Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job
Training Programs
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara
Specialist in Social Policy
January 13, 2014
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R40929
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Summary
In an increasingly global economy, and with retirement starting for the Baby Boomer generation,
Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young people have the
educational attainment and employment experience needed to become highly skilled workers,
contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the economy and
among certain youth populations, however, have heightened concern among policymakers that
some young people may not be prepared to fill these roles.
The employment levels for youth under age 25 have declined markedly in recent years, including
in the wake of the 2007-2009 recession. Certain young people—including high school dropouts,
current and former foster youth, and other at-risk populations—face challenges in completing
school and entering the workforce. While the United States has experienced a dramatic increase
in secondary school attendance in the past several decades, approximately 9% of youth ages 18
through 24 have not attained a high school diploma or its equivalent. In addition, millions of
young people are out of school and not working.
Since the 1930s, federal job training and employment programs and policies have sought to
connect vulnerable youth to work and school. Generally, these young people have been defined as
being at-risk because they are economically disadvantaged and have a barrier to employment.
During the Great Depression, the focus was on employing young men who were idle through
public works and other projects. The employment programs from this era included an educational
component to encourage youth to obtain their high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the
federal government began funding programs for low-income youth that address their multiple
needs through job training, educational services, and supportive services.
Today’s primary federal youth employment and job training programs are authorized under the
Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA, P.L. 105-220), and are carried out by the Department of
Labor’s (DOL’s) Employment and Training Administration (ETA). Although these programs are
funded somewhat differently and have varying eligibility requirements, they generally have a
common purpose—to provide youth with educational and employment opportunities and access
to leadership development and community service activities. Many of the programs target the
most vulnerable youth, including school dropouts, homeless youth, and youth offenders. Based on
funding and the number of youth served, the WIA Youth Activities (Youth) formula program and
Job Corps are the largest. The Youth Activities program provides an array of job training and
other services through what are known as local workforce investment boards. The program was
funded at $781.3 million in FY2013. Job Corps provides training in a number of trades at centers
where youth reside, and received FY2013 appropriations of $1.61 billion.
Another program, YouthBuild, engages youth in educational services and job training that focus
on the construction trades. YouthBuild received FY2013 appropriations of $75.5 million.
Separately, WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority has been used to carry out the Reintegration
of Ex-Offenders program (RExO), which provides job training and other services to juvenile and
adult offenders. The youth component was funded at $43.9 million in FY2013. Finally, the Youth
Opportunity Grant (YOG) program, which was funded until FY2003, was targeted to youth who
lived in select high-poverty communities. In FY2003, the program received $54.6 million.
This report accompanies CRS Report R42583, Vulnerable Youth: Overview of Issues Affecting
Youth Programs Authorized Under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA).
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Context ............................................................................................................................................. 1
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job Training Programs ................................................ 4
Depression Era........................................................................................................................... 4
War on Poverty Programs .......................................................................................................... 5
Expanding Youth Programs ....................................................................................................... 5
CETA and YEDPA .............................................................................................................. 6
JTPA .................................................................................................................................... 7
STWOA ............................................................................................................................... 7
WIA ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under Title I of the Workforce Investment Act ............. 8
Coordination .............................................................................................................................. 9
Funding .......................................................................................................................................... 10
FY2014 Funding and Request ................................................................................................. 11
Funding for FY2000-FY2013 .................................................................................................. 12
FY2013 Funding ............................................................................................................... 13
Job Corps Transfer Authority .................................................................................................. 15
Youth Activities Formula Grant Program ...................................................................................... 17
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 17
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 18
Youth Councils .................................................................................................................. 19
Elements of Local Programs ............................................................................................. 20
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 22
Older and Out-of-School Youth ........................................................................................ 23
Allocations ............................................................................................................................... 23
Performance ............................................................................................................................. 24
Job Corps ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 26
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 26
Services ............................................................................................................................. 27
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 29
Allocations ............................................................................................................................... 29
Performance ............................................................................................................................. 29
YouthBuild ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 30
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 30
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 32
Allocations ............................................................................................................................... 32
Performance ............................................................................................................................. 32
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders ....................................................................................................... 32
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 32
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 33
Education ........................................................................................................................... 34
Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and Expansion Grants ....................................... 34
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Reentry .............................................................................................................................. 35
Community Service/Restorative Justice ............................................................................ 36
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 36
Allocations ............................................................................................................................... 36
Performance ............................................................................................................................. 37
Youth Opportunity Grants .............................................................................................................. 37
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 37
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 37
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 38
Allocations ............................................................................................................................... 38
Performance Measures ............................................................................................................ 39
Tables
Table 1. Funding for DOL Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
Appropriations for FY2000-FY2013 .......................................................................................... 13
Table 2. Elements of Youth Programs Funded by
WIA Youth Activities Formula Grant Program .......................................................................... 20
Table 3. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs ........................................... 25
Table 4. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild,
as Specified in the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) ................................................................ 31
Table A-1. WIA Youth Activities State Allotments, PY2008-PY2013, Plus Funding Under
the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5) ......................................... 40
Appendixes
Appendix A. Workforce Investment Act Funding for Youth Programs ......................................... 40
Appendix B. Definitions of Terms Used in WIA Youth Programs ................................................ 43
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 46
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Introduction
In an increasingly competitive economy, and with retirement starting for the Baby Boomer
generation, Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young people have
the educational attainment and employment experience necessary to become highly skilled
workers, contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the
economy and among vulnerable youth populations, however, have heightened concern among
policymakers that many young people may not be prepared to fill these roles.
The employment levels for youth under age 25 have declined markedly in recent years, including
in the wake of the recession that extended from December 2007 through June 2009. Certain
young people in particular—including those from low-income families, high school dropouts,
foster youth, and other at-risk populations—face barriers to completing school and entering the
workforce. Since the 1960s, federal job training programs and policies have sought to connect
these youth to education and employment pathways. Contemporary federal youth employment
programs with this same purpose are authorized under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of
1998 (P.L. 105-220). These programs provide a range of services and supports to youth. They
include the Youth Activities (Youth) formula grant program; Job Corps; YouthBuild; the
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which includes a youth component; and the Youth
Opportunity Grant (YOG) program. Some of the programs concentrate on specific job trades
and/or serve targeted at-risk populations. Based on funding, Job Corps and the Youth program are
the largest.
This report provides an overview of federal employment programs for vulnerable young people.
It begins with a discussion of the current challenges in preparing all youth today for the
workforce. The report then provides a chronology of job training and employment programs for
at-risk youth that began in the 1930s and were expanded or modified from the 1960s through the
1990s. It goes on to discuss the five youth programs authorized under WIA, and draws
comparisons between these programs. Following this section is a detailed discussion of each of
the programs. This report accompanies CRS Report R42583, Vulnerable Youth: Overview of
Issues Affecting Youth Programs Authorized Under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA).
Context
The recent economic recession that ended in June 2009 focused attention on the role of the
federal and state governments in supporting workers who have been laid off or are at risk of being
laid off. During economic downturns, youth are particularly vulnerable to job loss. From 2000
through 2011, the employment to population (E/P) ratio1 among teens steadily declined, from
36.8% to 25.8%, and increased slightly to 26.1% in 2012. Over the summer, when teens are most
likely to have jobs, the E/P ratio has decreased steadily in the past several years. In July 2000,
about four out of ten (44.1%) teens were employed, compared to 26.6% in July 2013.2 The July
2013 E/P ratio was the third lowest (after the employment rates for July 2010 and 2011) during
the post-World War II period. The declining E/P ratio overall appears to be attributable to rising
1 The employment to population (E/P) ratio is the proportion of individuals in the population as a whole who are
employed.
2 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
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levels of joblessness and not to a declining interest in employment among teens.3 According to
the research literature, possible consequences of reduced work among teens are reduced
employment earnings, labor productivity in the future, and output in the economy. Similarly, the
E/P ratio of young adults ages 20 through 24 have declined steadily.4 In 2012, the average E/P
ratio for 20- through 24-year-olds was 61.5%, which represents about a 15% decrease from
2000.5
Even in periods of relative economic stability, some youth do not complete school and/or make
the transition to the workforce. While the majority of young people graduate from (public) high
school by age 18 or shortly thereafter,6 just over 7% of youth ages 16 through 24 have dropped
out and have not earned a high school diploma or its equivalent.7 This figure is higher among
black and Hispanic youth.8 Further, recent estimates of youth who are not working or in school
(i.e., “disconnected”) for at least a year are approximately 2.6 million.9 Certain youth face
barriers to remaining in school or securing employment, including poverty, their parents’ level of
education, and whether the youth are pregnant or parenting, among other factors. For example,
youth ages 16 through 24 who are parenting are far more likely to be disconnected than their
counterparts who are not.10 Youth in or aging out of foster care, runaway and homeless youth, and
youth offenders, among other groups of youth, are particularly vulnerable to not completing high
school, going on to college, or securing employment.11 For example, in a study of youth who had
been in foster care and were, on average, about age 25, most had obtained a high school diploma
or passed the general education development (GED) test at about the same rate as young people
ages 18 to 29 in the general population. However, they were much less likely to have a bachelor’s
degree—1.8% versus 22.5% of all young people.12 Further, the employment rate for these foster
care alumni was 80%, while the employment rate for their counterparts in the general population
was 95%.
3 Ibid.
4 Andrew Sum, Joseph McLaughlin, and Sheila Palma, The Collapse of the Nation’s Male Teen and Young Adult Labor
Market, 2000-2009: The Lost Generation of Young Male Workers, Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern
University, prepared for C.S. Mott Foundation, July 2009, http://www.nyec.org/content/documents/
ThecollapseoftheNation'sMaleTeenandYoungAdult.pdf.
5 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
6 The average freshman graduation rate (AFGR) is an estimate of the percentage of an entering public school freshman
class graduating in four years. For the most recent school years, the AFGR has been about 75%. Of the 25% of youth
who do not graduate in four years, some continue in school because they have a learning disability or for other reasons;
however, many of these youth drop out, with some returning to school at a later time while they are working or are idle.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2013, “Averaged
Freshman Graduation Rate (AFGR) for Public High School Students: School Years 1990-91 through 2009-2010,”
Indicator 28, Figure 1, May 2013, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2013/2013037.pdf.
7 Ibid, “Status Dropout Rates of 16- Through 24-year-olds, by Race/Ethnicity: 1990 through 2011,” Indicator 29,
Figure 1.
8 Ibid.
9 CRS Report R40535, Disconnected Youth: A Look at 16- to 24-Year Olds Who Are Not Working or In School, by
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara and Thomas Gabe.
10 Ibid.
11 For further information about the challenges certain groups of youth face while making the transition to adulthood,
see CRS Report RL33975, Vulnerable Youth: Background and Policies, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
12 Peter J. Pecora et al., Improving Foster Family Care: Findings from the Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study, Casey
Family Programs, 2005, http://www.casey.org/Resources/Publications/ImprovingFamilyFosterCare.htm.
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As they leave high school, either through graduation or by dropping out, young people can pursue
various options. Youth with a high school diploma may attend a two- or four-year college, enlist
in the armed services, or secure part-time or full-time employment (sometimes paired with
attending school). Youth without a high school diploma can do some of these same things, but
their opportunities are more limited. They cannot enroll in a four-year college or, in most cases,
enlist in the military. These youth will likely have difficulty supporting themselves if they do
work.
