may not be prepared to fil these roles.
The employment levels for youth under age 25 have declined since 2000, and more recently, their
rate of unemployment has increased during the recession that began in February 2020 following
the onset of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) public health emergency.1 Certain young
people in particular—including those from low-income families, those who have dropped out,
foster youth, and other at-risk populations—face barriers to completing school and entering the
workforce. Since the 1960s, federal job training programs and policies have sought to connect
these youth to education and employment pathways. Contemporary federal employment and job
training programs with this same purpose include the Youth Activities program; Job Corps;
YouthBuild; and the Reentry Employment Opportunities (REO) program, which includes a youth
component. These programs provide a range of services and supports to vulnerable youth.2 Some
of the programs concentrate on specific job trades and/or serve targeted at-risk populations. The
programs are authorized under the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-
128), and are administered by the Department of Labor’s (DOL) Employment and Training
Administration (ETA).3
This report provides an overview of the primary federal employment and job training programs
for vulnerable young people. It begins with a discussion of the current chal enges in preparing al
young people today for the workforce. The report then provides a chronology of job training and
employment programs for at-risk youth that began in the 1930s and were expanded or modified
from the 1960s through the 1990s. It goes on to discuss the four youth programs authorized under
WIOA, and draws comparisons between these programs. Following this section is a detailed
discussion of each of the programs, including program purpose and structure, participants,
financial al ocations, and performance oversight.


1 CRS Report R42519, Youth and the Labor Force: Background and Trends; and CRS Insight IN11491, Youth Labor
Force Indicators in the Context of COVID-19
.
2 Since the recession began in February 2020, these programs have not received additional appropriations beyond the
original funds provided for FY2020.
3 T wo rules accompany the WIOA law. U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), Employment and T raining Administrati on
(ET A), “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Final Rule,” 81 Federal Register 56072, August 19, 2016; and
DOL, ET A; and Department of Education, “ Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Joint Rule for Unified and
Combined State Plans, Performance Accountability, and the One-Stop System Joint Provisions; Final Rule,” 81
Federal Register
56072, August 19, 2016. See other DOL, ET A resources: “ Workforce Innovation and Opportunity
Act,” http://www.doleta.gov/wioa/; T raining and Employment Guidance Letter (T EGL) No. 19 -14, “Vision for the
Workforce System and Initial Implementation of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014,” February
19, 2015; and T EGL No. 23-14, “ Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) Youth Program Transition.” See
also, CRS Report R44252, The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act and the One-Stop Delivery System .
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

Context
As they leave high school, either through graduation or by dropping out, young people can pursue
various options. Youth with a high school diploma may attend a two- or four-year college, enlist
in the armed services, or secure part-time or full-time employment (sometimes paired with
attending school). Youth without a high school diploma can do some of these same things, but
their opportunities are more limited. They cannot enroll in a four-year college or, in most cases,
enlist in the military. These youth wil likely have difficulty supporting themselves if they do
work.4
Individuals who drop out are less likely to secure employment and have lower earning power. As
the level of education rises, the unemployment rate decreases and median weekly earnings
increase for those who work.5 In 2019, before the current recession, adults with a high school
degree had an unemployment rate of 3.7% and weekly earnings of $833. This is compared to an
unemployment rate of 2.2% and $1,248 in weekly earnings for college graduates. The costs of
dropping out extend beyond the individual’s foregone job opportunities and lower wages.
According to the research literature, costs can be incurred by society overal . These costs include
possible lost payroll tax revenue and increased transfers for welfare payments, imprisonment, and
programs to re-enroll dropouts in school.6
Federal youth employment and job training programs have long targeted services to young people
who leave school before graduating or are in school and may be vulnerable to dropping out. The
purpose of these programs, as they currently exist, is to provide job training, employment,
educational services, and social services that can help youth become economical y self-sufficient
and achieve their career and academic goals. These contemporary programs also emphasize
leadership development and community service. Note that while youth employment and job
training programs are also enhanced with state workforce and other dollars, the extent to which
this support is provided is unclear.
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job
Training Programs7
For more than 90 years, the federal government has played a role in helping young people secure
employment and achieve academic success. General y, these young people have been defined as
being vulnerable in some way—either because they are economical y disadvantaged and/or have
a barrier to securing employment or completing their education. During the Great Depression, the
focus was on employing idle young men in public works and other projects. The employment

4 For further information about youth prospects in the labor market, see CRS Report R42519, Youth and the Labor
Force: Background and Trends
; and CRS Report R40535, Disconnected Youth: A Look at 16 to 24 Year Olds Who Are
Not Working or In School
.
5 DOL, BLS, Unemployment Rates and Earnings by Educational Attainment, 2019, September 2019.
6 Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, The Consequences of Dropping Out of High School:
Joblessness and Jailing of High School Dropouts and the High Cost for Taxpayers
, October 1, 2009; Paul E. Barton,
One Third of a Nation: Rising Dropout Rates and Declining Opportunities, Educational T esting Services, February
2009; and Clive R. Belfield, Henry M. Levin, and Rachel Rosen, The Econom ic Value of Opportunity Youth , prepared
for the Corporation for National and Community Service and the White House Council for Ec onomic Solutions,
January 2012.
7 Unless otherwise noted, this section draws heavily on an archived report by the Congressional Research Service,
Youth Em ploym ent: A Sum mary History of Major Federal Program s, 1933-1976. Available to congressional clients
upon request.
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programs from this era included an educational component to encourage youth to obtain their
high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government started funding programs
for low-income youth, such as Job Corps, that address their multiple needs, including job training,
educational services, housing, and supportive services. During the 1970s and 1980s, Job Corps
was expanded and the federal government funded additional programs for both in-school and out-
of-school youth. Funding was also appropriated to test the efficacy of some of these programs.
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 extended earlier programs and created new ones, with the
intention of providing more seamless job training and education services for youth year-round.
The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act maintained these programs and changed some of
their requirements. General y, these programs are targeted to teenagers and young adults, usual y
to age 24, who are at risk of dropping out or have already done so.
Depression Era
Prior to the 1930s, the federal government’s involvement in youth employment was primarily
limited to regulating child labor.8 The Great Depression served as a catalyst for the creation of
federal programs to employ and educate young people who were out of work or at risk of
dropping out of school due to financial difficulties. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
began in 1933 as an employment program for unemployed males ages 18 to 25 (and veterans,
Indians, and residents of territories of any age) to participate in projects planned by the
Departments of the Interior and Agriculture. These projects focused on creating and improving
infrastructure, transportation, and recreational services, among other categories. The young men
lived in camps and were provided with an al owance, food, and medical care. The CCC also
included an educational component, which taught nearly 35,000 participants to read and write and
assisted a smal er number with attaining their high school and college degrees. Until the program
ended in 1945, it served nearly 3 mil ion men, of whom approximately 10% were veterans.
Other Depression era programs—the Student Aid program, Works Project program, and Guidance
and Placement program—were administered by the National Youth Administration, which was
created as part of the now-defunct Works Progress Administration by an executive order in 1935.
The programs provided funds for part-time employment of needy high school, college, and
graduate students to assist them in completing school, as wel as funds for part-time employment
for unemployed out-of-school youth. These young people, al of whom were ages 16 through 25,
were employed in a number of broad areas, including construction, clerical work, and research.
These programs served hundreds of thousands of youth before they were discontinued in the early
1940s.
War on Poverty Programs
The 1960s marked a period of federal efforts to assist poor and disadvantaged children,
adolescents, and their families through job training and other programs. In response to concerns
about high unemployment, the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 (P.L. 87-415)
and subsequent amendments to it authorized funding for employment training. Specifical y,
amendments to the act in 1963 (P.L. 88-214) encouraged the Department of Labor to provide
assistance to youth so that they might be able to successfully enter the labor force, and expanded
the share of job training funds that could be used to train youth under age 22 from 5% to 25%.

8 John H. Bremner, T amara K. Hareven, and Robert M. Mennel, eds., Children & Youth in America, Vol. II: 1866-
1932, Parts 1-6 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 687 -749.
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Further, federal funding was first authorized through the 1963 amendments to provide
employment opportunities to youth from low-income families.
President Lyndon B. Johnson’s subsequent War on Poverty established new youth-targeted
programs in job training and educational assistance under an initiative known as the
Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC). The NYC was made up of work training programs, the Work
Study program, and Job Corps. The work training programs provided work experience, job
training, and supportive services to low-income unemployed youth ages 16 through 21 who were
in school or out of school, including dropouts. The Work Study program was modeled on the
Depression-era Student Aid program and provided money to high school and college students
from low-income families who needed earnings to stay in school. The program continues today
for college students. Job Corps, which also continues today, was established under the Economic
Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452) to provide educational and job training opportunities to
disadvantaged youth at residential and non-residential centers. (See subsequent discussion on Job
Corps for further information.)
Expanding Youth Programs
The 1973 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA, P.L. 93-203) was the first of
four laws enacted during the 1970s and 1980s that focused greater federal attention on youth
employment and training. The second law, the Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project
Act (YEDPA, P.L. 95-93), was enacted in 1977 and established a variety of employment, training,
and demonstration programs for youth. The 1982 Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA, P.L. 97-
300) repealed CETA. JTPA was subsequently repealed by WIA. Separately, the School-to-Work
Opportunities Act of 1994 (STWOA, P.L. 103-239) supported the development of programs that
encouraged students to pursue learning opportunities and experiences that incorporated
occupational skil s. Activities authorized under these acts were administered by DOL. STWOA
was additional y carried out by the Department of Education (ED).
Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) and Youth Employment
and Demonstration Projects Act (YEDPA)

As amended through 1978, CETA authorized a range of employment and training programs for
adults and youth. Job Corps and the Summer Program for Economical y Disadvantaged Youth
(SPEDY) were the primary youth programs authorized under CETA. SPEDY provided funding to
employers to hire low-income youth ages 14 through 21 during the summer months. Youth served
as assistants in hospitals, libraries, community service organizations, and schools, among other
settings.
The Youth Employment and Demonstrations Projects Act (YEDPA), signed into law in 1977,
amended CETA.9 YEDPA increased authorization of appropriations for Job Corps and SPEDY
and authorized three additional programs targeted to “economical y disadvantaged” (defined
under the act) youth ages 14 through 21: Youth Employment and Training Programs (YETP),
Youth Community Conservation and Improvement Projects (YCCIP), and Youth Incentive
Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP).10 YEDPA was passed in response to high levels of