In fact, individuals who drop out are less likely to secure employment and are likely to have less
earning power. As the level of education rises, the unemployment rate decreases and median
weekly earnings increase for those who work.13 In 2012, among workers with less than a high
school degree, the unemployment rate was 12.4% and earnings averaged $471 per week. This is
compared to an unemployment rate of 8.3% and $652 in weekly earnings for workers with a high
school degree. Workers with a bachelor’s degree had an unemployment rate of 4.5% and median
weekly earnings of $1,066. With the shift to a knowledge-based economy, many new jobs will
require some college education or better. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the
fastest growing occupations between 2010 and 2020 will require some postsecondary education.14
Further, in all career clusters, a bachelor’s degree or better offers accessibility to most high-
paying jobs.15 As discussed later in the report, the growing need for education to secure
employment is likely a major reason why some young people are foregoing work for school. Still,
BLS predicts that the occupations with the largest numeric increases will not require workers to
have postsecondary education. A high school diploma or less is sufficient to enter 23 of 30 such
occupations.
The costs of dropping out extend beyond the individual’s foregone job opportunities and lower
wages.16 According to the research literature, costs can be incurred by society overall. These costs
include possible lost payroll tax revenue and increased transfers for welfare payments,
imprisonment, and programs to re-enroll dropouts in school.
Federal youth employment and job training programs have long targeted services to young people
who leave school before graduating or are in school and may be vulnerable to dropping out. The
purpose of these programs, as they currently exist, is to provide job training, employment,
educational services, and social services that can help youth become economically self-sufficient
and achieve their career and academic goals. These contemporary programs also emphasize
13 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey; Education Pays, May 22, 2013,
http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm.
14 C. Brett Lockard and Michael Wolf, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2020,” Monthly Labor Review, vol.
135, no. 1 (January 2012), pp. 88, 90, and 103, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2012/01/art5full.pdf. See also, Anthony P.
Carnevale, Nicole Smith, and Jeff Strohl, Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements through
2018, Georgetown University, Center on Education and the Workforce, June 2010, http://cew.georgetown.edu/
JOBS2018/.
15 Anthony P. Carnevale et al., Career Cluster: Forecasting Demand for High School Through College Jobs 2008-
2018, November 2011, http://cew.georgetown.edu/clusters/.
16 Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, The Consequences of Dropping Out of High School:
Joblessness and Jailing of High School Dropouts and the High Cost for Taxpayers, May 5, 2009, http://iris.lib.neu.edu/
cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=clms_pub; Paul E. Barton, One Third of a Nation: Rising Dropout Rates
and Declining Opportunities, Educational Testing Services, February 2009, http://www.ets.org/Media/
Education_Topics/pdf/onethird.pdf. Clive R. Belfield, Henry M. Levin, and Rachel Rosen, The Economic Value of
Opportunity Youth, prepared for the Corporation for National and Community Service and the White House Council
for Economic Solutions, January 2012, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED528650.pdf.
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leadership development and community service. Note that while youth employment and job
training programs are also enhanced with state workforce and other dollars, the extent to which
this support is provided is unclear.
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job
Training Programs17
For more than 70 years, the federal government has played a role in helping young people secure
employment and achieve academic success. Generally, these young people have been defined as
being vulnerable in some way—either because they are economically disadvantaged and/or have
a barrier to securing employment or completing their education. During the Great Depression, the
focus was on employing idle young men in public works and other projects. The employment
programs from this era included an educational component to encourage youth to obtain their
high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government started funding programs
for low-income youth, such as Job Corps, that address their multiple needs, including job training,
educational services, housing, and supportive services. During the 1970s and 1980s, Job Corps
was expanded and the federal government funded additional programs for both in-school and out-
of-school youth. Funding was also appropriated to test the efficacy of some of these programs.
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 extended earlier programs and created new ones, with the
intention of providing more seamless job training and education services for youth year-round.
Generally, these programs are targeted to teenagers and young adults, usually not beyond age 24,
who are at risk of dropping out or have already done so.
Depression Era
Prior to the 1930s, the federal government’s involvement in youth employment was primarily
limited to regulating child labor.18 The Great Depression served as a catalyst for the creation of
federal programs to employ and educate young people who were out of work or at risk of
dropping out of school due to financial difficulties. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
began in 1933 as an employment program for unemployed males ages 18 to 25 (and veterans,
Indians, and residents of territories of any age) to participate in projects planned by the
Departments of the Interior and Agriculture. These projects focused on creating and improving
infrastructure, transportation, and recreational services, among other categories. The young men
lived in camps and were provided with an allowance, food, and medical care. The CCC also
included an educational component, which taught nearly 35,000 participants to read and write and
assisted a smaller number with attaining their high school and college degrees. Until the program
ended in 1945, it served nearly 3 million men, of whom approximately 10% were veterans.
Other Depression era programs—the Student Aid program, Works Project program, and Guidance
and Placement program—were administered by the National Youth Administration, which was
created as part of the now-defunct Works Progress Administration by an executive order in 1935.
17 Unless otherwise noted, this section draws heavily on an archived report by the Congressional Research Service,
Youth Employment: A Summary History of Major Federal Programs, 1933-1976. Available upon request.
18 John H. Bremner, Tamara K. Hareven, and Robert M. Mennel, eds., Children & Youth in America, Vol. II: 1866-
1932, Parts 1-6 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 687-749.
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The programs provided funds for part-time employment of needy high school, college, and
graduate students to assist them in completing school, as well as funds for part-time employment
for unemployed out-of-school youth. These young people, all of whom were ages 16 through 25,
were employed in a number of broad areas, including construction, clerical work, and research.
These programs served hundreds of thousands of youth before they were discontinued in the early
1940s.
War on Poverty Programs
The 1960s marked a period of federal efforts to assist poor and disadvantaged children,
adolescents, and their families through job training and other programs. In response to concerns
about high unemployment, the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 (P.L. 87-415)
and subsequent amendments to it authorized funding for employment training. Specifically,
amendments to the act in 1963 (P.L. 88-214) encouraged the Department of Labor to provide
assistance to youth so that they might be able to successfully enter the labor force, and expanded
the share of job training funds that could be used to train youth under age 22 from 5% to 25%.
Further, federal funding was first authorized through the 1963 amendments to provide
employment opportunities to youth from low-income families.
President Lyndon B. Johnson’s subsequent War on Poverty established new youth-targeted
programs in job training and educational assistance under an initiative known as the
Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC). The NYC was comprised of work training programs, the
Work Study program, and Job Corps. The work training programs provided work experience, job
training, and supportive services to low-income unemployed youth ages 16 through 21 who were
in school or out of school, including dropouts. The Work Study program was modeled on the
Depression-era Student Aid program and provided money to high school and college students
from low-income families who needed earnings to stay in school. The program continues today
for college students. Job Corps, which also continues today, was established under the Economic
Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452) to provide educational and job training opportunities to
disadvantaged youth at residential and non-residential centers. (See “Job Corps,” below, for
further information.)
Expanding Youth Programs
The 1973 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA, P.L. 93-203) was the first of
four laws enacted during the 1970s and 1980s that focused greater federal attention on youth
employment and training. The second law, the Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project
Act (YEDPA, P.L. 95-93) was enacted in 1977 and established a variety of employment, training,
and demonstration programs for youth. The 1982 Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA, P.L. 97-
300) repealed CETA. JTPA was subsequently repealed by WIA. Separately, the School-to-Work
Opportunities Act of 1994 (STWOA, P.L. 103-239) supported the development of programs that
encouraged students to pursue learning opportunities and experiences that incorporated
occupational skills. Activities authorized under these acts were administered by DOL. STWOA
was additionally carried out by the Department of Education (ED).
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CETA and YEDPA
As amended through 1978, CETA authorized a range of employment and training programs for
adults and youth. Job Corps and the Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged Youth
(SPEDY) were the primary youth programs authorized under CETA. SPEDY provided funding to
employers to hire low-income youth ages 14 through 21 during the summer months. Youth served
as assistants in hospitals, libraries, community service organizations, and schools, among other
settings.
The Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA), signed into law in 1977,
amended CETA.19 YEDPA increased authorization of appropriations for Job Corps and SPEDY
and authorized three additional programs targeted to “economically disadvantaged” (defined
under the act) youth ages 14 through 21: Youth Employment and Training Programs (YETP),
Youth Community Conservation and Improvement Projects (YCCIP), and Youth Incentive
Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP).20 YEDPA was passed in response to high levels of
unemployment among youth relative to adults, even during periods of economic expansion, and
growing gaps in youth unemployment among whites and blacks, males and females, and in-
school and out-of-school youth. The programs were carried out during the Carter Administration,
from 1977 through 1981. Over this period, YEDPA served 6.1 million youth.
YETP and YCCIP were intended to meet the immediate employment needs of youth, and funding
for the programs was allocated primarily on a formula basis. YETP activities include work
experience, pre-employment skills, and an emphasis on the transition from school to work.
YCCIP was intended to assist unemployed, out-of-school youth obtain a high school degree,
conditional on satisfactory performance in work and school. Further, it was aimed at improving
coordination between the job training and educational systems as a means of addressing the
dropout problem.21 Finally, YIEPP funded evaluations to test the efficacy of demonstration
programs; the other two programs included funding for demonstration programs. During the
YEDPA years, more than 60 major demonstrations were funded in about 300 sites, operated by
DOL in cooperation with six other federal agencies and private nonprofit intermediaries.
19 Much of this section on YEDPA was drawn from Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R.
Papageorgiou, eds., Youth Employment and Training Programs: The YEDPA Years, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1985, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=
true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED265245&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED265245.
(Hereinafter, Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs.)
20 A fourth, the Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC), was operated by the Department of Agriculture and
Department of the Interior, in cooperation with DOL, and targeted unemployed youth ages 16 to 23 who were not
necessarily disadvantaged. This program operated year-round and was separate from a similarly named program, the
Youth Conservation Corps (YCC). YCC was permanently authorized by the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970
(P.L. 91-378) and continues to operate.
21 Other parts of YEDPA required close coordination with the school system. According to an assessment of the act’s
implementation, the schools maintained their focus on in-school youth and provided essentially the same set of
educational services as usual. The lack of influence of YEDPA on schools may be largely attributed to the schools’
resistance to allocating services according to income and the schools’ perception that their mission was exclusively to
educate students. Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs, pp. 84-87.
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JTPA22
CETA was repealed in 1982 by the Job Training Partnership Act. JTPA was distinct from its
predecessor because it emphasized that states and localities, rather than the federal government,
had the primary responsibility for administering job training and employment programs. Funding
was appropriated under JTPA through FY1999. JTPA programs focused on the training needs of
“economically disadvantaged” (defined under the act) youth and adults facing significant barriers
to employment. These programs were frequently referred to as “second chance” programs
because most of them were intended to train individuals who had not sufficiently benefitted from
traditional secondary and post-secondary education. They included the Summer Youth
Employment and Training program, the Youth Training Program, and Job Corps (discussed in the
next section).