9 Much of this section on YEDPA was drawn from Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R.
Papageorgiou, eds., Youth Em ploym ent and Training Program s: The YEDPA Years, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1985. (Hereinafter, Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R. Papageorgiou, Youth
Em ploym ent and Training Program s.
)
10 A fourth program, the Young Adult Conservat ion Corps (YACC), was operated by the Department of Agriculture
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unemployment among youth relative to adults, even during periods of economic expansion, and
growing gaps in youth unemployment among whites and blacks, males and females, and in-
school and out-of-school youth. The programs were carried out during the Carter Administration,
from 1977 through 1981. Over this period, YEDPA served 6.1 mil ion youth.
YETP and YCCIP were intended to meet the immediate employment needs of youth, and funding
for the programs was al ocated primarily on a formula basis. YETP activities included work
experience, pre-employment skil s, and an emphasis on the transition from school to work.
YCCIP was intended to assist unemployed, out-of-school youth obtain a high school degree,
conditional on satisfactory performance in work and school. Further, it was aimed at improving
coordination between the job training and educational systems as a means of addressing the
dropout problem.11 Final y, YIEPP funded evaluations to test the efficacy of demonstration
programs; the other two programs included funding for demonstration programs. During the
YEDPA years, more than 60 major demonstrations were funded in about 300 sites, operated by
DOL in cooperation with six other federal agencies and private nonprofit intermediaries.
Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)
CETA was repealed in 1982 by the Job Training Partnership Act.12 JTPA was distinct from its
predecessor because it emphasized that states and localities, rather than the federal government,
had the primary responsibility for administering job training and employment programs. Funding
was appropriated under JTPA through FY1999. JTPA programs focused on the training needs of
“economical y disadvantaged” (defined under the act) youth and adults facing significant barriers
to employment. JTPA programs included the Summer Youth Employment and Training program,
the Youth Training Program, and Job Corps.
The Summer Youth Employment and Training program provided employment and training
activities during the summer months for low-income youth ages 14 through 21 to strengthen basic
educational skil s, encourage school completion, provide work exposure, and enhance citizenship
skil s. In the summer of 1997, an estimated 500,000 youth participated. The Youth Training
Program was established by the Job Training Reform Amendments of 1992 (P.L. 102-367), which
amended JTPA to address concerns that school dropouts were not being reached by the then-
existing combined program for disadvantaged adults and youth, and that the program primarily
served youth who were the easiest to place in jobs and required the fewest services.13 The
program was year-round and provided direct services, such as on-the-job training, tutoring and
study skil s training, and school-to-work transition services. It also provided training-related and

and Department of the Interior, in cooperation with DOL, and targeted unemployed youth ages 16 to 23 who were not
necessarily disadvantaged. T his program operated year-round and was separate from a similarly named program, the
Youth Conservation Corps (YCC). YCC was permanently authorized by the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970
(P.L. 91-378) and continues to operate.
11 Other parts of YEDPA required close coordination with the school system . According to an assessment of the act’s
implementation, the schools maintained their focus on in -school youth and provided essentially the same set of
educational services as usual. T he lack of influence of YEDPA on schools may be largely attributed to t he schools’
resistance to allocating services according to income and the schools’ perception that their mission was exclusively to
educate students. Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R. Papageorgiou, Youth Em ploym ent and
Training Program s
, pp. 84-87.
12 Unless otherwise noted, this section was drawn heavily from an archived report by the Congressional Research
Service, The Job Training Partnership Act: A Com pendium of Program s. Available to congressional clients upon
request.
13 Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Job Training Partnership Act: Legislation and Budget
Issues
. Available to congressional clients upon request.
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supportive services, including job search assistance, drug and alcohol abuse counseling, and cash
incentives based on attendance and performance in a program. Economical y disadvantaged in-
school and out-of-school youth ages 16 through 21 were eligible, but 50% of participants had to
be out of school. Further, at least 65% of youth had to be hard to serve, meaning they were school
dropouts (if out of school), pregnant or parenting, or offenders, among other qualifications. In
program year 1997, an estimated 107,000 youth participated. JTPA was replaced by WIA.
School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA)
The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 authorized the School-to-Work (STW) program
administered jointly by DOL and the Department of Education through the National School-to-
Work Office.14 The program was funded from FY1994 through FY2000. The law supported the
development of programs with three main elements: work-based learning to provide participating
students with work experience and on-the-job training; school-based learning, involving
upgrading and integrating the occupational skil s participating students learn in school and the
workplace; and program coordination to aid the planning, implementation, and operation of the
program. STWOA grants were competitively awarded to states, local partnerships, programs for
Indian youth, and U.S. territories to implement school-to-work systems. In addition, STWOA
authorized national activities, such as research and demonstrations. Some school-to-work
programs that received seed money from the federal program continue to operate today.
Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 replaced JTPA. WIA includes titles that authorize
programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult education and literacy (Title II),
employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation (Title IV). Title I of WIA authorized
job training programs for youth, adults, and dislocated workers. Funding was authorized for the
program through FY2003, and Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in
subsequent years.
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA)
Congress took steps toward reauthorizing WIA from the 108th to the 113th Congresses, ultimately
passing the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) on July 9, 2014. President
Obama signed the bil into law (P.L. 113-128) on July 22, 2014. As of July 1, 2015, the law
superseded WIA. Like WIA, WIOA includes titles that authorize programs for job training and
related services (Title I), adult education and literacy (Title II), employment services (Title III),
and vocational rehabilitation (Title IV). The major job training programs for youth and other
workers are authorized in Title I.
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under
WIOA
WIOA authorizes, and appropriations laws have provided funding for, four youth job training and
employment programs:
Youth Workforce Investment Activities Program (Youth Activities program), a
formula grant program for state and local workforce development boards

14 Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The School-to-Work Opportunities Act. Available to
congressional clients upon request.
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(WDBs) that includes employment and other services that are provided year-
round;
Job Corps, a program that provides job training and related services primarily at
residential centers maintained by contractor organizations;
YouthBuild, a program that provides grant funding to nonprofit and other
organizations to serve youth through job training and education services in the
construction trades; and
Reentry Employment Opportunities (REO), a program that provides grant
funding to nonprofit and other organizations to serve juvenile and adult offenders
through job training and other services.
The Youth Activities program was established under WIA, and retained many of its same features
as authorized under WIOA. Job Corps was enacted as part of the Economic Opportunity Act of
1964 (P.L. 88-452), and was later incorporated into successor workforce laws. YouthBuild was
original y authorized under the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1992
(P.L. 102-550). The program was administered by the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) until it was transferred to DOL in 2007 under the YouthBuild Transfer Act
(P.L. 109-281) and incorporated into WIA and WIOA. WIOA does not explicitly authorize the
REO program; however, the annual appropriations law has provided funding under Section 169
of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169 authorizes evaluations and research.
DOL’s Employment and Training Administration administers the four programs. Al of the
programs offer employment, job training, educational services, and social supports. For example,
local workforce development areas must provide specific elements, including mentoring and
follow-up, to youth who receive services under the Youth Activities program. These workforce
development boards receive funding from state workforce development boards to carry out
activities. YouthBuild program participants engage in employment and other activities primarily
related to housing and other types of construction work. Job Corps is the only one of the
programs that provides residential services; youth can live onsite and receive health care services,
child care, and other supports at residential centers.
Further, the programs general y serve vulnerable youth. Participants in the Youth Activities, Job
Corps, and YouthBuild programs must be low-income and have a barrier to employment, except
out-of-school in the Youth Activities program do not have to be low-income. The youth
component of the Reentry Employment Opportunities program serves youth who have become
involved in the juvenile justice or criminal justice system or youth at risk of becoming involved.
The programs are funded somewhat differently. DOL al ocates funding for the Youth Activities
program to state WDBs based on a formula, while Job Corps enters into contracts with nonprofit
and for-profit organizations and into an interagency agreement with the U.S. Department of
Agriculture’s (USDA) Forest Service. The other programs competitively award grants to
nonprofit and other organizations and local communities. Table 1 summarizes the programs’
major features.
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Table 1. Features of Youth Job Training and Workforce Programs Authorized Under WIOA
Youth Component of Reentry
Key
Employment Opportunities
Feature
Youth Activities
Job Corps
YouthBuild
(REO)
Purpose
WIOA does not specify purpose
To maintain a national Job Corps
To (1) enable disadvantaged
Per WIOA’s evaluation and
areas for the program. However,
program—carried out in partnership
youth to obtain the education
research authority, to support
the law general y seeks to provide
with states and communities—to
and employment skil s
related initiatives that seek to
eligible youth with assistance in
assist eligible youth to connect to the
necessary to achieve self-
assist youth offenders and youth at
achieving academic and employment
labor force by providing them with
sufficiency in occupations in
risk of dropping out; and provide
success through activities that
intensive social, academic, career and
demand and postsecondary
supports for youth at risk of
improve educational and skil
technical education, and service
education and training
involvement with the justice
competencies and foster effective
learning opportunities, in residential
opportunities; (2) provide
system.
connections to employers.
centers throughout the country, to
disadvantaged youth with
(Appropriation laws have specified

(1) obtain secondary school diplomas
opportunities for meaningful
that funding for the program is
or recognized postsecondary
work and to serve their
appropriated under the authority
credentials leading to successful
communities; (3) foster
of Section 169 of WIOA and the
careers, in in-demand industry sectors
employment and leadership
Second Chance Act. Section 169
or occupations or the Armed Forces
skil s and commitment to
authorizes evaluations and
or (2) enrol in postsecondary
community development
research.)
education, including apprenticeship
among youth in low-income
programs; and (3) provide responsible
communities; (4) expand the
citizenship. The other purpose areas
supply of permanent affordable
focus on program operations.
housing for the homeless by
utilizing the energies and
talents of disadvantaged youth;
and (5) improve the quality and
energy efficiency of community
and other nonprofit and public
facilities, including those
facilities that are used to serve
homeless and low-income
families.
CRS-8


Youth Component of Reentry
Key
Employment Opportunities
Feature
Youth Activities
Job Corps
YouthBuild
(REO)
Target
In-school youth ages 14 to 21 and out-
Includes youth ages 16 through 24
Includes youth ages 16 through Per WIOA’s evaluation and
Population
of-school youth ages 16 to 24 are
who are low-income and meet one or
24 who are (1) members of
research authority, the target
eligible. In-school youth includes
more of the fol owing criteria: (1)
low-income families, in foster
population has included youth
those who are attending school,
basic skil s deficient; (2) a school
care, offenders, disabled, the
offenders and young adult
low-income, and meet specified
dropout; (3) homeless, a runaway, or
children of incarcerated
offenders.
criteria, such as being deficient in
an individual in foster care or who
parents, or migrants; and (2)

basic skil s, pregnant or parenting,
aged out of foster care (4) a parent;
are school dropouts.
individuals who are English language
(5) a victim of a severe form of

learners, or homeless or currently
trafficking in persons (as defined by
or formerly in foster care. Out-of-
the Trafficking Victims Protection Act,
school youth includes those who
or TVPA); or (6) an individual who
meet certain criteria such as being a
requires additional education, career
high school dropout or being low-
and technical training, or workforce
income. For purposes of eligibility,
preparation skil s to be able to obtain
low-income also means youth who
and retain employment that leads to
are living in a high-poverty area. No
economic self-sufficiency to
less than 75% of funds (for statewide
participate in regular schoolwork or
funding and funding for local areas)
to secure and maintain employment.
must be used for out-of-school
A veteran is eligible if he or she meets
youth.
the eligibility criteria; however, the
income requirement does not apply if
the veteran’s income earned in the
military (within the six-month period
prior to applying for the program)
exceeds the income limit.
CRS-9