The Summer Youth Employment and Training program provided employment and training
activities during the summer months for low-income youth ages 14 through 21 to strengthen basic
educational skills, encourage school completion, provide work exposure, and enhance citizenship
skills. In the summer of 1997, an estimated 500,000 youth participated. The Youth Training
Program was established by the Job Training Reform Amendments of 1992 (P.L. 102-367), which
amended JTPA to address concerns that school dropouts were not being reached by the then-
existing combined program for disadvantaged adults and youth, and that the program primarily
served youth who were the easiest to place in jobs and required the fewest services.23 The
program was year-round and provided direct services, such as on-the-job training, tutoring and
study skills training, and school-to-work transition services. It also provided training-related and
supportive services, including job search assistance, drug and alcohol abuse counseling, and cash
incentives based on attendance and performance in a program. Economically disadvantaged in-
school and out-of-school youth ages 16 through 21 were eligible, but 50% of participants in
service delivery areas (SDAs), comprised of the state or one or more units of local government,
had to be out of school. Further, at least 65% of youth had to be hard to serve, meaning they were
school dropouts (if out of school), pregnant or parenting, or offenders, among other
qualifications. In program year 1997, an estimated 107,000 youth participated. As discussed
below, JTPA was repealed by WIA, the current law that authorizes youth job training and
employment programs.
STWOA
The School to Work Opportunity Act of 1994 authorized the School-to-Work (STW) program
administered jointly by DOL and the Department of Education through the National School-to-
Work Office. The program was funded from FY1994 through FY2000.24 The law supported the
development of programs with three main elements: work-based learning to provide participating
students with work experience and on-the-job training; school-based learning, involving
upgrading and integrating the occupational skills participating students learn in school and the
workplace; and program coordination to aid the planning, implementation, and operation of the
22 Unless otherwise noted, this section was drawn heavily from an archived report by the Congressional Research
Service, The Job Training Partnership Act: A Compendium of Programs. Available upon request.
23 Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Job Training Partnership Act: Legislation and Budget
Issues. Available upon request.
24 Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The School-to-Work Opportunities Act. Available upon
request.
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program. STWOA grants were competitively awarded to states, local partnerships, programs for
Indian youth, and U.S. territories to implement school-to-work systems. In addition, STWOA
authorized national activities, such as research and demonstrations. Some school-to-work
programs that received seed money from the federal program continue to operate today.
WIA
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 replaced JTPA. WIA includes titles that authorize
programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult education and literacy (Title II),
employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation (Title IV). Title I of WIA authorizes
job training programs for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.25 As described by DOL in a 2000
Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) to state and local workforce development
boards, WIA places “new emphasis on serving youth within a comprehensive statewide
workforce development system.” The programs for youth are discussed in further detail below.
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under
Title I of the Workforce Investment Act
Job training and employment services for youth under WIA include
• Youth Activities, a formula grant program for states that includes employment and
other services that are provided year-round;
• Job Corps, a program that provides job training and related services primarily at
residential centers maintained by contractor organizations;
• YouthBuild, a competitive grant program that emphasizes job training and
education in construction;
• Reintegration of Ex-Offenders, a demonstration program for juvenile and adult
offenders that provides job training and other services and is authorized under
WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority; and
• Youth Opportunity Grants program, a multi-site demonstration program funded
through FY2003 that created centers in low-income communities where youth
could receive employment and other services.
WIA’s authorization of appropriations expired at the end of FY2003. However, Congress
continues to appropriate funds, including those for youth job training programs—except for the
Youth Opportunity Grants program, which has not been funded since FY2003. All of the
programs are carried out by DOL’s Employment and Training Administration (ETA).26 As
mentioned above, Job Corps was enacted as part of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L.
88-452), and was later incorporated into CETA and JTPA. YouthBuild was originally authorized
25 For further information about the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs, see CRS Report RL33687, The Workforce
Investment Act (WIA): Program-by-Program Overview and Funding of Title I Training Programs, by David H.
Bradley.
26 The Office of Job Corps is being transferred from the Office of the Secretary to ETA pursuant to the Consolidated
Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-117).
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under the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-550). The
program was administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) until it
was transferred to DOL in 2007 under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281) and
incorporated into WIA.
All of the programs offer employment, job training, and educational services. For example, local
areas must provide 10 specific elements, including mentoring and follow-up, to youth who
receive services under the Youth Activities formula grant program. YouthBuild program
participants engage in employment and other activities primarily related to housing and other
types of construction work. Job Corps is the only one of the programs that provides residential
services; youth can live onsite and receive health care services, child care, and other supports. As
with Job Corps, the YOG program established centers, albeit non-residential, where youth could
receive employment and other services. Further, the programs generally serve vulnerable youth,
but some have more targeted eligibility criteria. Participants in the Youth Activities formula grant
program, YouthBuild, and Job Corps must be low-income and have specific employment barriers.
The youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders serves youth who have become
involved in the juvenile justice or criminal justice system or youth at risk of becoming involved.
When the YOG program was in operation, youth automatically qualified for the program if they
lived in low-income communities. Finally, the programs are funded somewhat differently. DOL
allocates funding for Youth Activities to states based on a formula, while Job Corps enters into
agreements with nonprofit and for-profit organizations and other federal agencies. The other
programs competitively award grants to nonprofit and other organizations and local communities.
Coordination
Together, the WIA Youth program and other WIA programs collectively make up a job training
and workforce system for youth. In some communities, this may be formalized while in others,
coordination between the programs may be less structured.WIA includes provisions that
encourage or require the programs to coordinate with one another. In submitting their state
workforce investment plans to DOL, states must specify how they will coordinate Youth
Activities programming with services provided by Job Corps centers in places where they exist.
In addition, youth councils, comprised of stakeholders with an interest in the employment and
other needs of youth, must include representatives from Job Corps, where applicable. Further,
Youth Activities, Job Corps, and YouthBuild are required partners at one-stop centers. One-stop
centers include approximately 20 federal programs that coordinate employment and other
services in a community for all youth and adults.
The White House Task Force for Disadvantaged Youth, convened in 2002 under President George
W. Bush, sought to improve coordination of youth programs across the federal government and
use federal resources to assist the neediest youth, including those who would be eligible for
programs under Title I of WIA. In response, ETA established the Shared Youth Vision, which was
intended to connect the most at-risk youth to work and school.27 As part of these efforts, DOL
partnered with other federal agencies, including the U.S. Departments of Education, Health and
Human Services, and Justice to improve communication and collaboration across programs that
27 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, TEGL No. 3-04 (“The Employment and
Training Administration’s (ETA’s) new strategic vision to serve out-of-school and at-risk youth under the Workforce
Investment Act (WIA)”), July 16, 2004.
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target at-risk youth groups under an initiative called the “Shared Youth Vision.”28 Together, the
agencies convened an Interagency Work Group and conducted regional forums to develop and
coordinate policies and research on the vulnerable youth population. The purpose of these forums
was to create and implement plans to improve communication and collaboration between local
organizations that serve at-risk youth. DOL competitively awarded grants totaling $1.6 million to
16 states to assist them in developing strategic plans to link their systems that serve youth.
These efforts have been carried forward by the Interagency Working Group on Youth Programs,
which was established by President George W. Bush under Executive Order 13459. Pursuant to
the executive order, the working group consists of 12 federal departments and five federal
agencies, including the Department of Labor.29 The primary functions of the working group, as
specified in the executive order, include (1) identifying and engaging key government and private
or nonprofit organizations that can play a role in improving the coordination and effectiveness of
programs serving and engaging youth, such as faith-based and other community organizations;
(2) developing a new federal website on youth programs; (3) encouraging all youth-serving
federal and state agencies, communities, grantees, and organizations to adopt high standards for
assessing program results, including through the use of rigorous impact evaluations, as
appropriate; and (4) reporting to the President on its work and on the implementation of any
recommendations arising from its work.
Funding
Funding authorization for the youth programs under WIA expired in FY2003. Although funding
authorization has expired, Congress has continued to appropriate funds for most programs
authorized under the law.
Section 189(g)(1)(A) of WIA requires that funds appropriated for a program or activity carried
out under Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis of a program year.30 The
program year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends
June 30 of the following year. Under Section 189(g)(1)(B), funds for Youth Activities may first
become available for a new program year in the preceding April. In addition, Congress has tended
to specify that funds appropriated for YouthBuild and the youth component of the Reintegration
of Ex-Offenders program are available for obligation beginning in the April preceding a given
program year.31
28 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “Shared Youth Vision, Mission and
Objectives,” http://www.doleta.gov/ryf/whitehousereport/vmo.cfm.
29 These include the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Education, Health and Human Services,
Homeland Security, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, Justice, Labor, State, and Transportation; and the
Corporation for National and Community Service, National Science Foundation, Office of National Drug Control
Policy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and U.S. Small Business Association.
30 Section 173(h)(2), which pertains to authorization for YouthBuild, states that notwithstanding Section 189(g),
appropriations for any fiscal year for programs and activities carried out under this section are to be available for
obligation only on the basis of a fiscal year.
31 For information about the timing of funding under the three WIA formula grant programs—Adult, Dislocated
Workers, and Youth—see Congressional Distribution Memorandum, Issues Related to Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
Funding, by David H. Bradley. Available upon request.
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Pursuant to Section 189(g)(2) of WIA, funds obligated for any program year for a program or
activity carried out under Title I may be expended by each state receiving such funds during that
program year and the two succeeding program years.32 Local areas may expend funds received
from the state during the program year and the succeeding program year. Congress has generally
required that obligated funds for Job Corps are made available for one program year, although
funding for certain purposes can be obligated through later dates.
FY2014 Funding and Request33
FY2014 appropriations were not enacted prior to the beginning of the fiscal year (October 1),
resulting in a 16-day shutdown of the federal government. On October 16, 2013, the Senate and
House agreed to a bill (H.R. 2775) to provide temporary government-wide FY2014 funding
through January 15, 2014 (or until full-year funding is appropriated). This bill was signed by the
President on October 17, 2013 (P.L. 113-46). This continuing resolution (CR) generally funds
discretionary, non-security programs at their FY2013 post-sequester, post-rescission levels. All of
the DOL youth programs are discretionary, non-security programs.
As part of the FY2014 budget request, the Administration prioritized the following activities for
each of the youth programs:
• Youth Activities: The request is for $846.6 million. With these funds, DOL would
increase the share of youth who have credentials by connecting youth to
employment and training programs in growing occupations; increase work
experience and training in the health care sector; implement promising strategies
identified through Workforce Investment fund (WIF) grantees (see below for
discussion of WIF); and assist local programs in developing collaborative
partnerships with the Department of Health and Human Services (which
administers the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program), the
Departments of the Interior and Agriculture (which provide work experiences for
youth on public lands), and the Department of Education (to improve literacy for
out-of-school youth), among other departments.
• Job Corps: The request is for $1.7 million, including authority for the DOL
Secretary to transfer up to 15% of funds from the construction account to the
operations account. DOL has plans to close a small number of centers that are
“chronically low-performing,” identify and seek to replicate the practices of
high-performing centers, and adopt reforms to reduce costs for the program. The
budget also addresses efforts to improve the program’s financial and contract
oversight practices, including changes to program budget calculations. DOL
further proposes to shift its focus toward strategies that were proven cost
effective in evaluations of the Job Corps program, such as serving more youth
ages 20 through 24.34
32 Funds obligated for any program year for a pilot or demonstration program (Section 171) are to remain available
until expended.
33 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, FY2014 Congressional Budget Justification,
Training and Employment Services and Job Corps.
34 The evaluation was completed in 2006. See Peter Z. Schochet, John Burghardt, and Sheena McConnell, National Job
Corps Study and Longer-Term Follow-Up Study: Impact and Benefit-Cost Findings Using Survey and Summary
Earnings Records Data, August 2006, http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/FullText_Documents/
(continued...)
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• YouthBuild: The request is for $79.7 million. DOL intends to continue efforts to
expand training in demand occupations outside of construction35 and to increase
credential attainment (GED, high school diplomas, and industry-recognized
credentials). DOL plans to enhance participant placement in employment; post-
secondary education, including community colleges; and registered
apprenticeships. Related to this, DOL intends to develop and maintain
partnerships with community colleges and apprenticeship programs.
• Reintegration of Ex-Offenders: The request for the overall program, which
includes the youth component, is $90.2 million. Some of these funds would be
targeted for testing and replicating innovative and evidence-based strategies for
youth offenders. Some funds would be used for competitive grants to national
and regional intermediaries for activities that prepare young ex-offenders and
dropouts for employment. Priority would be given to projects that serve high-
crime, high-poverty areas. DOL also plans to collaborate with the Department of
Defense to demonstrate whether non-violent adjudicated youth will experience
the same benefits as other at-risk youth who have participated in the National
Guard Youth ChalleNGe program. The Youth ChalleNGe program provides
education and social supports to youth who have dropped out of school.36
Funding for FY2000-FY2013
Table 1 includes the level of funds appropriated to each of the youth job training and employment
programs for FY2000 through FY2013. Congress appropriated $2.42 billion to $2.81 billion
annually in most years over this period. Table A-1 in Appendix A presents Youth Activities
funding allocated to the states and outlying areas for PY2008 through PY2013 (the most recent
data available), including under the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-
5), the law that provided additional funding to create and preserve jobs, among other purposes. 37
Of programs that continue to be funded (as of FY2013),38 Job Corps has received the largest
appropriation each year, followed by the Youth Activities program, YouthBuild, and the youth
(...continued)
National%20Job%20Corps%20Study%20and%20Longer%20Term%20Follow-Up%20Study%20-
%20Final%20Report.pdf.
35 On February 15, 2012, DOL issued a final rule for the YouthBuild program. The preamble to the final rule states that
grantees may expand their occupational skills training beyond construction skills training; however, all programs must
still provide training in the construction trades. DOL explained the reason for the change: “ ... [W]e believe that
allowing programs to be able to match job training opportunities with local, in-demand jobs will lead to more
successful employment outcomes for YouthBuild participants. This will also allow programs, when possible, a better
way to match training opportunities with participants’ interests.” U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, “YouthBuild Program Final Rule,” 77 Federal Register 9112, February 15, 2012.
36 For further information about Youth ChalleNGe, see CRS Report RL34306, Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring
Programs and Issues, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
37 In the accompanying conference report to ARRA, Congress specified that funds for the Youth Activities program
should be used for summer youth employment and to expand year-round employment opportunities for youth up to age
24 (from age 21, as generally required under WIA). U.S. Congress, U.S. House of Representatives. Making
Supplemental Appropriations for Job Preservation and Creation, Infrastructure Investment, Energy Efficiency and
Science, Assistance to the Unemployment, and State and Local Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 2009, and For Other
Purposes, 111th Cong., 1st sess., February 12, 2009, H.Rept. 1116-16.
38 The Youth Opportunity Grants program was funded from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated through FY2005.
(continued...)
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component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders (although in two years, YouthBuild received less
funding than the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders’ youth component).
FY2013 Funding
On March 26, 2013, President Obama signed into law the Consolidated and Further Continuing
Appropriations Act, 2013 (P.L. 113-6). This full-year continuing resolution (CR) superseded a
six-month CR for FY2013 (P.L. 112-175) that had been enacted on September 28, 2012. P.L. 113-
6 generally funded discretionary, non-security DOL programs and activities at their FY2012
levels, minus an across-the-board rescission of 0.2%, as interpreted by the Office of Management
and Budget (OMB) per Section 3004 of P.L. 113-6. On March 1, 2013, under the terms of the
Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25), as amended by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of
2012 (P.L. 112-240), President Obama ordered a sequestration. 39 The result was an across-the-
board cut of an additional 5% for most DOL programs and activities for FY2013. The FY2013
funding levels provided in Table 1 are based on an operating plan provided by DOL to Congress
that incorporates both the rescission and sequestration.40
Table 1. Funding for DOL Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
Appropriations for FY2000-FY2013
(dollars in thousands)
Youth
Offenders
(Reintegration
Total
Youth
of Ex-
Funding, All
Fiscal Year
Activities Job
Corps
YouthBuilda
Offenders)b
Programs
FY2000 $1,000,965 $1,357,776 $43,000 $13,907 $2,415,648
FY2001 1,127,965 1,399,148 60,000 55,000 2,642,113
FY2002 1,127,965 1,458,732 65,000 55,000 2,706,697
FY2003 994,459
1,509,094
59,610 54,643 2,617,806
FY2004 995,059
1,541,151
65,000 49,705 2,650,915
FY2005 986,288
1,551,861
62,000 69,440 2,669,589
FY2006 940,500
1,564,180
62,000 49,104 2,615,784
FY2007 940,500
1,566,178
49,500 49,104 2,605,282
FY2008 924,069
1,610,506
58,952 55,000 2,648,527
FY2009 924,069
1,683,938
70,000 88,500 2,766,507
ARRA 1,200,000 250,000 50,000
0 1,500,000
(...continued)
The program received between $225,100 and $250,000 in each of FY2000 through FY2002 and $44,211 in FY2003.
39 White House, President Obama, Sequestration Order for Fiscal Year 2013 Pursuant to Section 251A of the Balanced
Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act, As Amended, March 1, 2013, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/
default/files/2013sequestration-order-rel.pdf.
40 U.S. Department of Labor, FY2013 Operating Plan, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2014/PDF/
2013OperatingPlanTable.pdf. (Hereinafter, U.S. Department of Labor, FY2013 Operating Plan.)
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Youth
Offenders
(Reintegration
Total
Youth
of Ex-
Funding, All
Fiscal Year
Activities Job
Corps
YouthBuilda
Offenders)b
Programs
FY2010 924,069
1,708,205
102,500 73,493 2,808,267
FY2011c 825,914
1,706,171d 79,840 50,000 2,661,925
FY2012e 824,353
1,702,947 79,689 60,000
2,666,989
FY2013f
781,375
1,613,872
75,534
43,910
N/A
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from Department of Labor (DOL) budget
justifications; Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) budget justifications; DOL Employment
and Training Administration budget information at http://www.doleta.gov/budget; correspondence with DOL;
DOL, All Purpose Table FY2011 Full-Year Continuing Resolution, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2012/PDF/
2011OperatingPlanTable.pdf; U.S. Congress, Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 2055, Military Construction
and Veterans Affairs and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2012 Division F, 112th Cong., 1st sess., December 15,
2011, H.Rept. 112-331; and DOL, FY2013 Operating Plan, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2014/PDF/
2013OperatingPlanTable.pdf.
a. YouthBuild was transferred from HUD to DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281).
b. Prior to FY2008, the Reintegration of Youthful Offenders program was a stand-alone program. It is now
part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which includes funding for juvenile and adult activities.
Funding for the program is authorized under Section 171 (Demonstration and pilot projects) of WIA and
Section 112 (Responsible reintegration of offenders) of the recently enacted Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-
199). Section 112 authorizes DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of providing
mentoring, job training and job placement services, and other comprehensive transitional services to assist
eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining employment.
c. The Department of Defense and Ful -Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (P.L. 112-10) includes a
0.2% across-the-board rescission.
d. Job Corps includes three accounts—administration, operations, and construction. The FY2011
appropriations law is based on funding for FY2010, and includes an across-the-board rescission of 0.2% for
all programs and an additional rescission of $75.0 million. The 0.2% across-the-board rescission applies only
to current year, and not advance, appropriations. Advance appropriations are those funds enacted in one
fiscal year but not available for obligation until a subsequent fiscal year or years. Two of Job Corps’ three
accounts, operations and construction, include advance funds. Therefore, the across-the-board reduction
only applies to current year funding (or $983.0 million for operations and $5.0 million for construction).
According to the Department of Labor, $75.0 million was subtracted from existing balances, and therefore
the FY2011 funding is not affected by this decrease. Congressional Research Service correspondence with
the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, May 2010.
e. FY2012 funding information was included in the conference report (H.Rept. 112-331) for the Consolidated
Appropriations Act, FY2012 (P.L. 112-74). This law was the final in a series of continuing resolutions to
provide funding for the Department of Labor and select other departments. The figures presented in this
table incorporate an across-the-board rescission of 0.189%.
f.
Funding for FY2013 was provided through a series of continuing resolutions. The final continuing resolution
was the Consolidated and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013 (P.L. 113-6). The FY2013 funding levels
provided were based on the operating plan provided by DOL to Congress. This funding included a 0.2%
rescission, per P.L. 113-6, and a sequestered amount of 5.0%, per the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-
25), as amended by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-240).
Workforce Innovation Fund
In addition to the funds appropriated to the youth programs authorized under WIA, Congress has
provided funding for the Workforce Innovation Fund (WIF), a grant program to supplement
funding for the Youth Activities program and the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs (WIF
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funding not shown in Table 1). These funds are intended to support projects that demonstrate
innovative strategies or replicate evidence-based strategies that strengthen the workforce
investment system and ultimately benefit the education and employment of participants.
According to the DOL FY2013 operating plan, the WIF was funded at $49.9 million for
FY2013.41 DOL has since indicated that approximately $29 million of these funds specifically
targeted youth employment and training.42
Congress provided funding for the WIF in both FY2011 and FY2012. In December 2011, DOL
issued a solicitation announcing the availability of funding for the WIF. The solicitation provides
examples of projects targeted to vulnerable youth. For instance, the solicitation states that projects
can connect “the multiple systems that serve disconnected youth” to support summer employment
and educational work experiences or improve coordination among existing programs, such as Job
Corps and YouthBuild.43 Funds were awarded under this solicitation in June 2012.44
Job Corps Transfer Authority
Congress appropriates funding for Job Corps under three accounts—administration; operations;
and construction, rehabilitation, and acquisition (CRA).45 The final FY2013 appropriations law
(P.L. 113-6) authorized DOL to transfer up to $30 million of unobligated funds—from previous
appropriations laws or P.L. 113-6, as of March 26, 2013 (the date of the law’s enactment)—to the
operations account from other Employment and Administration (ETA) accounts. Notably, these
funds may be used to fund operations in program year (PY) 2012 (which ended June 30, 2013)
and possibly PY2013 (which ends June 30, 2014). The law required that of any amount
transferred, a minimum of $10 million must be transferred to support PY2012 operations within
30 days of enactment of the law. It further required that within 15 days of the transfer, DOL was
to submit a report to the appropriations committees including (1) the source of the transferred
funds; (2) Job Corps programs, projects, or activities for which funds will be used; (3) a detailed
explanation of the need for the transfer; and (4) cost saving measures implemented in PY2012
and PY2013, as well as the savings gained by implementing each initiative. On May 7, 2013,
DOL submitted letters to the Committees on Appropriations to indicate that $10 million was
transferred from the ETA Training and Employment Services (TES) account to the Job Corps
operations account for PY2012. 46 Specifically, the funds used were from the Dislocated Worker
National Reserve Pilots and Demonstration funding. The letter also included information that
responded to the other requirements in the appropriations law.