Youth Component of Reentry
Key
Employment Opportunities
Feature
Youth Activities
Job Corps
YouthBuild
(REO)
Funding
Funds are al ocated by formula to
DOL enters into an agreement with a
Grants are competitively
Per WIOA’s evaluation and
Mechanism
state workforce development
federal, state, or local agency; an area
awarded to community-based
research authority, grants are
boards (WDBs), based on a formula
career and technical education school
organizations, faith-based
competitively awarded to a variety
that accounts for a state’s relative
or residential career and technical
organizations, entities carrying
of entities, which have included
share of unemployment and
education school; or a private
out activities under Title I of
community-based organizations,
economical y disadvantaged youth. In organization to operate Job Corps
WIOA (such as a local
school districts, and state
turn, state boards real ocate, by
centers. In addition, DOL enters into
workforce development
departments of corrections.
formula, funding to local WDBs on
an interagency agreement with the
board), community action

the same basis that funds are
U.S. Forest Service, under the United
agencies, state or local housing
al ocated to states. Local WDBs
States Department of Agriculture
development agencies, an
general y contract with local entities,
(USDA), which operate 23 Civilian
Indian tribe or other agency
such as nonprofit organizations and
Conservation Centers that have a
primarily serving Indians, state
community col eges, to provide
focus on conserving, developing, or
or local youth service or
services.
managing public natural resources or
conservation corps, and other
public recreation areas.
organizations that provide

education or employment
training under a federal
program other than
YouthBuild.
Types of
Each local WDB must provide 14
Youth general y live at the Job Corps
At least 40% of the time, youth Per WIOA’s pilot and
Activities for
elements that include tutoring, study centers, where youth receive
must participate in certain
demonstration authority, grantees
Youth
skil s training, and other academic
intensive social and academic supports work and skil development
provided a variety of activities,
activities; alternative secondary
and career and technical education;
activities. At least an additional
depending on the type of grant
school services or dropout recovery
and participate in service-learning
50% of the time, participants
awarded. Such activities included
services; paid and unpaid work
opportunities.
must be engaged in education
pre-release, mentoring, housing,
experiences (which may include
and related services and
case management, employment
summer employment opportunities,
activities designed to meet
services, and violence prevention
pre-apprenticeship programs,
their educational needs. These
strategies.
internships and job shadowing, and
activities include training and

on-the-job training opportunities);
supports in the construction
supportive services; adult mentoring;
trades and (if approved by the
fol ow-up services, and other
Secretary) in additional in-
activities.
demand industry sectors or
occupations.
CRS-10


Youth Component of Reentry
Key
Employment Opportunities
Feature
Youth Activities
Job Corps
YouthBuild
(REO)
Participants in
160,486 (2019)
46,966 (PY2018)
6,000 annual y
10,342 (FY2019)
the Program
Authorized
Specified funding levels that increase
Specified funding levels that increase
Specified funding levels that
Funding authority for Section 169
Funding
over FY2015-FY2020 from $820
over FY2015-FY2020 from $1.69
increase over FY2015-FY2020
(evaluations and research)
mil ion to $964 mil ion annual y.
bil ion to $1.98 bil ion annual y.
from $76 mil ion to $91 mil ion
increases over FY2015-FY2020
annual y.
from $91 mil ion to $106.9 mil ion
annual y.
FY2020 Funding
$913,130
$1,743,655
$94,534
$26,597 (out of $98,079 overal
(dol ars in
appropriation)
thousands)
Sources: Congressional Research Service (CRS), based on correspondence with DOL, ETA, most recently in August 2020; Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act
(WIOA; P.L. 113-128); DOL, FY2020 Budget Operating Plan; DOL, ETA, Student Outcomes/Who Job Corps Serves; DOL, ETA, YouthBuild Fact Sheet; DOL, ETA, Workforce
System Results for the Quarter Ending December 31, 2019,
p. 2.
Notes: WIOA requires that funds appropriated for a program or activity carried out under Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis of a program
year (PY). The program year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends June 30 of the f ol owing year. General y, the appropriations
for a given fiscal year (e.g., FY2020) are used to fund the program in the same program year (e.g., PY2020).
CRS-11

Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

Coordination
The WIOA Youth Activities program and other youth programs make up a network of job training
and employment opportunities for youth. In some communities, this may be formalized while in
others, coordination between the programs may be less structured. WIOA includes provisions that
encourage or require the programs to coordinate with one another. The state workforce
development board (WDB), which receives Youth Activities and other funding from DOL, may
include representatives of organizations that have demonstrated experience and expertise in
addressing the employment, training, or education needs of eligible youth, including
representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school youth.15 These boards are responsible for
carrying out WIOA programs at the state level and al ocating funds to local WDBs. The local
board is made up of partners that collaborate to provide coordinated employment and training
services in the community.16
Further, under the state workforce plan (unified state plan), states are required to submit a
description of the state’s strategic vision and goals for preparing an educated and skil ed
workforce—including preparing youth and individuals with barriers to employment—and for
meeting the skil ed workforce needs of employers, among other requirements.17 In addition, local
WDBs, which receive funds to carry out the Youth Activities program, must describe and assess
in their local plans the type and availability of youth workforce investment activities in the local
area, including activities for youth with disabilities. The plan must identify successful models of
such youth workforce investment activities.18 Local workforce boards may choose to establish a
standing committee to provide information and assist with planning to provide services to
youth.19 Further, the Youth Activities program, Job Corps, and YouthBuild are required partners at
one-stop centers. One-stop centers are operated by local WDBs and include federal programs that
coordinate employment and other services in a community for al youth and adults.20
Funding
WIOA provides funding authorization from FY2015 through FY2020 for youth employment and
job training programs. General y, funds appropriated for a program or activity carried out under
Title I of the act are available for obligation on the basis of a program year.21 The program year
begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends June 30 of the
following year. Funds for the Youth Activities program may first become available for a new
program year in the preceding April. In addition, Congress has tended to specify that funds
appropriated for YouthBuild and the youth component of the Reentry Employment Opportunities
program are available for obligation beginning in the April preceding a given program year.
Congress has general y required that obligated funds for Job Corps are made available for one

15 Section 101(b)(1)(II) of WIOA.
16 Section 121 of WIOA.
17 Section 102(b)(1)(D) of WIOA.
18 Section 108(b)(9) of WIOA.
19 Section 107(b)(4)(ii) of WIOA.
20 Section 121(b)(1)(B) of WIOA. For further information, see CRS Report R44252, The Workforce Innovation and
Opportunity Act and the One-Stop Delivery System
.
21 Section 189(g)(1)(A) of WIOA. Section 173(h)(2), which pertains to authorization for YouthBuild, states that
notwithstanding Section 189(g), appropriations for any fiscal year for programs and activities carried out under this
section are to be available for obligation only on the basis of a fiscal year.
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program year, although funding for certain purposes can be obligated through later dates. Funds
obligated for any program year for the Youth Activities may be expended by each state receiving
such funds during that program year and the two succeeding program years. Local areas may
expend funds received from the state during the program year and the succeeding program year.22
Funding for FY2000-FY2020
Table 2
includes the level of enacted funding23 for each of the youth job training and employment
programs for FY2000 through FY2020. (Appropriations for these years correspond to the same
program year). Congress appropriated a total of $2.4 bil ion to $2.8 bil ion annual y for the four
programs in most years over this period. Table A-1 presents Youth Activities funding al ocated to
the states and outlying areas, which are provided by DOL on a program-year basis. Additional
appropriations have not be provided to the programs in response to COVID-19.
Job Corps has general y received the largest appropriation each year, followed by the Youth
Activities program, YouthBuild, and the youth component of the Reentry Employment
Opportunity program (although in two years, YouthBuild received less funding than the REO
youth component).
Table 2. Enacted Funding for WIOA Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
FY2000-FY2020 and Under the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5)
Dol ars in thousands; the fiscal year general y corresponds to the program year for each program
Youth
Component of
the Reentry
Employment
Total
Youth
Opportunities
Funding, All
Fiscal Year
Activities
Job Corps
YouthBuild
Program
Programs
2000
$1,000,965
$1,357,776
$43,000
$13,907
$2,415,648
2001
1,127,965
1,399,148
60,000
55,000
2,642,113
2002
1,127,965
1,458,732
65,000
55,000
2,706,697
2003
994,459
1,509,094
59,610
54,643
2,617,806
2004
995,059
1,541,151
65,000
49,705
2,650,915
2005
986,288
1,551,861
62,000
69,440
2,669,589
2006
940,500
1,564,180
62,000
49,104
2,615,784
2007
940,500
1,566,178
49,500
49,104
2,605,282
2008
924,069
1,610,506
58,952
55,000
2,648,527
2009
924,069
1,683,938
70,000
88,500
2,766,507
ARRA
1,200,000
250,000
50,000
0
1,500,000
2010
924,069
1,708,205
102,500
73,493
2,808,267
2011a
825,914
1,706,171a
79,840
50,000
2,661,925
2012b
824,353
1,702,947
79,689
60,000
2,666,989

22 Section 189(g)(2) of WIOA.
23 All funding numbers are in nominal (not inflation-adjusted) dollars.
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Youth
Component of
the Reentry
Employment
Total
Youth
Opportunities
Funding, All
Fiscal Year
Activities
Job Corps
YouthBuild
Program
Programs
2013c
781,375
1,613,872
75,534
43,910
2,514,691
2014
820,430
1,688,155
77,534
42,500
2,628,619
2015
831,842
1,688,155
79,689
44,054
2,643,740
2016d
873,416
1,656,825
84,534
39,520
2,654,295
2017
873,416
1,704,155
84,534
48,092
2,710,197
2018
903,416
1,718,655
89,534
45,000
2,756,605
2019
903,416
1,718,655
89,534
49,592
2,756,605
2020
913,416
1,743,655
94,534
26,597
2,778,802
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from correspondence with the Department of
Labor (DOL) Employment and Training Administration (ETA), most recently in August 2020; DOL budget
justifications; Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) budget justifications; DOL Employment
and Training Administration budget information at http://www.doleta.gov/budget; DOL, Al Purpose Table FY2011
Ful -Year Continuing Resolution
; U.S. Congress, Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 2055, Military Construction
and Veterans Affairs and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2012
Division F, 112th Cong., 1st sess., December 15,
2011, H.Rept. 112-331; DOL, FY2013 Operating Plan; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Rules, 113th Cong.,
2nd sess., Committee Print 113-32 to the Senate Amendment to the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014
(H.R. 3547), which was enacted as P.L. 113-76; the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act,
2015 (P.L. 113-235); Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016 (P.L. 114-113); Consolidated Appropriations Act,
2017 (P.L. 115-31); Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2018 (P.L. 115-141); Department of Defense and Labor,
Health and Human Services, and Education Appropriations Act, 2019; and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2019
(P.L. 115-245); and Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020 (P.L. 116-94).
a. The Department of Defense and Ful -Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (P.L. 112-10) includes a
0.2% across-the-board rescission. Job Corps includes three accounts—administration, operations, and
construction. The FY2011 appropriations law was based on funding for FY2010, and included an across-the-
board rescission of 0.2% for al programs and an additional rescission of $75.0 mil ion. The 0.2% across-the-
board rescission applied only to current year, and not advance, appropriations. Advance appropriations are
those funds enacted in one fiscal year but not available for obligation until a subsequent fiscal year or years.
Two of Job Corps’ three accounts, operations and construction, include advance funds. Therefore, the
across-the-board reduction only applied to current year funding (or $983.0 mil ion for operations and $5.0
mil ion for construction). According to the Department of Labor, $75.0 mil ion was subtracted from existing
balances, and therefore the FY2011 funding was not affected by this decrease. CRS correspondence with
DOL, ETA, May 2010.
b. FY2012 funding information was included in the conference report (H.Rept. 112-331) for the Consolidated
Appropriations Act, FY2012 (P.L. 112-74). This law was the final in a series of continuing resolutions to
provide funding for the Department of Labor and select other departments. The figures presented in this
table incorporate an across-the-board rescission of 0.189%.
c. Funding for FY2013 was provided through a series of continuing resolutions. The final continuing resolution
was the Consolidated and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013 (P.L. 113-6). The FY2013 funding levels
provided were based on the operating plan provided by DOL to Congress. This funding included a 0.2%
rescission, per P.L. 113-6, and a sequestered amount of 5.0%, per the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-
25), as amended by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-240).
d. Fol owing three continuing resolutions (P.L. 114-53, P.L. 114-96, and P.L. 114-100), Congress passed, and
President Obama enacted, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016 (P.L. 114-113) to fund the
Department of Labor and other agencies.