41 U.S. Department of Labor, FY2013 Operating Plan.
42 Based on correspondence with the U. S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, December
2013.
43 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “Notice of Availability of Funds and
Solicitation for Grant Applications for Workforce Innovation Fund Grants,” December 22, 2011.
44 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “U.S. Labor Department Awards Nearly $147
Million in Workforce Innovation Fund Grants, Announces “Pay for Success” Funding, June 14, 2012.
45 Funds appropriated for the administration account are available for the fiscal year in which they are appropriated;
funds appropriated for the operations account are available for the accompanying program year (i.e., funds appropriated
in FY2013 support the program in PY2013); and funds appropriated for the CRA account are available for the
accompanying program year and the two succeeding program years (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 are available
through June 30, 2017).
46 Letter from Seth Harris, U.S. Department of Labor Acting Secretary to The Honorable Barbara Mikulski and The
Honorable Richard Shelby, United States Senate, and The Honorable Harold Rogers and The Honorable Nita M.
Lowey, U.S. House of Representatives, May 7, 2013.
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The FY2013 transfer was in response to a shortfall in the operations account for PY2012. DOL
took several measures to reduce costs in PY2012, such as stopping enrollments at all centers
except for certain students. Other cost-reduction measures included implementing a new policy
that winter and summer breaks no longer qualify for paid leave; revising the structure and
payment amounts for stipends and clothing allowances to students; revising and updating policies
on health and wellness; and taking measures to help avoid or lower costs from previous program
years; among other changes.47 These measures achieved $54.6 million in savings.48 Combined
with the transferred amount of $10 million, the operations account recovered $64.6 million for
PY2012.
The shortfall in PY2012 was preceded by a shortfall in the account for PY2011.49 As part of the
FY2011 appropriations law (P.L. 112-10), Congress appropriated $1.7 billion to Job Corps. The
law authorized DOL to transfer up to 25% of appropriated funds from the CRA account to the
operations account, provided that no funds were to be made available to “initiate a competition
for any Job Corps center not previously approved through a competitive selection.”50 Recognizing
a possible funding shortage in the program’s operations account during FY2011, DOL transferred
$26.2 million in the final month of PY2011 (June 2012) from the CRA to the operations accounts,
which was the full 25% authorized under P.L. 112-10. 51 Using other transfer authority for DOL’s
overall budget, the department transferred an additional $2.2 million from the Dislocated Worker
National Reserve account in the Training and Employment Services (TES) appropriation.52 In
total, DOL transferred $28.4 million to the operations account to shore up funding in the
operations account for PY2011.
DOL also took immediate measures in PY2011 to reduce costs. These measures included
modifying contracts to temporarily cut spending in non-mission critical areas such as
administrative expenses, purchasing, and staff travel; adjusting the start of the summer break by
three days so it commenced in PY2012; temporarily suspending student enrollment in June 2012;
and enrolling new students after the summer break, thereby beginning these new enrollments in
47 Ibid, and U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Congressional and Intergovernmental Affairs, congressional listserv
email correspondence from September 2012 through January 2013; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and
Training Administration, Office of Job Corps, “Policy and Requirements Handbook Record of Changes,”
http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/prh_record.sflb.
48 Letter from Department of Labor Acting Secretary Harris to Senators Mikulski and Shelby and Representatives
Rogers and Lowey, May 7, 2013.
49 For further information, see CRS Congressional Distribution Memorandum, Job Corps: Slot Reductions and
Proposal to Close Selected Centers, by Adrienne Fernandes-Alcantara. Available upon request from author.
50 U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Military Construction and Veterans Affairs and Related Agencies
Appropriations Act, 2012 Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 2055, H.Rept. 112-331, committee print, 112th Cong.,
1st sess., December 15, 2011.
51 Letter from Brian V. Kennedy, U.S. Department of Labor Assistant Secretary for Congressional and
Intergovernmental Affairs, to The Honorable Tom Harkin and The Honorable Richard Shelby, United States Senate,
July 20, 2012.
52 Ibid. DOL’s authority to transfer funds from the Dislocated Worker National Reserve account is derived from the
FY2011 appropriations law (P.L. 112-10), which, as a continuing resolution, incorporated provisions from the FY2010
appropriations law (P.L. 111-117). Section 102 of P.L. 111-117 authorized the transfer of up to 1% of any discretionary
funds for the Department of Labor between a program, project, or activity, but “no such program, project, or activity
shall be increased by more than 3 percent by any such transfer.” The transfer amount of $2.2 million was less than 1%
of discretionary funding for Job Corps (or Job Corps operations), which is one of multiple discretionary programs
within DOL.
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PY2012.53 DOL explained that the adjustment to the start of the summer break and delayed
enrollment of new students eliminated transportation costs at the end of PY2011.
At a March 2013 hearing on the Job Corps shortfall before the Senate Health, Education, Labor
and Pensions (HELP) Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety, the then-Assistant
Secretary for ETA Jane Oates testified that that she was uncertain why the funding shortfall
occurred in PY2011, but attributed it, in part, to “serious weaknesses in Job Corps’ financial
management processes,” the opening of three new centers, increases in student-related
expenditures, and concerns with monitoring cost-reimbursement contracts.54
On May 31, 2013, the DOL Office of Inspector General (OIG) released a performance audit
report that discussed the cause of the PY2011 shortfall and addressed whether DOL management
had implemented internal controls over Job Corps funds and expenditures during the first five
months of PY2012. The report found that the PY2011 shortfall was due to (1) untimely
communication about projected costs that exceeded appropriations for the program; (2) initial
planning for costs that did not account for increased expenditures for three new centers; (3)
inaccurately accounting for costs in cost projection models; and (4) lack of consistent monitoring
of costs throughout the program year. The OIG audit also documented concerns with internal
controls to manage Job Corps funding during the first five months of PY2012. Such concerns
included deficiencies in the areas of budget execution, data that supported spending projections,
monitoring of projected to actual costs; and lack of policies concerning communication of
financial and program risks and certain Job Corps activities pertaining to monitoring contracts.55
The next section of the report provides further discussion about the five youth programs
authorized under Title I of WIA.
Youth Activities Formula Grant Program56
Overview and Purpose
The Youth Activities formula grant program is one of three state formula grant programs
authorized by WIA. The other two programs target adults (Adult Activities) and dislocated
workers (Dislocated Worker Activities), although youth ages 18 or older are eligible for services
provided through the Adult Activities program. These programs provide core funding for a
coordinated system of employment and training services overseen by a state workforce
53 U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Congressional and Intergovernmental Affairs, congressional listserv email
correspondence from September 2012 through January 2013; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, Office of Job Corps, “Policy and Requirements Handbook Record of Changes,”
http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/prh_record.sflb.
54 U.S. Congress, Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (HELP), Employment and Workplace Safety, Job
Corps Budget Shortfall: Safeguarding Workforce Training for America’s Disconnected Youth, 113th Cong., 1st sess.,
March 12, 2013. See testimony of Jane Oates, Assistant Secretary for Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration.
55 U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Inspector General, Office of Audit, The U.S. Department of Labor’s
Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds, Report No. 22-13-015-
03-370, May 31, 2013, http://www.oig.dol.gov/public/reports/oa/2013/22-13-015-03-370.pdf.
56 Title I, Chapter 4 of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 664.
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investment board (WIB) and the governor, and comprised of representatives of businesses and
other partners. The WIA Youth Activities formula grant program is arguably the centerpiece of the
federal youth job training and employment system. As specified in the law, the program has
several purposes: to provide assistance in achieving academic and employment success through
activities that improve educational and skill competencies and foster effective connections to
employers; to ensure ongoing adult mentoring opportunities for eligible youth; to provide
opportunities for training, continued supportive services, and participation in activities related to
leadership, citizenship, and community service; and to offer incentives for recognition and
achievement to youth.
Unlike its predecessor JTPA, which had two separate programs for summer and year-round
activities, WIA funds both under the Youth formula program. WIA also mandates that certain
elements be made available to all youth participants through Youth Activities, including summer
opportunities linked to academic and occupational learning (see Table 2). Under JTPA, several of
these elements were either optional or not present. In addition, the Youth program requires that
30% of WIA youth funds be spent on out-of-school youth. While JTPA’s Youth Training Program
required half of all youth to be out of school, the larger summer youth program did not set any
requirements for this population.
Program Structure
DOL provides funding to state WIBs based on their relative57 unemployment and youth poverty
status.58 In turn, the state WIBs distribute 85% of funds, also based on unemployment and
poverty factors, to local workforce areas that are designated by the governor. The state retains as
much as 15% for statewide activities.59 A local area is overseen by the local WIB. Membership of
the local WIB includes representatives of businesses, local education entities, labor organizations,
community-based organizations, and economic development agencies, among others. Local
WIBs, in coordination with their youth councils (discussed below), competitively award funds to
local organizations and other entities to provide employment and job training services to youth. A
2004 report by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) examined the entities that local
WIBs contract with to provide these services. Based on a survey of all local WIBs, the report
found that about half of all youth received Youth Activities services through community-based
organizations, secondary schools, and colleges or universities.60 A smaller share of youth received
57 The word “relative” as used in this report means the number of individuals in a state compared to the total number in
all states.
58 Under WIA, of the funds appropriated for Youth Activities, not more than 0.25% is reserved for outlying areas and
not more than 1.5% is reserved for Youth Activities for Native Americans. The remainder of funds are allocated to
states by a formula based one-third on the relative number of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial
unemployment (an unemployment rate of at least 6.5%), one-third on the relative “excess” number of unemployed
individuals (an unemployment rate more than 4.5%), and one-third on the relative number of low-income youth.
Section 127(b) of WIA.
59 Alternatively, a state may distribute to local areas a portion equal to not less than 70% of the funds they would have
received using the employment and poverty factors, with the remaining portion of funds allocated on the basis of a
formula that incorporates additional factors relating to excess youth poverty in urban, rural, and suburban local areas
and excess unemployment above the state average in these areas. Such a formula must be developed by the state WIB
and approved by the DOL Secretary as part of the state plan. Section 128(b)(3) of WIA.
60 The report found that in-school youth were most likely to receive services through—in this order—community
organizations, secondary schools, colleges or universities, youth one-stop centers, adult one-stop centers, and other
providers, such as local or state governments. Out-of-school youth were most likely to receive services through—in this
order—community organizations, colleges or universities, secondary schools, adult one-stop centers, youth adult one-
(continued...)
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services through one-stop centers (discussed below) and other entities, such as local or state
governments and private employers.
With assistance from the state WIB, the governor develops a five-year plan that addresses several
items related to employment and training needs, performance accountability, and employment
and training activities. The plan must address items specific to Youth Activities (Section 112),
including a description of the factors used to distribute funds to local areas for Youth Activities;
the state’s strategy for providing comprehensive services to eligible youth, particularly those who
have significant barriers to employment; the criteria used by local boards in awarding and
assessing providers for youth activities’ grants; and a description of how the state will coordinate
Youth Activities with services provided by Job Corps and Youth Opportunity grants, where
applicable.
The local WIB develops a local plan that discusses items similar to those in the state plan, except
that the plan describes the local area’s one-stop delivery system, which is comprised of partners
that collaborate to provide coordinated employment and training services in the community.
Nearly 20 federal programs must provide services through the one-stop system, either by co-
location, electronic linkages, or referrals. A local program funded by the Youth Activities formula
grant program and the one-stop workforce system are encouraged to work together to facilitate
the coordination and delivery of comprehensive, longer-term workforce services for youth.61 In
fact, as a required partner in the one-stop system, a local program must use a portion of its funds
to create and maintain the one-stop delivery system and enter into a memorandum of
understanding with the local WIB relating to the operation of the one-stop, among other
requirements.62
Youth Councils
Each local WIB is required under law to establish a local youth council (Section 117(h)).
Together, the WIB and the youth council oversee a local youth program funded by Youth
Activities. The purpose of the youth council is to provide expertise in youth policy and to assist
the local board in developing portions of the local plan relating to eligible youth. As specified in
the law, the councils must coordinate youth activities in a local area, develop portions of the local
plan related to eligible youth, recommend eligible providers of youth activities to be
competitively awarded grants or contracts, oversee the activities of the providers, and carry out
other duties specified by the local WIB.
The youth council is comprised of members of the local board with special interest or expertise in
youth policy; representatives of youth service, juvenile justice, and local law enforcement
(...continued)
stop centers, and other providers, such as local or state governments. U.S. General Accounting Office, Workforce
Investment Act: Labor Actions Can Help States Improve Quality of Performance Outcome Data and Delivery of Youth
Services, GAO-04-308, February 2004, pp. 17-19. (GAO is now known as the Government Accountability Office.)
61 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter
(TEGL) No. 9-00 (“Workforce Investment Act of 1998, Section 129—Competitive and Non-competitive Procedures
for Providing Youth Activities Under Title I”), January 31, 2001; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and
Training Administration, TEGL No. 16-00 (“Availability of Funds to Support Planning Projects that Enhance Youth
Connections and Access to the One-Stop System”), March 19, 2001. (Hereinafter, U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration, TEGL No. 16-00, March 19, 2001.)
62 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, TEGL No. 16-00, March 19, 2001.
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
agencies; representatives of local public housing authorities; and parents of eligible youth seeking
assistance through the adult activities or dislocated workers activities, among others. A 2002
study by GAO of the Youth Activities program included survey data about the membership of
local youth councils. At the time, nearly all youth councils included participants from youth-
serving agencies (92%) and people who had experience in youth activities (93%). Seventy-five
percent of youth councils had personnel from public housing authorities and 71% included
parents of WIA-eligible youth. Most youth councils expanded their membership to include
optional representatives, such as local educators.63
Elements of Local Programs
Local programs are responsible for carrying out the purposes of the act. In addition to assessing
the skills of youth who receive services, local programs must provide 10 activities or “elements”
to youth, as summarized in Table 2. DOL classifies elements based on whether they are targeted
to educational achievement, summer employment, employment services, leadership development
activities, or additional support for youth services. In addition, programs must provide follow-up
services.64 Note that although local WIBs must make all 10 program elements available to youth,
each individual youth does not need to participate in all elements. Further, local programs that
receive Youth Activities funding need not provide all 10 program elements if certain services are
already accessible for all eligible youth in the area; however, these other services must be closely
coordinated with the local programs.65 Local WIBs must provide to each youth information on the
fully array of applicable or appropriate services available through the local board, other eligible
providers, or one-stop partners, and they must also refer youth to appropriate training and
educational programs, among other activities.
Table 2. Elements of Youth Programs Funded by
WIA Youth Activities Formula Grant Program
Educational achievement
•
Tutoring, study skills training, and instruction leading to completion of secondary school, including dropout
prevention strategies.
•
Alternative secondary school services, as appropriate.
Summer employment opportunities
•
Summer employment opportunities that are directly linked to academic and occupational learning.
Employment services
•
As appropriate, paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.
•
Occupational skill training, as appropriate.
63 U.S. General Accounting Office, Workforce Investment Act: Youth Provisions Promote New Service Strategies, but
Additional Guidance Would Enhance Program Development, GAO-02-213, April 2002, pp. 20-21. (GAO is now
known as the Government Accountability Office.)
64 These elements are classified in the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data Book.
65 Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL)
No. 9-00, January 23, 2001; and Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and
Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-00, April 23, 2001. Local WIBs are advised to establish ongoing
relationships with non-WIA funded activities that provide services for WIA-eligible youth.
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Leadership development activities
•
Leadership development opportunities, which may include, but are not limited to, community service and peer-
centered activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors during non-school hours, as
appropriate; community and service learning projects; organizational and teamwork training, including team
leadership training; and citizenship training, including life skills training such as parenting, work behavior training,
and budgeting of resources, among other activities.
Additional support for youth services
•
Supportive services.
•
Adult mentoring for the period of participation and a subsequent period, for a total of not less than 12 months.
•
Comprehensive guidance and counseling, which may include drug and alcohol abuse counseling and referral, as
appropriate.
Follow-up services
•
Fol ow-up services for not less than 12 months after the completion of participation, as appropriate; fol ow-up
services for youth include regular contact with a youth participant’s employer, including assistance in addressing
work-related problems that arise; assistance in securing better jobs, career development, and further education;
work-related peer groups; adult mentoring; and tracking the progress of youth in employment after training.
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on Section 129(c)(2) of the Workforce Investment Act and
Department of Labor, WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B.
What Elements Mean in Practice66
As part of a 2004 survey of local WIBs, GAO found that most local programs used multiple
service providers to deliver youth services, although some used a small number. For example, a
single WIA provider in rural Wisconsin delivered all 10 elements in a long-term, year-round
program for out-of-school youth. Youth participants worked in teams to build or refurbish low-
income housing. At the building sites, youth received paid employment, occupational training,
leadership training, and mentoring from an adult supervisor. Off site, youth received classroom
instruction to prepare for their high school equivalency exam; career counseling; and support
services, such as meals and health care. Upon exiting, they received monthly follow-up services
for at least two years.
According to the GAO report, schools were also used as youth service providers. Many of the
schools provided youth services directly or collaborated with other education providers. For
instance, an education provider in New Jersey collaborated with local school districts,
universities, and private businesses to operate a program designed to help youth explore careers
in the food industry. During the summer, 30 in-school youth ages 14 through 16 learned basic job
skills in the classroom, visited farms and food businesses, and worked at local food businesses
and restaurants. During the school year, students were placed in paid internships in the food
industry and received mentoring services from employers.
The 2004 report also discusses that local areas developed partnerships with the business
community to deliver services. Over one-third of local WIBs reported that businesses subsidized
work experience for WIA youth. Examples of the types of services provided to youth through
these partnerships include work readiness training, in issues such as punctuality, teamwork,
66 See also archived CRS Report R40830, Vulnerable Youth: Federal Policies on Summer Job Training and
Employment, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
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respect for others, and appropriate dress, that businesses assisted with; and financial management
curricula provided by businesses.
Finally, a 2004 report for DOL by Social Policy Research Associates drew on data from site visits
to a small number of states and local areas in 2000 and 2001 to understand how the elements are
carried out.67 For example, paid and unpaid work experience entailed work experience in
conjunction with other services to increase a youth’s education and occupational skills. For
instance, in Du Page County, IL, the local WIB developed paid and unpaid work experiences in
information technology occupations, such as web design and computer maintenance.
Participants
A youth is eligible for the Youth Activities formula grant program if he or she is age 14 through
21,68 is a low-income individual, and has one or more of the following barriers:
• deficient in basic literacy skills;
• a school dropout;
• homeless, a runaway, or a foster child;
• pregnant or parenting;
• an offender; or
• requires additional assistance to complete an educational program or to secure
and hold employment.69
At least 30% of all Youth Activities formula grant funds must be used for activities for out-of-
school youth, or youth who have dropped out or received a high school diploma or its equivalent
but are basic skills deficient, unemployed, or underemployed.70
67 Social Policy Research Associates, The Workforce Investment Act After Five Years: Results from the National
Evaluation of the Implementation of WIA, prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor, June 2004,
http://www.doleta.gov/reports/searcheta/occ/papers/SPR-WIA_Final_Report.pdf.
68 ARRA effectively authorized programs funded by Youth Activities via the law to temporarily extend the age of
eligibility from 21 to 24.
69 These terms are defined in Appendix B. Up to 5% of youth participants in a local area may be individuals who do
not meet the income criteria, but have at least one barrier to employment, some of which are not identical to those listed
above: (1) deficient in basic literacy skills; (2) a school dropout; (3) homeless or a runaway; (4) an offender; (5) one or
more grade levels below the grade level appropriate to the individual’s age; (6) pregnant or parenting; (7) possess one
or more disabilities, including learning disabilities; or (8) face serious barriers to employment as identified by the local
WIB (20 C.F.R. 664.220).
70 Title I, Section 101(33) of the Workforce Investment Act.
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Older and Out-of-School Youth
Youth ages 18 through 21 may enroll in
the Youth Activities formula grant program
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker
or Adult Activities program, or may co-
Programs for Youth
enroll in both programs. Less than 1% of
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker programs are authorized
youth tend to enroll in both programs.71
under Section 167 of WIA. Of appropriations exceeding $1
billion for Youth Activities, 4% is to be allocated to youth
Participation in the adult program is based
activities for farmworkers. The law specifies that every two
on a “sequential service” strategy that
years, DOL must, on a competitive basis, make grants or
consists of three levels of services. Any
enter into contracts to carry out workforce investment
individual may receive “core” services
activities (including those for youth) and provide related
(e.g., job search assistance). To receive
assistance for eligible migrant and seasonal farmworkers.
These activities may include employment; training;
“intensive” services (e.g., individual career
educational assistance; literacy assistance; an English language
planning and counseling), an individual
program; workers’ safety training; housing; supportive
must have received core services and need
services; dropout prevention activities; fol ow-up services for
intensive services to become employed or
those placed in employment, self-employment, and related
to obtain or retain employment that allows
business enterprise development; and technical assistance to
build capacity in management information technology.
for self-sufficiency. To receive training
services (e.g., occupational skills training),
Funds were al ocated in FY1999 through FY2003 for
an individual must have received intensive
workforce investment activities targeted to youth from
migrant and seasonal farmworker families. The projects
services and need training services to
provided a variety of educational, employment, and youth
become employed or obtain or retain
development activities to migrant youth.
employment that allows for self-
Migrant youth can qualify for education and other services as
sufficiency.
dependents under the Adult Migrant and Seasonal
Farmworker program authorized under Section 167 of WIA.
Youth ages 18 and older can also be served as adults under
Allocations
the program.
Source: Congressional Research Service correspondence
Funding for the Youth Activities formula
with the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
grant program is allocated from DOL to
Administration, September 2009.
states, including Washington, DC, and
territories. Under current law, not more than 0.25% is reserved for outlying areas72 and not more
than 1.5% is reserved for youth activities in the Native American programs (Section 166). The
remainder of the funds are allocated to states by a formula based one-third on the relative number
of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial unemployment (an unemployment rate
of at least 6.5%), one-third on the relative “excess” number of unemployed individuals (an
unemployment rate of at least 4.5%), and one-third on the relative number of low-income youth.