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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

The next section of the report provides further discussion about the youth programs authorized
under WIOA.
WIOA Youth Activities Program24
Overview and Purpose
The Youth Activities program is one of three formula grant programs that were initial y
authorized by WIA, and is now authorized under WIOA as the Youth Workforce Investment
Activities program. The other two WIOA programs target adults (Adult Activities) and dislocated
workers (Dislocated Worker Activities), although youth ages 18 or older are eligible for services
provided through the Adult Activities program. These programs provide core funding for a
coordinated system of employment and training services overseen by a state workforce
development board and the governor, and composed of representatives of businesses and other
partners. WIOA does not include purpose areas for the Youth Activities program; however, it
general y seeks to provide assistance to youth in achieving academic and employment success.
Program Structure
With assistance from the state workforce development board, the governor develops a plan
(known as the unified state plan) that is submitted to DOL. The plan is to address several items
related to employment and training needs, performance accountability, and employment and
training activities. The plan is to be submitted every four years for the Youth Activities, Adult
Activities, and Dislocated Activities programs.25 Further, the unified state plan is to address youth
primarily in two places. It must outline the state’s strategic vision and goals for preparing an
educated and skil ed workforce, include preparing youth with barriers to employment. It must
also outline the criteria to be used by local boards in awarding contracts for youth services and
describing how local WDBs wil take into consideration the ability of providers to meet
performance measures that are based on primary indicators of performance for the Youth
Activities program (these indicators are discussed in a subsequent section).
As specified under WIOA, a local workforce area is overseen by the local workforce development
board. Membership of the local board is to include representatives of businesses, local education
entities, labor organizations, community-based organizations, and economic development
agencies, among others.26 The boards may include representatives of organizations that have
demonstrated experience and expertise in addressing the employment, training, or education
needs of eligible youth, including representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school
youth.27
Local boards are to competitively award funds to local organizations and other entities to provide
employment and job training services to youth.28 Grants or contracts awarded are to be based on
criteria in the state plan, and by taking into consideration the ability of the providers to meet

24 T itle I, Chapter 2 of WIOA and 20 C.F.R. 20 C.F.R. §681.
25 Section 102 and Section 103 of WIOA.
26 Section 107(b) of WIOA.
27 Section 107(2)(iv) of WIOA.
28 Section 123(b) of WIOA. T he regulations (20 C.F.R. §681.400) specify that local workforce development boards
may choose to directly provide some or all youth workforce activities.
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

performance accountability measures that are based on primary indicators of performance for the
Youth Activities program (as discussed subsequently). Further, a local board may award funding
on a sole-source basis if the board determines there is an insufficient number of eligible providers
of youth workforce investment activities in the local area to participate on a competitive basis.
Local boards may terminate “for cause” the eligibility of these providers.29
The local board develops a local plan that discusses items similar to those in the state plan, except
that the plan describes the local area’s one-stop delivery system. A one-stop system is intended to
provide central access to employment and training services in a community. The Youth Activities
program is a required partner in the one-stop system under WIOA. The WIOA regulations specify
that local boards must either collocate youth program staff at one-stop centers and/or ensure one-
stop centers and staff are equipped to advise youth in order to increase youth access to services
and connect youth to the program that best aligns with their needs.30 Further, one-stop systems
may have specialized centers to address special needs, including the needs of youth.
The local board must ensure that parents and other stakeholders are involved in designing and
implementing the Youth Activities program.31 In addition, the local board may establish a
standing committee to provide information and to assist with planning, operational, and other
issues relating to providing services to youth, including community-based organizations with a
demonstrated record of success in serving eligible youth.32 If a local board establishes a standing
youth committee, it may assign it the responsibility of selecting youth providers. The WIOA
regulations discuss the potential role of a standing youth committee, including to recommend
policy direction to the local board for the design and development of programs to benefit al
youth; the design of a comprehensive community workforce development system to ensure a full
range of services and responsibilities for al youth, including disconnected youth; and ways to
leverage resources and coordinate services among schools, public programs, and community-
based organizations serving youth, among other possible responsibilities.33
Allocations
Funding for the Youth Activities program is al ocated from DOL to states, including Puerto Rico
and Washington, DC, and the outlying areas.34 WIOA requires that not more than 0.25% is
reserved for outlying areas and not more than 1.5% is reserved for youth activities for Native
American youth.35 WIOA specifies that the al otments for the outlying areas are based on a
competitive grant process.36

29 Section 107(d)(10(B) and Section 123 of WIOA.
30 20 C.F.R. §681.700.
31 Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIOA.
32 Section 107(b)(4)(A)(ii) of WIOA.
33 20 C.F.R. §681.100.
34 T he outlying areas comprise the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth o f the Northern
Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau.
WIOA specifies that the Republic of Palau may not apply for funding during any period during which DOL and the
Department of Education (ED) determine that a Compact of Free Association (COFA) is in effect and contains
provisions for training and education assistance that prohibit the assistance provided under WIOA. COFA defines the
relationship that Palau has entered into as an associated state agreement with the United States. No such determination
prohibiting assistance to Palau has been made, and Palau remains eligible for WIOA T itle I funding.
35 Section 127(1) of WIOA.
36 Section 127(b)(1)(B)(ii) of WIOA. In practice, funds for outlying areas are based on a formula determined by the
Secretary that was used under WIA. See, for example, DOL, ET A, T raining and Employment Guidance Letter (T EGL)
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The remainder of the funds are al ocated to states by a formula. The formula is based (1) one-
third on the relative number of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial
unemployment (an average unemployment rate of at least 6.5% for the most recent 12 months);
(2) one-third on the relative “excess” number of unemployed individuals (an unemployment rate
of at least 4.5%); and (3) one-third on the relative number of disadvantaged youth (individuals 16
through 21 who receive an income that, in relation to family size, does not exceed the higher of
the poverty line or 70% of the lower living standard income level).37 WIOA specifies that states
are to receive, at minimum, the higher of 90% of their relative share of the prior year’s funding
or, at maximum, 130% of their relative share of the prior year’s funding.38
Of the funds al ocated to states for the Youth Activities program (as wel as for the Adult and
Dislocated Worker programs), not more than 15% can be reserved for statewide activities (only
5% of reserved funds may be used for administrative activities, per WIOA).39 States must use
these funds for certain specified activities, and may use the funds for other specified activities.
For example, WIOA requires states to use the statewide funds to carry out monitoring and
oversight activities of the Youth Activities program (and Adult and Dislocated Worker programs),
which may include a review comparing the services provided to male and female youth.40
The balance of funding that goes to states is al ocated to local workforce development areas on
the same basis that Youth Activities funds are al ocated to states, to take into account the relative
numbers of unemployed individuals and low-income youth in the area compared to other local
areas of the state. In addition, the law includes provisions for minimum (90% of the average
al ocation for the preceding two years) and maximum (130% of the average al ocation for the
preceding two years) funding that goes to local areas.41 Local areas may reserve no more than
10% of funds al otted under the program for administrative costs.
Elements of Local Programs
Job training and employment programs that are funded under WIOA and carried out by local
WDBs are responsible for providing direct services to youth participants. The programs must be
designed to include an objective assessment of the youth’s skil s.42 Further, the programs must
develop service strategies for youth that are directly linked to one or more of the indicators of
performance for the program and that identify career pathways with both education and
employment goals.
Table 3 shows the 14 elements, or services, that each local program must provide for youth. The
table is organized based on whether the elements are targeted for educational achievement,
employment services, linkages between educational achievement and employment services,
leadership development activities, additional support for youth services, and other activities.
Local boards must provide each youth with information on the full array of applicable or
appropriate services available through the local board, other eligible providers, or one-stop

No. 17-16, “ Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) Adult, Dislocated Worker and Youth Activities
Program Allotments.... ” May 21, 2018.
37 T he word relative means the number of individuals in a state compared to the total number in all states.
38 WIOA provides small state minimums such that no state receives less than the total of three-tenths of 1% of $1
billion that is allocated to states, or two-thirds of 1% of the excess if the allocation exceeds $1 billion.
39 Section 128(a) of WIOA.
40 Section 129(b) of WIOA.
41 Section 128(b) of WIOA.
42 Section 129(c) of WIOA.
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

partners, and they must also refer youth to appropriate training and educational programs, among
other activities.43 In addition, at least 20% of the funds al ocated to the local area must be used to
provide youth (whether they are in school or not) with paid and unpaid work experiences that
have academic and occupational education as a component.44
Although local boards have to make al program elements available to youth, each individual
youth does not need to participate in al elements. Further, a local program that receives Youth
Activities funding is not required to provide al program elements with WIOA funds; however,
these other activities must then be provided by a partner organization and closely coordinated
with the local program. The program must have an agreement in place if it partners with another
organization to ensure that a program element wil be offered by that organization. In practice,
this means that youth program case managers must contact and monitor the other provider to
ensure the activity is of high quality and beneficial to the youth participant.45

Table 3. Elements of Youth Activities Program
Educational achievement

Tutoring, study skil s training, instruction, and evidence-based dropout prevention strategies that lead
to completion of the requirements for a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent
(including a recognized certificate of attendance) or for a recognized postsecondary credential.

Alternative secondary school services or dropout recovery services, as appropriate.

Activities that help youth prepare for and transition to postsecondary education and training.
Employment services

Paid and unpaid work experiences that have as a component academic and occupational education,
which may include (1) summer employment opportunities and other employment opportunities
throughout the school year; (2) pre-apprenticeship programs; (3) internships and job shadowing; and
(4) on-the-job skil s training.

Occupational skil s training, which may include priority consideration for training programs that lead to
recognized postsecondary credentials that are aligned with in-demand industry sectors or occupations
in the local area involved, if the local board determines that the programs meet the quality criteria for
eligible youth providers.

Services that provide labor market and employment information about in-demand industry sectors or
occupations available in the local area, such as career awareness, career counseling, and career
exploration services.
Linkages between educational achievement and employment services

Education offered concurrently within and in the same context as workforce preparation activities and
training for a specific occupation or occupational cluster.

43 Section 129(c)(3) of WIOA.
44 Section 129(c)(3)(4) of WIOA. T he Government Accountability Office (GAO) surveyed a random sample of
workforce leaders from 106 local workforce development areas about the extent to which l ocal areas are addressing this
spending requirement. About 40% of leaders responded that meeting the spending requirement was a slight challenge
or no challenge; about 32% reported that it was a moderate challenge; and about 20% reported that it was very
challenging or an extreme challenge. Local areas reported expanding work -experienced opportunities for youth
primarily through temporary paid employment. Further, they reported challenges with lack of job readiness among
youth and employers’ reluctance to hire WIOA participants. In response to these challenges, local areas reported
providing job-readiness training for youth and strengthening partnerships with employers. See GAO, Workforce
Innovation and Opportunity Act: States and Local Areas Report Progress in Measuring Youth Program Requirem ents
,
GAO-18-475, June 2018.
45 20 C.F.R. §681.470.
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Leadership development activities

Leadership development opportunities, which may include community service and peer-centered
activities concerning responsibility and other positive social and civic behaviors, as appropriate.
Additional support for youth services

Supportive services.

Adult mentoring for the period of participation and a subsequent period, for a total of not less than 12
months.

Comprehensive guidance and counseling, which may include drug and alcohol abuse counseling and
referral, as appropriate.
Other

Fol ow-up services for not less than 12 months after the completion of participation, as appropriate.

Financial literacy education.

Entrepreneurial skil s training.
Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS), based on Section 129(c)(2) of the Workforce Innovation and
Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128).
Notes: The fol owing terms are defined in regulation: pre apprenticeship program, adult mentoring, financial literacy
education
, comprehensive guidance and counseling, leadership development opportunities, positive civic and social
behaviors
, and occupational skil s training. See 20 C.F.R. §681.480 through 20 C.F.R. §681.540.
Participants
As shown in Table 4, WIOA specifies that youth are eligible for the Youth Activities program if
they are ages 14 through 24. In addition, local workforce development areas (and states) must use
no less than 75% of funds for serving out-of-school youth.46 A local workforce development area
(or state) may adjust the share of out-of-school youth to 50% if the state determines it wil be
unable to use a certain share of funding to serve these youth.47 WIOA requires in-school youth
general y and two groups of out-of-school youth to be low-income, and enables up to 5% of these
youth to not meet the income criteria.48 No more than 5% of the in-school youth in a local area
may be eligible because they require additional assistance to complete an educational program or
to secure or hold employment. Youth ages 18 through 21 may enroll in the Youth Activities
program or Adult Activities program, or may co-enrol in both programs.49

46 In its survey of local workforce development leaders, GAO found that most states reported they were on target in
PY2015 and PY2016 with meeting the 75% out -of-school spending requirement. Local areas reported having taken
steps to address challenges locating, retaining, and serving out -of-school youth. Such strategies included increasing
their recruitment efforts and strengthening partnerships with other WIOA programs, state and local government
agencies, and community-based organizations. See GAO, Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act: States and Local
Areas Report Progress in Measuring Youth Program Requirem ents
, GAO-18-475, June 2018.
47 A local area is exempt if it is in a state that (1) receives 90% of the allotment percentage for the preceding fiscal year
for the Youth Activities program (per Section 127(b)(1)(C)(iv)(I)) or Adult program (Section 132(b)(1)(B)(iv)(I)); or
(2) receives the small state minimum allotment under the Youth Activities program (per Section 127(b)(1)(C)(iv)(II))
or Adult program (per Section 132(b)(1)(B)(iv)(II). A local area that meets one of these two criteria would be able to
decrease the funds used for out -of-school youth to 50% of their allotment (that is used for non-administrative costs)
only if the state (1) determines that the local area will be unable to use at least 75% of the funds available due to a low
number of out -of-school youth; (2) submits to the Secretary of DOL, on behalf of the local area, a request including a
proposed percentage decrease (not less than 50%), and (3) a summary of the analysis about the determination . T his
request has to be approved by the Secretary.
48 Section 129(a)(4) of WIOA.
49 20 C.F.R. §681.430.
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Table 4. Eligibility for Youth Activities Program
Age
A youth is eligible for the Youth Activities program if he or she is age 14 through 24. Eligibility by age varies
depending on whether the youth is in school or out-of-school.
Other criteria
In school youth is a youth attending school (as
Out-of-school youth is a youth not attending any school (as
defined by state law) who is age 14 through 21 (or
defined by state law), age 16 through 24, and one or more
older age if the individual has a disability and is
of the fol owing:
attending school per state law); low-income; and

a school dropout;
one or more of the fol owing:

within the age of compulsory school attendance, but

basic skil s deficient;a
has not attended school for at least the most recent

a homeless individual, a homeless child or
completed school year calendar quarter;
youth, a runaway, in foster care or has aged

a homeless individual, a homeless child or youth, a
out of the foster care system, a current or
runaway, in foster care or has aged out of the foster
former foster child eligible for independent
care system, a current or former foster child eligible
living services or in an out-of-home placement;
for independent living services or in an out-of-home

pregnant or parenting;
placement;



an offender;

pregnant or parenting;



an English language learner;

an individual who is subject to the juvenile or adult
justice system;

an individual with a disability; or

an individual with a disability;

who requires additional assistance to enter or

complete an educational program or to secure

a low-income recipient of a secondary school diploma
or its recognized equivalent, and who is basic skil s
or hold employment.
deficient or an English language learner; or


a low-income individual who requires additional
assistance to enter or complete an educational
program or to secure or hold employment.
Exceptions based on income
As noted above, most of the eligibility categories do not specify a certain level of income.
Up to 5% of in-school youth can participate if they are not low-income. In addition, up to 5% of out-of-school
youth participants can participate if they are not low-income and qualify under one of these two categories: (1)
recipients of a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent and who are basic skil s deficient, or English
language learners, or (2) individuals who require additional assistance to enter or complete an educational
program or to secure or hold employment.
Restrictions
No less than 75% of the Youth Activities program funds for statewide activities and local activities must be used to
provide youth workforce investment activities for out-of-school youth.
Up to 5% of the in-school youth in a local area may be eligible because they require additional assistance to
complete an educational program or to secure or hold employment.
Source: Section 129(a) of WIOA.
Notes: For purposes of eligibility, low-income means youth living in a high-poverty area or the youth receives or
is eligible to receive a free or reduced price lunch under the Richard R. Russel National School Lunch Act
(Section 3(36) of WIOA). Eligibility for an individual with a disability is based on his or her own income rather
than his or her family’s income, so long as the personal income meets the definition of low-income (Section
3(36)(A)(vi) of WIOA). A high-poverty area is a Census tract, set of contiguous Census tracts, Indian
reservation, tribal land, or Native Alaskan Vil age or county that has a poverty rate of at least 30% as set every
five years in the American Community Survey 5-Year data (20 C.F.R. §681.260).
a. Basic skil s deficient means the individual (1) has English reading, writing, or computing skil s at or below the
8th grade level on a general y accepted standardized test or (2) is unable to compute or solve problems, or
read, write, or speak English at a level necessary to function on the job, in the individual’s family, or in
society (Section 3(5) of WIOA).
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Performance
WIOA established six primary indicators of performance for the Youth Activities program that
superseded the WIA performance measures. These six primary indicators apply to al youth,
regardless of age, and went into effect at the beginning of PY2016:50
 percentage of program participants who are in education or training activities, or
in unsubsidized employment, during the second quarter after exit from the
program;
 percentage of program participants who are in education or training activities, or
in unsubsidized employment, during the fourth quarter after exit from the
program;
 median earnings of program participants who are in unsubsidized employment
during the second quarter after exit from the program;
 percentage of program participants who obtain a recognized postsecondary
credential, or a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent,51 during
participation in or within one year after exit from the program;
 percentage of program participants who, during a program year, are in an
education or training program that leads to a recognized postsecondary credential
or employment and who are achieving measurable skil gains toward such a
credential or employment; and
 indicators of effectiveness in serving employers.52
States are required to reach an agreement with DOL, in conjunction with the Department of
Education (ED), about the levels of performance for each state. These levels of performance must
be based on specified factors, including how the levels compare with other states’ adjusted levels
of performance. Further, states must ensure the levels are adjusted using an objective statistical
model established by DOL.53 Performance data are reported both by state and national y.54
The following sections of the report discuss, in less detail, the three other workforce and job
training for youth authorized under WIOA.

50 Section 116(A) of WIOA. See also, DOL, ET A, Performance Accountability Guidance for Workforce Innovation
and Opportunity Act (WIOA) Title I, Title II, Title II and Title IV Core Program s
, T EGL 10-16, December 19, 2016.
51 Program participants who obtain a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent are to be included in the
percentage counted if, in addition to obtaining such diploma or its recognized equivalent, they have obtained or
retained employment or are in an education or training program leading to a recognized postsecondary credential within
one year after exit from the program.
52 T he law specifies that DOL and the Department of Education are to jointly develop and establish one or more
indicators of performance that indicate the effectiveness of the Youth Activities program (and Adult and Dislocated
Worker programs) in serving employers.
53 Section 116(b(3)(v) of WIOA.
54 DOL, ET A, “WIOA Performance Results,” https://www.doleta.gov/performance/results/eta_default.cfm#wiastann.
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Job Corps55
Overview and Purpose
The Job Corps program is carried out by the Office of Job Corps within DOL’s Employment and
Training Administration, and consists of residential centers throughout the country. The purpose
of the program is to provide disadvantaged youth with the skil s needed to—obtain secondary
school diplomas or recognized postsecondary credentials leading to successful careers in in-
demand industry sectors or occupations or the Armed Forces; or enroll in postsecondary
education, including apprenticeship programs.56
Program Structure
Currently, 121 Job Corps centers are in operation, and there is at least one center in every state
and Puerto Rico.57 Of these 121 centers, 23 are known as Civilian Conservation Centers, which
are operated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service, through an interagency
agreement with DOL. Civilian Conservation Centers focus on conserving, developing, or
managing public natural resources or public recreational areas.
Most Job Corps centers are located on property that is owned or leased long-term by the federal
government. Job Corps campuses include dormitories, classrooms, workshops for various trades,
health centers, a cafeteria, a career services building, and administrative buildings. In addition to
WIOA and its regulation, centers are to follow detailed guidelines about various aspects of the
program in the Policy and Requirements Handbook.58
As specified under WIOA, Job Corps centers may be operated by a federal, state, or local agency;
an area career and technical education school, or residential vocational school; or a private
organization, such as a for-profit business or nonprofit organization. Authorization for new Job
Corps centers is contained in appropriations law. DOL initiates a competitive process seeking
applicants that are selected based on their ability to coordinate activities in the workforce system
for youth; ability to offer career and technical training opportunities that reflect local employment
opportunities; relationships with the surrounding communities, employers, and other
stakeholders; and (where applicable) past performance. Additional y, under WIOA, an entity
applying to operate a center must submit to DOL certain information, such as how employment,
education, and other opportunities offered at the center wil reflect state and local employment
opportunities and a description of the entity’s strong fiscal controls in place, among other