In addition, states receive, at minimum, the higher of 90% of their relative share of the prior
year’s funding or 0.25% of the total allocation, or at maximum, 130% of their relative share of the
prior year’s funding.73
Of the funds allocated to states for the Youth Activities formula grant program (as well as for the
Adult and Dislocated Worker programs), not more than 15% can be reserved for statewide
71 Ibid, Table II-14.
72 The outlying areas comprise the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau.
73 In years where appropriations exceed $1 billion, the minimum allotments are the higher of (1) 90% of a state’s
relative share of the previous year’s funding, (2) the amount the state received in 1998, or (3) 0.3% of the first $1
billion plus 0.4% of the amount over $1 billion.
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activities (Section 128(a)). States may use some of this funding for certain purposes related to
youth activities, such as disseminating a list of eligible providers of youth activities and providing
additional assistance to local areas that have high concentrations of eligible youth, among other
activities. Funds may not be used to develop or implement education curricula for school systems
in the state.
The balance of funding is allocated to local areas on the same basis that Youth Activities’ funds
are allocated to states, to take into account the relative numbers of unemployed individuals and
low-income youth in that area compared to other local areas of the state (Section 128(b)). Local
WIBs may reserve no more than 10% of funds allotted under the Youth program (and Adult and
Dislocated Worker programs) for administrative costs. The local WIBs are responsible for
competitively awarding grants or contracts to youth providers, based on the recommendations of
the youth council and the criteria listed in the state plan (Section 117(d)(2)(B) and Section 123).
When funds exceed $1 billion, DOL is to reserve a portion for Youth Opportunity grants,
discussed in more detail below, and the Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers program (see text box
above) before allocating funds to states. In addition, if appropriations exceeded $1 billion for
youth activities for FY1999, DOL was to make available such sums as necessary for the Role
Model Academy Project. Funds have not been appropriated for the Youth Opportunity grants and
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers program since FY2003, the last year that Congress
appropriated more than $1 billion for Youth Activities. The Role Model Academy Project
received $10 million in FY1999 to establish a training academy for youth on an old military base.
However, the project operated for only one year due to problems with the grant and the project
did not enroll youth.74
Performance
Section 136 of WIA sets forth state and local performance measures as part of the accountability
system. The measures, or “core indicators,” for youth ages 14-18 are different than the indicators
for youth ages 19-21, as shown in Table 3. The measures for younger youth focus on skill
attainment and educational attainment. The older youth outcomes focus on employment. For each
of the core indicators, the states negotiate with DOL to establish a level of performance. That is,
the “measures” are identified in WIA Section 136, but the “levels” are determined by negotiation
between states and DOL.75 Measures are reported as part of the Workforce Investment Act
Standardized Record Data (WIASRD), which also collects demographic and other information
about youth, adults, and dislocated workers who exit the program.
74 According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, the grantee spent all of the
grant funds except for $12,355. An audit by the Office of the Inspector General (OIG) resulted in $262,258 in
disallowed costs. The grantee appealed the determination, and the Department of Labor and the grantee entered into a
settlement agreement in which the grantee agreed to pay $90,000. This is based on Congressional Research Service
correspondence with the Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration in October 2009.
75 In their state plans, states must identify the expected (adjusted) level of performance for each of the core indicators
for the first three program years of the plan, which covers five program years. In order to “ensure an optimal return on
the investment of Federal funds in workforce investment activities,” the Secretary and the governor of each state shall
“reach agreement on the levels of performance” for all youth and other indicators identified in Section 136(b)(2)(A).
This agreed-upon level then becomes the “state adjusted level of performance” that is incorporated into the plan.
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ETA implemented a “Common Measures” policy for several workforce programs and revised the
reporting requirements for WIA Title I programs.76 Specifically, ETA introduced three youth
measures, as listed in Table 3. It is important to note, however, that ETA specifically indicated
that the Common Measures were not to supersede the existing statutory performance reporting
requirements for WIA. Despite this, DOL has granted waivers to multiple states to permit
implementation of and reporting on only the Common Measures rather than on the current, fuller
array of measures in WIA for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.77 These states only negotiate
performance levels for the Common Measures.
Table 3. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs
WIA Statutory Measures
Common Measures
Youth
•
Skill Attainment Rate: (Number of basic
•
Placement in Employment
(ages 14 through 18)
skills goals attained + Number of work
and Education: Number of
readiness skills goals attained + Number
youth in employment
of occupational skills goals attained)/
(including the military) or
(Number of basic skills goals set +
enrolled in post-
Number of work readiness skills goals
secondary education
set + Number of occupational skills
and/or advanced training
goals set).
or occupational skills
training in the first quarter
•
Diploma or Equivalent Attainment Rate:
after the exit quarter /
Number of younger youth attaining
Number of youth exiters
secondary school diploma or equivalent
during the exit quarter.
by end of 1st quarter after exit /
Number of younger youth exiters
•
Attainment of a Degree or
during exit quarter.
Certificate: Number of
youth participants who
•
Retention Rate: Number of youth in
attain a diploma, GED, or
postsecondary education, advanced
certificate by the end of
training, employment, or apprenticeships
the third quarter after the
/ Number of younger youth exiters
exit quarter / Number of
during exit quarter.
youth exiters during the
exit quarter.
Youth
•
Entered Employment Rate: Number of
(ages 19 through 21)
older youth employed in 1st quarter
•
Literacy or Numeracy Gains:
after exit quarter / Number of older
Number of youth
youth exiters during the exit quarter.
participants who increase
one or more educational
•
Employment Retention Rate at Six Months:
functional levels / Number
Number of older youth employed in 3rd
of youth participants who
quarter after exit / Number of older
have completed a year in
youth exiters during the exit quarter.
the program (i.e., one
•
Earnings Change in Six Months: Earnings in
year from the date of first
2nd and 3rd quarter after exit minus
youth program service) +
earnings in 2nd and 3rd quarter prior to
the number of youth
participation / Number of older youth
participants who exit
exiters during the exit quarter.
before completing a year
in the program.
•
Credential/Certificate Rate: Number of
76 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter
(TEGL) No. 18-04 (“Announcing the Soon-to-be Proposed Revisions to Existing Performance Reporting
Requirements... ”), February 28, 2005.
77 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “WIA Waiver Authority: Increased Flexibility
and Improved Programmatic Outcomes, Summary of WIA Waivers,” at http://www.doleta.gov/waivers/.
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WIA Statutory Measures
Common Measures
older youth employed, in postsecondary
education, or in advanced training after
1st quarter of exit and received
credential by end of 3rd quarter /
Number of older youth exiters during
the exit quarter.
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-220), ETA
Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 7-99 (“Core and Customer Satisfaction Performance
Measures for the Workforce Investment System “), March 3, 2000, and ETA TEGL No. 17-05 (“WIA Title IB
Performance Measures and Related Clarifications,” Attachment D), February 17, 2006.
Note: Some of the terms, such as “basic skills goals,” “credential,” and “certificate” are defined in Appendix B.
The next section of the report discusses, in less detail, four additional programs for youth that are
authorized under WIA.
Job Corps78
Overview and Purpose
The Job Corps program is carried out by the Office of Job Corps within the Office of the DOL
Secretary,79 and consists of residential centers throughout the country. The purpose of the
program is to provide disadvantaged youth with the skills needed to obtain and hold a job, enter
the Armed Forces, or enroll in advanced training or higher education. In addition to receiving
academic and employment training, youth also engage in social and other services to promote
their overall well-being.
Program Structure
Currently, 125 Job Corps centers operate throughout the country.80 Of these 125 centers, 28 of the
sites are known as Civilian Conservation Corps Centers, which are operated by the U.S. Forest
Service, an agency within the Department of Agriculture.81 Programs at these sites focus on
conserving, developing, or managing public natural resources or public recreational areas. Most
Job Corps centers are located on property that is owned or leased long-term by the federal
government.
78 Title I, Subtitle J of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 670.
79 Since FY2006, Congress has directed DOL to operate the Job Corps Office in the Office of the Secretary. Federal
regulations established the Office of Job Corps within the Office of the Secretary, pursuant to Secretary’s Order 09-
2006. U.S. Department of Labor, “Establishment of the Office of Job Corps Within the Office of the Secretary;
Delegation of Authority and Assignment of Responsibility to Its Director and Others,” 71 Federal Register 16192,
March 30, 2006.
80 For the most recent number of centers, see the U.S. Department of Labor, Budget Justifications of Appropriation
Estimates for Committee on Appropriations, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/.
81 DOL transfers funding for these centers to USDA under an interagency agreement.
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Job Corps centers may be operated by a federal, state, or local agency; an area vocational
education school, or residential vocational school; or a private organization. Authorization and
funding for new Job Corps centers are contained in appropriations law. DOL initiates a
competitive process seeking applicants that are selected based on their ability to coordinate
activities in the workforce system for youth, their ability to offer vocational training opportunities
that reflect local employment opportunities, past performance, proposed costs, and other factors.
Job Corps campuses include dormitories, classrooms, workshops for various trades, wellness (or
health) centers, a cafeteria, a career services building, and administrative buildings. Each Job
Corps center must develop standards for student conduct and implement a zero tolerance policy
for violence and drug and alcohol use. Students are dismissed from the program if they violate
this policy. Centers also follow detailed guidelines about all aspects of the program as they are
outlined in the Policy and Requirements Handbook.82
Services
Students may participate in the Job Corps program for up to two years. While at a Job Corps
center, students receive the following services:
• academic, vocational, employment, and social skills training;
• work-based learning, which includes vocational skills training and on-the-job
training; and
• counseling and other residential support services, including transportation, child
care, a cash clothing allowance or clothing that is needed for participating in the
program, and living and other allowances.
Students tend to experience the program in four stages.83 In the first phase, students learn about
the program and center through orientation sessions and other outreach efforts conducted by the
center and its contractor for outreach and admissions. Students who decide they want to pursue
the program and are selected participate in the second phase, which emphasizes career
preparation, in the first few weeks of the program. Students learn about life at the center and
focus on personal responsibility, social skills, and career explanation. Students also receive
assessments of their abilities in math and reading, and they work with staff to develop and
commit to what is known as a Personal Career Development Plan (PCDP). This plan includes the
students’ personal, academic, and career goals, which are evaluated as they progress through the
program.
The third phase focuses on career development and is the stage at which most youth spend the
majority of their time in the program. During this period, students learn and demonstrate career
technical, academic, and employability skills. Training focuses on academic subject matters and
how they are applied to specific trades or occupations. Students who did not graduate from high
school can pursue a high school diploma or GED. Most Job Corps centers have developed a high
school diploma program for their students through partnerships with public, private, and/or
charter schools. Students who have already graduated focus on developing their technical skills at
82 U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook, http://www.jobcorps.gov/
Libraries/pdf/prh.sflb.
83 Ibid.
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the center and on work sites under the direction of Job Corps’ employer partners. Job Corps
centers offer several technical training clusters. The clusters that graduates most often train in are
construction, health care, business and finance, hospitality, and advanced manufacturing.84 During
this period, students also begin to look for a job and learn how to identify and access the support
services that are needed to live independently.
Finally, in the fourth phase, students participate in a period of career transition, in which they
receive placement services that focus on placing them in full-time jobs that are related to their
vocational training and pay wages that allow them to be self-sufficient, or placing them in higher
education or advanced training programs, including apprenticeship programs. For one year after
exiting the program, graduates must receive services that include transition support and
workplace counseling. Some graduates may go on to participate in advanced training. These
students continue to remain in the program for another year while obtaining additional training
and education, such as an Associate’s Degree.
Job Corps centers provide services both on-site and off-site, and contract some of these services.