55 T itle I, Chapter 4, Subtitle C of WIOA and 20 C.F.R. §670.
56 Section 141 of WIOA. For further information on the program, see Jillian Berk et al., The External Review of Job
Corps: An Evidence Scan Report
, Mathematica Policy Research, March 2018. (Hereinafter, Jillian Berk et al., The
External Review of Job Corps: An Evidence Scan Report
.)
57 In recent years, DOL has closed selected Job Corps centers. In 2019, DOL entered into a grant agreement with the
Idaho Department of Labor to operate the Centennial CCC in Idaho and repurposed the Carville Job Corps Center as a
DOL Youth ChalleNGe site in partnership with th e Louisiana National Guard. See FY 2021 Congressional Budget
Justification Job Corps
, p. JC-17. In addition, DOL closed the Homestead Job Corps Center in Florida in 2015 due
primarily to safety concerns, and closed four other centers due to low performance: T reasure Lake Civilian
Conservation Center in Oklahoma in 2014, Ouachita CCC in Arkansas in 2016, Golconda CCC in Illinois in 2018, and
Kicking Horse Job Corps Center in 2019.
58 DOL, ET A, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook. (Hereinafter, DOL, ET A, Office of Job Corps,
Policy and Requirem ents Handbook.)
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information. WIOA specifies the contract may be for up to a two-year period with up to three
one-year renewal periods.59
Services for Students
While at a Job Corps center, students receive the following services:
 education programs, including English language acquisition programs;
 career and technical education, work experience, and work-based learning; and
 recreational activities, physical rehabilitation and development, driver’s
education, and counseling, which may include information about financial
literacy.
Youth also receive personal al owances while in the program and transition al owances as they
are leaving the program. WIOA specifies that these transition al owances are to be incentive-
based to reflect the graduate’s completion of academic, career and technical education or training,
and attainment of recognized postsecondary credentials.60
Students tend to experience the program in four stages.61 First, students learn about the program
and center through orientation sessions and other outreach efforts conducted by the center and its
contractor for outreach and admissions. Second, students who decide they want to pursue the
program and are selected to continue on in with career preparation activities in the first few weeks
of enrolling in the program. Third, students who continue on focus on career development
activities. During this period, students learn and demonstrate career technical, academic, and
employability skil s. Training focuses on academic subject matters and how they are applied to
specific trades or occupations. Students who did not graduate from high school can pursue a high
school diploma or GED. Final y, students participate in a period of career transition. During this
period, they receive placement services that focus on transitioning them in full-time jobs that are
related to their career and technical training and pay wages that al ow them to be self-sufficient,
or placing them in higher education or advanced training programs, including apprenticeship
programs.
For one year after exiting the program, Job Corps must provide graduates with services that
include transition support and workplace counseling. Some graduates may go on to participate in
an advanced career training program. These students continue to remain in the program for
another year while obtaining additional training and education, such as an Associate’s Degree.62
DOL contracts with entities—known as outreach and admissions (OA) contractors (though not
referred to in the law as such)—to recruit students to the program. OA contractors seek out
potential applicants, conduct interviews with applicants to identify their needs and eligibility
status, and identify youth who are interested and likely Job Corps participants. Similarly, DOL
contracts with career transition services (CTS) providers—organizations that enter into a contract
or other agreement with Job Corps—to provide career and education placement services for

59 Section 147(a) of WIOA.
60 Section 150 of WIOA.
61 DOL, ET A, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook: and GAO, Job Corps Better Targeted Career
Training and Im proved Preenrollm ent Inform ation Could Enhance Fem ale Residential Studen t Recruitm ent and
Retention
, GAO-09-470, June 2009.
62 Section 148(c) of WIOA.
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graduates and, to the extent possible, former students. OA and CTS providers work closely with
Job Corps centers, and in some cases are operated by the same entities.
Community Engagement
Each Job Corps center director must establish relationships with employers, applicable one-stop
centers and local boards, entities carrying out relevant apprenticeship programs and youth
programs, and other stakeholders.63 Each center must establish a workforce council, made up of
private sector employers who must have substantial management and other responsibilities and
represent businesses with employment opportunities for youth in the program; representatives of
labor organizations (where present) and representatives of employees; and Job Corps students and
graduates.64 A majority of the members must be employers. The council must work with local
workforce development boards and review local market information to provide recommendations
about the center’s education and training offerings.
Allocations
DOL enters into contracts with nonprofit and for-profit organizations to operate the centers.
Contracts are competitively awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with
other factors. The contract period is two years, with three one-year-option renewals. DOL
transfers funding for Civilian Conservation Centers to the USDA under an interagency
agreement.
Participants
Job Corps participants must be ages 16 through 24,65 low-income, and be one or more of the
following: (1) basic skil s deficient; (2) a school dropout; (3) homeless, a runaway, or a foster
child (including an individual who was in foster care and has aged out of foster care); (4) a
parent; (5) victims of a severe form of trafficking, as defined by the Trafficking Victims
Protection Act; or (6) an individual in need of additional education, vocational training, or
intensive counseling and related assistance in order to participate in regular schoolwork or to
secure and maintain employment. A veteran is eligible if he or she meets the eligibility criteria;
however, the income requirement does not apply if the veteran’s income earned in the military
(within the six-month period prior to applying for the program) exceeds the income limit.66
Job Corps centers take additional factors into consideration when selecting participants, such as
whether the program can best meet their educational and vocational needs and whether the youth
can engage successfully in group situations and settings. The applicant must also pass a
background check that is conducted in accordance with applicable state and local laws.67 WIOA
prohibits an individual from being denied a position in the Job Corps program solely on the basis
of his or her contact with the criminal justice system, except that an individual can be denied a
position if he or she has been convicted of a felony consisting of murder (as described in Title 18

63 Section 153 of WIOA.
64 Section 154(c) of WIOA.
65 No more than 20% of participants may be ages 22 through 24 on the date of enrollment. T he age limit may be waived
by DOL, in accordance with DOL regulations, for individuals with a disability.
66 Section 145 of WIOA.
67 Section 145(a) of WIOA.
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of the U.S. Code), child abuse, or a crime involving rape or sexual assault.68 Each Job Corps
center must develop standards for student conduct and implement what is known as a zero
tolerance policy for offenses related to violence and drug and alcohol use, and selected other
behaviors. Students are dismissed from the program if they violate this policy.
WIOA requires that students be assigned to the center that offers the type of career and technical
education and training that he or she selects (unless the parent or the guardian of an enrollee
under 18 objects). Among the centers that offer such education and training, the enrollee is to be
assigned to the one closest to his or her home.69 No more than 20% of participants may live off
the grounds of the Job Corps center.70
WIOA specified that no individual may be enrolled in Job Corps for more than two years, except
(1) when completing an advance training program that would require the individual to participate
for more than an additional year (as permitted for such a program); (2) an individual with a
disability who would reasonably be expected to graduate, if al owed to participate for up to an
additional year; and (3) in the case of an individual who participates in national service (as
encouraged at Civilian Conservation Centers) who may extend enrollment to equal the period of
such national service.71
Performance
WIOA directs DOL to establish expected levels of performance for the program and individual
centers that relate to each of the six primary indicators of performance for the Youth Workforce
Activities program. These indicators include (1) entry into education, training, or unsubsidized
employment (during both the (a) second quarter and (b) fourth quarter after exiting the program);
(2) median earnings; (3) obtaining a recognized postsecondary credential or secondary school
diploma or its equivalent; (4) participation in an education or training program that leads to a
credential or employment; and (5) program effectiveness in serving employers.72
WIOA further specifies performance measures for recruiters (outreach and admissions) and CTS
contractors. The OA performance measures pertain to recruitment and performance of students, as
wel as some of the same information that is to be included in a DOL report to Congress.73 This
report must include information on the performance of each center, the program overal , and the
OA and CTS contractors; demographic information on enrollees; the number of graduates who
entered the Armed Forces, apprenticeships, unsubsidized employment, and postsecondary
education; average wage of graduates; total cost per enrollee and graduate; information regarding
the state of Job Corps facilities and buildings; and information regarding the national and
community service activities of students, particularly those enrolled at Civilian Conservation
Centers, among other information.74

68 Section 145(b) of WIOA.
69 Section 145(d) of WIOA.
70 Section 147(b) of WIOA. Four satellite centers operate as non -residential centers: Brooklyn (NY) is associated with
the South Bronx Job Corps center; IndyPendence (IL) is associated with the Atterbury Job Corps center; Kansas City
(MO) is associated with Excelsior Springs Job Corps center; PIVOT (OR) is associated with the Springdale Job Corps
center.
71 Section 146 of WIOA.
72 Section 159(c)(1) of WIOA.
73 Section 159(c)(2) and Section 159(c)(3) of WIOA.
74 Section 159(d) of WIOA.
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DOL reports on performance of center operators, OA providers, and CTS providers through what
are known as report cards. These report cards include some of the performance measures in
WIOA, and data are reported on a monthly and annual basis. DOL has shifted toward measures
that more closely align with the performance measures in WIOA.75
Performance Oversight
WIOA designates centers as high-performing based on their relative ranking and performance
under the primary indicators of performance for youth. It also enables the operator of a high-
performing center to compete in any competitive selection process carried out for an award to
operate such center.76
WIOA specifies that a Job Corps center operator failing to meet expected performance levels can
be placed under a performance improvement plan (PIP). PIPs are documented plans that outline
deficiencies in program performance, corrective actions, and targets for improvement. The plan is
to encompass certain actions taken by DOL during a one-year period, including providing
technical assistance to the centers; changing the career and technical training offered at the center;
changing the management staff of the center; replacing the operator of the center; reducing the
capacity of the center; relocating the center; or closing the center. WIOA also enables DOL to
establish additional PIPs when a Job Corps center fails to meet performance requirements. These
discretionary PIPs have to include the actions described above.77
Renewing Contracts and Closing Centers
WIOA provides that DOL may not renew the agreement with a center operator, if in the most
recent two preceding years for which data are available, the center is ranked in the lowest 10% of
centers and fails to achieve an average of 50% or higher in the expected levels of performance
under each of the primary indicators of performance for eligible youth in the program.78 The law
al ows DOL to renew an agreement with these centers (for up to two years and if in the best
interest of the program) under certain circumstances (e.g., performance is due to circumstances
beyond the operator’s control), and specifies standards that al centers must meet for agreements
to be renewed (e.g., satisfactory record of integrity and business ethics). DOL must inform
Congress of such renewals. WIOA specifies that DOL must select another entity to operate a
Civilian Conservation Center if it fails to meet the expected levels of performance relating to the
primary indicators of performance or fails to improve performance after three program years. 79
Prior to the closure of any Job Corps center, DOL must ensure (1) that the proposed decision to
close the center is announced in advance to the general public through publication in the Federal
Register
or other appropriate means; (2) that a reasonable comment period, not to exceed 30 days,
is established for interested individuals to submit written comments to the Secretary; and (3) that

75 DOL, ET A, Office of Job Corps, “Job Corps Reports: Performance, Planning, and Recruitment,”
https://www.jobcorps.gov/job-corps-reports; and DOL, ET A, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirem ents Handbook¸
Chapter 5, Appendix 501. See also, Jillian Berk et al., The External Review of Job Corps: An Evidence Scan Report,
pp. 9-10.
76 Section 147(b) of WIOA. For example, some contracts may be set aside for solely small businesses to compete. For
further information, see archived CRS Report R43611, Recent Developm ents in the Job Corps Program : Frequently
Asked Questions
.
77 Section 159(f) of WIOA.
78 Section 147(g) of WIOA.
79 Section 147(g)(4) of WIOA.
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the Member of Congress who represents the district in which a center is located is notified within
a reasonable period of time in advance of any final decision to close the center.
Final y, WIOA directs DOL to provide for a third-party evaluation of the program every five
years, and to submit the results to Congress. The evaluation must address the general
effectiveness of the program in relation to its costs; the effectiveness of the performance measures
for the program; the effectiveness of the structure and mechanisms for delivering services; the
impact of the program on the community, businesses, and participants involved; the extent to
which the program and activities meet the needs of various demographic groups; and other such
factors that may be appropriate.80
DOL has contracted with Mathematica Policy Research, a social policy research organization, to
document what is known about Job Corps and other similar programs, identify promising
evidence-based practices that the program might consider for the future, and present options for
future research and evaluation of the program.81
Evaluations
In 1993, DOL commissioned Mathematica to conduct an evaluation known as the National Job
Corps Study. The study’s initial period was from late 1994 to early 1996, when approximately
81,000 eligible applicants nationwide were selected into the treatment or control group.
According to the evaluation of outcomes during the four years after random assignment, Job
Corps had several positive outcomes on youth in education and employment—including
enrollment in education and job training programs, attainment of a high school diploma or GED,
and attainment of a vocational or job-related certification.82 For some outcomes, such as college
enrollment and perceived health status, there were no or minor differences in the outcomes
between youth enrolled in Job Corps and those who did not enroll.83
A follow-up report analyzed the longer-term impacts of the program based on earnings and
employment rates (and not on other outcomes) through 2004—approximately 10 years after
random assignment. This research found that the positive employment effects diminished such
that the program and control groups were employed at a similar rate and had similar earnings.
Researchers attributed the likely cause of the early increase in earnings to time spent in education
and training, increases in the attainment of GED and vocational certificates, modest gains in
functional literacy, and perhaps the job placement services offered by Job Corps. The follow-up
also study found positive gains among some youth—those ages 20 through 24. These older youth
remained in Job Corps for an average of 1.3 months longer than younger youth and, according to
program staff at 23 randomly selected centers, were more highly motivated and had fewer
behavior chal enges. In addition, older youth spent more time in education and training during the
four-year survey period, because they stayed longer in Job Corps. Separately, Mathematica

80 Section 161(b) of WIOA.
81 Jillian Berk et al., The External Review of Job Corps: An Evidence Scan Report; and Joanne Lee, Peter Z. Schochet,
and Jillian Berk, The External Review of Job Corps: Directions for Future Research, Mathematica Policy Research for
DOL, ET A, March 2018.
82 Peter Z. Schochet, John Burghardt, and Sheena McConnell, National Job Corps Study and Longer-Term Follow-Up
Study: Im pact and Benefit-Cost Findings Using Survey and Sum m ary Earnings Records Data
, August 2006.
83 For example, the study had small beneficial impacts on independent living, mobility, and use of child care; and had
no impacts on a number of other outcomes, including illegal drug use, fertility, or custodial responsibility.
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conducted a cost-benefit analysis based on the surveys at 12, 30, and 48 months after random
assignment. The analysis concluded that the program was cost-effective despite its high costs.84
Financial Oversight
WIOA requires DOL to prepare and submit reports to Congress that include information about
implementing financial oversight measures suggested in a 2013 DOL IG report about oversight of
Job Corps funding,85 a description of any budgetary shortfal s in the period covered by the report,
and an explanation for approving contract expenditures that are in excess of the amount specified
under a contract. The reports are to be provided every six months for an initial three-year period,
then annual y for another two years. WIOA further requires DOL to submit an additional report to
Congress if the program has a budget shortfal , including an explanation of how the shortfal wil
be addressed. The report must be submitted within 90 days after the shortfal is identified.86
YouthBuild87
Overview and Purpose
In 2007, YouthBuild was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to
DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281). As stated in WIOA, the purpose of
YouthBuild is to (1) enable disadvantaged youth to obtain the education and employment skil s
necessary to achieve economic self-sufficiency in occupations in demand and post-secondary
education and training opportunities; (2) provide disadvantaged youth with opportunities for
meaningful work and service to communities; (3) foster the development of employment and
leadership skil s and commitment to community development among youth in low -income
communities; (4) expand the supply of permanent affordable housing for homeless individuals
and low-income families by utilizing the energy of disadvantaged youth; and (5) improve the
quality and energy efficiency of community and other nonprofit and public facilities, including
those facilities that are used to serve homeless and low-income families.88
Program Structure
DOL competitively awards YouthBuild funds to organizations that carry out the program in
cooperation with subgrantees or contractors, or through arrangements made with local education
agencies and certain other entities. Entities that are eligible to apply for funding include a public
or private nonprofit agency or organization, including a consortium of such agencies or
organizations. Specifical y, such entities may include community-based or faith-based
organizations; entities that carry out activities authorized under certain other parts of WIOA, such

84 Sheena McConnell and Steven Glazerman, National Job Corps: The Benefits and Costs of Job Corps, Mathematica
Policy Research, Inc., June 2001.
85 DOL, Office of Inspector General, The U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration Needs
to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds
. For further information about prior financial concerns with the program,
see CRS Report R43611, Recent Developm ents in the Job Corps Program : Frequently Asked Qu estions.
86 Section 161(a) of WIOA. DOL submitted three such reports to Congress: one for the first and second quarters of
PY2014 (July 1, 2014, to December 31, 2014), second and third quarters of PY2015 (January 1, 2015 , to June 30,
2015) and the first and second quarters of PY2015 (July 1, 2015 , to December 31, 2015).
87 T itle I, Chapter 4, Subtitle D, Section 171 of WIOA and 20 C.F.R. §672.
88 Section 171(a) of WIOA.
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as a local workforce development board; community action agencies; state or local housing
development agencies; an Indian tribe or agencies primarily serving Indians; state or local youth
service or conservation corps; or any other entity eligible to provide education or employment
training under a federal program.89
While in the program, youth participate in a range of education and workforce investment
activities, as listed in Table 5. These activities include instruction, skil building, alternative
education, mentoring, and training in rehabilitation or construction of housing. Any housing unit
that is rehabilitated or reconstructed may be available only for rental by, or sale to, homeless
individuals or low-income families; or for use as transitional or permanent housing to assist
homeless individuals achieve independent living. Al educational programs, including programs
that award academic credit, and activities supported with YouthBuild funds must be consistent
with applicable state and local educational standards.
At least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain work and skil development activities
(these activities are denoted by footnote “a” in Table 5). At least an additional 50% of the time,
participants must be engaged in education and related services and activities designed to meet
their educational needs (these activities are denoted by footnote “b” in Table 5). If approved by
the DOL Secretary, training and supports may be provided in additional in-demand industry
sectors or occupations. This is consistent with a 2012 regulation for the program that enables
grantees to expand their occupational skil s training beyond construction skil s training; however,
al programs must stil provide training in the construction trades.90
Table 5. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild as Specified Under WIOA
Education and Workforce Investment Activities

Work experience and skil s training, coordinated, to the maximum extent feasible, with pre-apprenticeship
and registered apprenticeship programs (in the rehabilitation and construction activities described under
“Supervision and Training,” below) and if approved by the Secretary, in additional in -demand industry sectors
or occupations in the region in which the program operates.a

Occupational skil s training.a

Other paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.a

Services and activities designed to meet the educational needs of participants, including—(1) basic skil s
instruction and remedial education, (2) language instruction educational programs for participants who are
English language learners, (3) secondary education services and activities designed to lead to the attainment of
a high school diploma or its equivalent; (4) counseling and assistance in obtaining postsecondary education
and required financial aid, and (5) alternative secondary school services.b

Counseling services and related activities, such as comprehensive guidance and counseling on drug and
alcohol abuse and referral.b

Activities designed to develop employment and leadership skil s, including community service and peer-
centered activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors, and activities related to
youth policy committees that participate in decision-making related to the program.b

Supportive services and provision of need-based stipends to enable individuals to participate in the program,
and supportive services to assist individuals, for a period not to exceed 12 months after the completion of
training, in obtaining or retaining employment, or applying for and transitioning to postsecondary education .b

Job search assistance.a

89 Section 173(b) of WIOA (Section 173A(b) of WIA).
90 DOL, ET A, “YouthBuild Program Final Rule,” 77 Federal Register 9112, February 15, 2012.
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Supervision and Training

Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of housing, including residential
housing for homeless individuals or low-income families, or transitional housing for homeless individuals. If
approved by the Secretary, this may also include supervision and training in additional in-demand industry
sectors or occupations in the region in which the program operates.

Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of community and other public
facilities, except that not more than 15% of funds appropriated may be used for such supervision and training.
If approved by the Secretary, this may also include supervision and training in additional in -demand industry
sectors or occupations in the region in which the program operates.
Other

Payment of administrative costs of the applicant, except that not more than 10% of the amount of assistance
provided to the grant recipient may be used for such costs.

Adult mentoring.

Provision of wages, stipends, or benefits to participants in the program.

Ongoing training and technical assistance that are related to developing and carrying out the program.

Fol ow-up services.
Source: Section 173A of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128).
a. This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain
work and skil development activities.
b. This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 50% of the time, youth must participate in certain
work and skil development activities.
Participants
A youth is eligible for the program if he or she is a dropout and is (1) ages 16 through 24; (2) a
member of a low-income family, a youth in foster care, a youth offender, an individual with a
disability, a child of incarcerated parents, or a migrant youth; and (3) a school dropout. However,
up to 25% of youth in the program are not required to meet the income or dropout criteria, so long
as they are basic skil s deficient despite having earned a high school diploma, GED, or the
equivalent; or have been referred by a high school for the purpose of obtaining a high school
diploma.
Allocations
Grants are competitively awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with
other factors, such as the applicant’s potential for developing a successful YouthBuild program;
the need for the program in the community; the applicant’s commitment to providing skil s
training, leadership development, and education to participants; regional distribution of grantees;
and the applicant’s coordination of activities to be carried out with certain other stakeholders,
including employers, one-stop partners, and national service and other systems; among other
criteria.
DOL makes awards for three years (two years of program operations with a one-year period of
follow-up). Applicants must provide cash or in-kind resources equivalent to at least 25% of the
grant award amount as matching funds. Prior investments and federal resources do not count
toward the match.
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Performance
WIOA requires YouthBuild grantees to meet the primary indicators of performance described in
the Youth Activities program. Specifical y, these indicators pertain to entry into education,
training, or unsubsidized employment (both two and four quarters after exiting the program);
median earnings; obtaining a recognized postsecondary credential or secondary school diploma or
its equivalent; participation in an education or training program that leads to a credential or
employment; and program effectiveness in serving employers.91
DOL contracted with MDRC, a social policy research organization, to conduct an evaluation of
the program. The evaluation involved youth randomly assigned to a YouthBuild program or to a
control group that could use other services in the community. The evaluation involved nearly
4,000 youth who enrolled in the study between 2011 and 2013 and included 75 programs across
the country. The evaluation examined outcomes two and a half years and four years after youth
enrolled in the study. The evaluation found that YouthBuild participants were more likely to
obtain a high school equivalency credential and to enroll in college, with a very smal effect size
on obtaining a degree. The program led to an increase in civic engagement and employment and
earnings, but it did not significantly increase work. It also did not have effects on other measures
of youth development or rates of involvement in the criminal justice system. A cost analysis of
YouthBuild found that its costs exceeded its benefits; however, researchers cannot yet draw
conclusions about the longer-term impact on investments in the program.92
Reentry Employment Opportunities Program93
Overview and Purpose
Grants to provide education and employment activities for youth offenders have been funded by
DOL since FY1999.94 Under WIA, these grants were made part of the Reintegration of Ex-
Offenders program. Funding for the program was authorized under both WIA and Section 112
(Responsible Reintegration of Offenders) of the Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-199), enacted on
April 9, 2008. The Second Chance Act authorizes DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations
for the purpose of providing mentoring, job training and job placement services, and other
comprehensive transitional services to assist eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and
retaining employment. Since the enactment of WIOA, Congress has appropriated funding for the
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, now known as the Reentry Employment Opportunities
program, under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169
authorizes evaluations and research.
The youth component of the REO program (and its predecessor programs) has been comprised of
related initiatives that seek to assist youth offenders and youth at risk of dropping out (or who
have dropped out) with pre-release, mentoring, housing, case management, and employment

91 Section 171(c) of WIOA (and Section 173(c) of WIA).
92 Cynthia Miller et al., Building a Future: Interim Impact Findings from the YouthBuild Evaluation, for DOL, ET A,
November 2016; Cynthia Miller et al., Laying a Foundation: Four-Year Results from the National YouthBuild
Evaluation
for DOL, ET A, May 2018.
93 T itle I, Chapter 4, Subtitle D, Section 169 of WIOA.
94 T his program was known as the Youth Offender Pilot Program, and funded 1 4 communities that provided
educational, employment, re-entry, and other services to youth.
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services; to reduce violence within persistently dangerous schools through a combination of
mentoring, educational, employment, case management, and violence prevention strategies; and
to provide alternative education and related services for youth at risk of involvement with the
justice system. Currently, the program supports education and reentry initiatives.
Program Structure
The earliest DOL initiatives for youth offenders, from FY1999 through FY2004, operated under
what is known as the Youth Offender Demonstration Project (YODP).95 The pilot funded 52
grantees to assist youth at risk of court or gang involvement, youth offenders, and gang members
ages 14 to 24 in finding long-term employment.
Since FY2005, programs for youth offenders have funded projects that have a focus similar to the
earlier projects under YODP. These projects have included (1) education-related grants, including
Pathways to Justice Careers and Job Chal eNGe grants; (2) apprenticeship and related grants,
including Youth Offender Registered Apprenticeship, Alternative Education, and Project
Expansion Grants; (3) grants that focus on reentry, including Reentry Project Grants, Beneficiary-
Choice Demonstration, High Growth Youth Offender Initiative, Planning, State/Local Juvenile
Offender Implementation, and Replication Grants; and (4) grants that focus on community
service, including Face Forward Intermediary and Community Grants, Civic Justice Grants, and
Serving Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training and Service Learning. Grantees have
included local and state governments, nonprofit organizations, including faith-based
organizations; school districts; and community colleges.96
Appropriations in recent years have supported Reentry Projects grants, which focus on preventing
and reducing crime and enhancing reentry strategies for young adults served in communities with
elevated levels of poverty and crime.97 These projects are designed to assist youth ages 18 to 24
who are reentering, with a focus on trying new approaches, addressing gaps in services, building
or translating research knowledge, or building capacity. Funding is provided to intermediary
organizations that have an affiliate network or offices in at least three communities and cross at
least two states; and to community-based organizations that provide direct services.
Participants
Each of the initiatives funded under the Reentry Employment Opportunities program (and its
predecessor programs) have general y served select groups of at-risk youth. However, the projects
general y serve youth ages 14 through 24 (or 18 through 24) who have been involved with or
have a high risk of involvement in gangs or the juvenile justice system or criminal justice system.

95 T he earliest funding for the program was authorized under T itle IV of the Job T raining Partnership Act. See U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Adm inistration, Notice Inviting Proposals for Youth Offender
Dem onstration Projects
, August 28, 1998.
96 For a list of grantees and grant funding amounts, see DOL, ET A, Reentry Employment Opportunities: Grantees,
https://www.doleta.gov/REO/Grantees.cfm.
97 DOL, ET A, Workforce System Results for the Quarter Ending December 31, 2019, p. 19; DOL, ET A, Reentry
Em ploym ent Opportunities Grantees,
https://www.dol.gov/agencies/eta/reentry/grantees; DOL, ET A, Reentry
Dem onstration Projects for Young Adults,
March 2018, https://www.doleta.gov/REO/pdf/
REO_Fact_Sheet_March_2018.pdf.
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Allocations
As noted, grants have been competitively awarded to entities such as community-based
organizations and state and local juvenile justice agencies, based on ranked scores and other
factors, depending on the project.
Performance
DOL measures employment attainment, employment retention, average earnings, credential
attainment, measurable skil s gains, and effectiveness in serving employers. According to DOL, it
holds grantees accountable through these performance measures and by considering prior
performance on placement in education or employment and certificate/degree attainment when
scoring grant applicants.98 Funding for the WIOA Youth Activities Program


98 FY 2021 Congressional Budget Justification Employment and Training Administration , p. T ES-70.
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Table A-1. Youth Activities State Allotments, PY2015-PY2020
Includes al otments for outlying areas and Native Americans, excludes set-asides for evaluation and program integrity
PY2015
PY2016
PY2017
PY2018
PY2019
PY2020
State
(P.L. 113-235)
(P.L. 114-113)
(P.L. 115-31)
(P.L. 115-141)
(P.L. 115-245)
(P.L. 116-94)
Alabama
$10,973,635
$13,242,811
$15,935,826
$16,810,423
$15,149,798
$13,818,197
Alaska
2,037,653
2,296,191
2,749,556
3,248,821
4,229,167
5,076,190
Arizona
18,380,399
20,040,831
21,927,448
22,132,740
25,610,047
33,740,829
Arkansas
7,694,400
7,839,730
7,020,353
6,559,046
5,911,108
6,222,886
California
120,707,084
128,788,366
122,708,017
122,420,854
119,017,698
134,926,913
Colorado
11,835,030
11,182,905
10,014,113
9,356,087
8,431,842
7,969,239
Connecticut
9,634,681
10,313,964
10,849,939
10,136,991
10,709,715
9,768,378
Delaware
2,037,653
2,139,306
2,128,572
2,209,670
2,212,652
2,242,411
District of Columbia
2,329,955
3,086,388
3,048,727
3,369,642
4,331,649
5,121,772
Florida
42,774,978
49,787,759
47,191,033
50,918,130
45,888,161
41,854,792
Georgia
27,630,735
30,707,383
27,497,972
25,691,083
23,153,178
21,118,115
Hawai
2,037,653
2,139,306
2,128,572
2,209,670
2,212,652
2,242,411
Idaho
3,116,131
2,944,428
2,636,688
2,463,432
2,220,081
2,242,411
Il inois
42,336,174
40,003,397
45,262,696
42,733,627
41,773,340
47,902,600
Indiana
16,203,657
17,064,726
15,281,190
14,277,065
12,866,699
13,241,878
Iowa
4,781,261
5,118,005
5,042,166
4,779,676
4,307,514
3,928,902
Kansas
5,370,179
5,166,437
4,626,462
5,170,980
4,660,163
4,250,555
Kentucky
13,717,594
12,961,737
13,006,059
13,770,245
13,375,729
14,588,219
Louisiana
9,194,017
12,548,488
15,937,361
17,165,657
15,924,333
18,661,916
Maine
3,214,985
3,208,693
2,873,333
2,684,527
2,419,335
2,242,411
Maryland
12,364,002
14,375,433
13,351,957
12,474,601
14,546,358
13,267,797
Massachusetts
16,504,685
15,595,256
13,965,303
13,047,645
12,354,890
11,268,949
Michigan
31,250,104
29,709,018
26,603,952
28,612,013
34,878,283
35,039,178
CRS-34


PY2015
PY2016
PY2017
PY2018
PY2019
PY2020
State
(P.L. 113-235)
(P.L. 114-113)
(P.L. 115-31)
(P.L. 115-141)
(P.L. 115-245)
(P.L. 116-94)
Minnesota
9,078,036
8,577,825
8,630,212
10,094,772
9,097,556
8,297,921
Mississippi
9,151,084
10,193,683
10,648,637
10,053,302
10,396,417
12,695,917
Missouri
14,228,439
16,472,508
14,750,868
14,066,190
12,676,655
11,562,432
Montana
2,152,782
2,139,306
2,128,572
2,209,670
2,280,623
2,257,550
Nebraska
2,425,096
2,291,470
2,432,570
2,656,124
2,862,935
3,321,693
Nevada
9,034,617
9,531,729
9,913,269
9,261,869
9,921,829
9,330,673
New Hampshire
2,037,653
2,139,306
2,128,572
2,209,670
2,212,652
2,242,411
New Jersey
23,282,287
24,898,651
22,296,345
20,831,255
24,036,015
21,923,354
New Mexico
5,249,778
6,167,206
7,484,241
9,176,874
9,124,699
9,451,630
New York
52,128,262
54,003,637
49,406,010
50,223,205
62,137,502
56,675,887
North Carolina
26,347,165
25,235,370
28,746,951
27,731,837
27,582,642
26,247,804
North Dakota
2,037,653
2,139,306
2,128,572
2,209,670
2,212,652
2,242,411
Ohio
28,593,170
28,162,375
30,130,209
36,354,942
41,626,582
45,496,637
Oklahoma
6,941,080
6,558,618
7,802,022
9,577,406
8,631,298
7,872,645
Oregon
10,431,168
11,441,241
10,245,449
9,572,222
8,626,626
10,563,715
Pennsylvania
30,984,178
29,652,886
32,264,694
39,419,602
36,515,461
34,144,371
Puerto Rico
19,489,676
23,096,083
25,176,038
26,554,369
29,825,410
28,606,753
Rhode Island
4,106,989
3,880,689
3,582,507
3,347,101
3,395,462
3,097,016
South Carolina
11,474,747
14,636,640
13,932,904
13,017,374
11,731,447
10,700,304
South Dakota
2,037,653
2,139,306
2,128,572
2,209,670
2,212,652
2,242,411
Tennessee
17,503,627
18,911,472
16,934,922
17,503,950
15,774,815
14,388,278
Texas
54,914,867
51,888,988
58,289,678
75,959,298
68,455,626
62,438,675
Utah
3,928,231
3,711,780
3,323,840
3,656,938
3,538,726
3,227,687
Vermont
2,037,653
2,139,306
2,128,572
2,209,670
2,212,652
2,242,411
Virginia
13,325,559
15,728,252
14,084,399
13,158,915
11,859,006
10,816,651
CRS-35


PY2015
PY2016
PY2017
PY2018
PY2019
PY2020
State
(P.L. 113-235)
(P.L. 114-113)
(P.L. 115-31)
(P.L. 115-141)
(P.L. 115-245)
(P.L. 116-94)
Washington
15,945,865
18,966,351
18,561,132
19,115,058
21,151,649
25,394,224
West Virginia
3,987,564
5,350,384
6,247,535
5,837,010
6,472,612
7,298,882
Wisconsin
14,041,859
13,268,135
11,985,441
11,197,879
10,091,692
9,204,676
Wyoming
2,037,653
2,139,306
2,128,572
2,209,670
2,212,652
2,242,411
State Total
815,061,036
855,722,367
851,428,600
883,868,137
885,060,937
896,964,379
Outlying Areas Total
2,042,759
2,144,668
2133906
2,215,208
2,218,198
2,248,031
Native Americans
12,443,205
13,063,965
12,998,414
13,493,655
13,511,865
13,693,590
Total
829,547,000
870,931,000
866,560,920
899,577,000
900,791,000
912,906,000
Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) presentation of Department of Labor (DOL) Employment and Training Administration (ETA), State Statutory Formula
Funding
, http://www.doleta.gov/budget/statfund.cfm.
Note: Does not include funds al ocated under the Youth Activities program for evaluation activities. Funds appropriated for a given fiscal year correspond to funding for
a program year. The program year is July 1 through June 30, although funds may be made available on April 1, pursuant to Section 189(g)(1)(B) of the Workforce
Investment Act. Funds for the program are available for two program years.

CRS-36

Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs



Author Information

Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara

Specialist in Social Policy



Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should n ot be relied upon for purposes other
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Congressional Research Service
R40929 · VERSION 39 · UPDATED
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