Centers rely on outreach and admissions contractors to recruit students to the program. These
contractors may include a one-stop center, community action organizations, private for-profit and
nonprofit businesses, labor organizations, or other entities that have contact with youth.
Contractors seek out potential applicants, conduct interviews with applicants to identify their
needs and eligibility status, and identify youth who are interested and likely Job Corps
participants. Similarly, centers rely on placement agencies—organizations that enter into a
contract or other agreement with Job Corps—to provide placement services for graduates and, to
the extent possible, former students. Services such as vocational training are sometimes provided
by outside organizations, such as the Home Builders Institute.
In addition, each Job Corps center must have a business and community liaison designated by the
center director to establish relationships with employers, applicable one-stop centers and local
boards, and other stakeholders. Each center must also establish an Industry Advisory Council,
comprised of employers; representatives of labor organizations, where present, and employees;
and Job Corps students and graduates. A majority of the members must be local and distant
business owners, chief executives or chief operating officers of non-governmental employers, or
other private sector employers, and they must have substantial management and other
responsibilities and represent businesses with employment opportunities for youth in the program.
The council must work with local WIBs and review local market information to provide
recommendations to the center director about the center’s education and training offerings,
including emerging occupations that would suitable for training.
Finally, each center must establish a Community Relations Council to serve as a liaison between
the center and the surrounding communities.85 The councils are to be comprised of representatives
of business, civic, and educational organizations; elected officials; representatives from law
enforcement agencies; other service providers; students; and staff. Centers must provide
opportunities for students and staff to participate in community service activities on a regular
basis.
84 U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Job Corps, Job Corps Annual Report: Program Year 2008, July 1, 2008—June
30, 2009, p. 29, http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/py06report.sflb.
85 Ibid.
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Participants
Job Corps participants must be ages 16 through 24,86 low-income, and facing one or more of the
following barriers to education and employment: (1) basic skills deficient; (2) homeless, a
runaway, or a foster child; (3) a parent; or (4) in need of additional education, vocational training,
or intensive counseling and related assistance in order to participate in regular schoolwork or to
secure and maintain employment.87 Notably, the program does not impose an upper age limit for
students with disabilities. Job Corps centers take additional factors into consideration when
selecting participants, such as whether the program can best meet their educational and vocational
needs and whether the youth can engage successfully in group situations and settings. The
applicant must also pass a background check that demonstrates he or she is not on probation or
parole, or subject to similar findings. When selected for the program, students are usually placed
at the site closest to their home. No more than 20% of participants may live off the grounds of the
Job Corps center. Priority in non-residential placements is to be given to participants who are
single parents.
Allocations
DOL enters into contracts with nonprofit and for-profit organizations, the Department of
Agriculture, and the Department of Labor to operate the centers. Contracts are competitively
awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with other factors. The contract
period is two years, with three one-year-option renewals.
Performance
WIA specifies that Job Corps collect data on multiple measures related to performance and
retention in the program. These measures pertain to graduation rates, graduates’ entry into full-
time or part-time unsubsidized employment, the average wage received by graduates at certain
points in time, job retention at select points in time, entry into post-secondary education or
advanced training programs, attainment of job readiness and employment skills, and the share of
dropouts from the program, among other data. The program also collects information to assess
performance through the Common Measures. As explained above, DOL introduced the Common
Measures for WIA Title I programs in 2005. The Common Measures for Youth are placement in
employment and education, attainment of a degree or certificate, and literacy and numeracy
gains.88 The measures in WIA and the Common Measures are interwoven into the Job Corps’
performance management system that is used by the Job Corps Office to evaluate student
performance and how well students are served at each of the centers.89
86 No more than 20% of participants may be ages 22 through 24 on the date of enrollment.
87 Some of these terms are defined in Appendix B.
88 See Table 3 for a definition of these terms.
89 The performance management system is comprised of four outcome measure systems: Outreach and Admissions
(OA) Report Card, Center Report Card, Career Technical Training Reporting and Improvement System, and Career
Transitions Services (CTS) Report Card.
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YouthBuild90
Overview and Purpose91
In 2007, YouthBuild was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to
DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281). The program is authorized under WIA.
As stated in the law, the purpose of YouthBuild is to (1) enable disadvantaged youth to obtain the
education and employment skills necessary to achieve economic self-sufficiency in occupations
in demand and post-secondary education and training opportunities; (2) provide disadvantaged
youth with opportunities for meaningful work and service to communities; (3) foster the
development of employment and leadership skills and commitment to community development
among youth in low-income communities; and (4) expand the supply of permanent affordable
housing for homeless individuals and low-income families by utilizing the energy of
disadvantaged youth.
Program Structure
DOL competitively awards YouthBuild funds to organizations, which carry out the program in
cooperation with subgrantees or contractors or through arrangements made with local education
agencies and certain other entities. Entities that are eligible to apply for funding include a public
or private nonprofit agency or organization, including a consortium of such agencies or
organizations; community-based or faith-based organizations; entities that carry out activities
authorized under certain other parts of WIA; community action agencies; state or local housing
development agencies; an Indian tribe or agencies primarily serving Indians; state or local youth
service or conservation corps; or any other entity eligible to provide education or employment
training under a federal program.
While in the program, youth participate in a range of education and workforce investment
activities, as listed in Table 4. These activities include instruction, skill building, alternative
education, mentoring, and training in rehabilitation or construction of housing. In addition to
construction activities, programs can support career pathway training targeted toward other high-
demand occupations and industries, as demonstrated by local labor market information, and
allows for the attainment of an industry-recognized credential.92 Notably, any housing unit that is
rehabilitated or reconstructed may be available only for rental by, or sale to, homeless individuals
or low-income families; or for use as transitional or permanent housing to assist homeless
individuals achieve independent living. All educational programs, including programs that award
academic credit, and activities supported with YouthBuild funds must be consistent with
applicable state and local educational standards.
90 Title I, Subtitle D, Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
91 For an overview of the differences between the YouthBuild Program as administered by HUD and DOL, see U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, YouthBuild Transfer Act: Synopsis and Section-by-
Section Analysis, http://www.doleta.gov/youth_services/YouthBuildSec-by-Sec%20Analysis%20FINAL.pdf.
92 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “YouthBuild Program Final Rule,” 77 Federal
Register 9112, February 15, 2012. The preamble to the final rule states that grantees may expand their occupational
skills training beyond construction skills training; however, all programs must still provide training in the construction
trades.
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As specified in WIA, at least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain work and skill
development activities (these activities are denoted by footnote “a” in Table 4. At least an
additional 50% of the time, participants must be engaged in education and related services and
activities designed to meet their educational needs (these activities are denoted by footnote “b” in
Table 4.
Table 4. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild,
as Specified in the Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
Education and Workforce Investment Activities
Work experience and skills training, coordinated, to the maximum extent feasible, with pre-apprenticeship and
registered apprenticeship programs, in the rehabilitation and construction activities described under “Supervision
and Training,” below.a
Occupational skills training.a
Other paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.a
Services and activities designed to meet the educational needs of participants, including—(1) basic skills instruction
and remedial education, (2) language instruction educational programs for individuals with limited English
proficiency, (3) secondary education services and activities designed to lead to the attainment of a high school
diploma or its equivalent; (4) counseling and assistance in obtaining postsecondary education and required
financial aid, and (5) alternative secondary school services.b
Counseling services and related activities, such as comprehensive guidance and counseling on drug and alcohol abuse
and referral.b
Activities designed to develop employment and leadership skills, including community service and peer-centered
activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors, and activities related to youth policy
committees that participate in decision-making related to the program.b
Supportive services and provision of need-based stipends to enable individuals to participate in the program, and
supportive services to assist individuals, for a period not to exceed 12 months after the completion of training, in
obtaining or retaining employment, or applying for and transitioning to postsecondary education.b
Job search assistance. a
Supervision and Training
Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of housing, including residential housing
for homeless individuals or low-income families, or transitional housing for homeless individuals.
Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of community and other public facilities,
except that not more than 10% of funds appropriated may be used for such supervision and training.
Other
Payment of administrative costs of the applicant, except that not more than 15% of the amount of assistance provided
to the grant recipient may be used for such costs.
Adult mentoring.
Provision of wages, stipends, or benefits to participants in the program.
Ongoing training and technical assistance that are related to developing and carrying out the program.
Follow-up services.
Source: Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
a. This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain
work and skill development activities.
b. This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 50% of the time, youth must participate in
education and related services and activities.
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Participants
Youth are eligible for the program if they are (1) ages 16 through 24; (2) a member of a low-
income family, a youth in foster care, a youth offender, an individual with a disability, a child of
incarcerated parents, or a migrant youth; and (3) a school dropout.93 However, up to 25% of
youth in the program are not required to meet the income or dropout criteria, so long as they are
basic skills deficient despite having earned a high school diploma, GED, or the equivalent; or
have been referred by a high school for the purpose of obtaining a high school diploma.
Allocations
Grants are competitively awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with
other factors, such as the applicant’s potential for developing a successful YouthBuild program;
the need for the program in the community; the applicant’s commitment to providing skills
training, leadership development, and education to participants; regional distribution of grantees;
and the applicant’s coordination of activities to be carried out with certain other stakeholders,
including employers, one-stop partners, and national service and other systems; among other
criteria.
DOL makes awards for three years (two years of program operations with a one-year period of
follow-up). Applicants must provide cash or in-kind resources equivalent to at least 25% of the
grant award amount as matching funds. Prior investments and federal resources do not count
toward the match.
Performance
YouthBuild grantees report the Common Measures and two additional performance measures for
all youth in the program. The two other measures are retention in employment or education and
recidivism. Retention in employment and education tracks the share of young people who are
employed or in an educational placement for each of the three quarters after exiting. The
recidivism measure tracks the share of youth arrested and convicted of a new crime or parole
violation within one year of enrollment.
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders94
Overview and Purpose
Section 171 of WIA authorizes DOL to conduct pilot and demonstration programs. The purpose
of these programs is to develop and evaluate innovative approaches to providing employment and
training services. In recent years, two programs have been specified in appropriations language
and funded under the authority of Section 171. One of the programs—Reintegration of Ex-
Offenders—is targeted, in part, to youth. A component of the program focuses on youth. (Other,
93 Some of these terms are defined in Appendix B.
94 Title I, Subtitle D, Section 171 of the Workforce Investment Act.
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shorter-term programs that do not focus on youth offenders, per se, but do specifically target
vulnerable youth have also been funded, as described in the text box below.) The youth
component is comprised of related initiatives that seek to assist youth offenders and youth at risk
of dropping out (or who have dropped out) with pre-release, mentoring, housing, case
management, and employment services; to reduce violence within persistently dangerous schools
through a combination of mentoring, educational, employment, case management, and violence
prevention strategies; and to provide alternative education and related services for youth at risk of
involvement with the justice system.95
Grants for youth offenders have been funded under WIA since FY2000.96 The program was a
stand-alone program until FY2008, when it was made a part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
program. It also supports the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI) for adults. Funding for the program
is authorized under both WIA and Section 112 (Responsible Reintegration of Offenders) of the
Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-199), enacted on April 9, 2008. The Second Chance Act authorizes
DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of providing mentoring, job
training and job placement services, and other comprehensive transitional services to assist
eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining employment.
Program Structure
The earliest initiatives for youth offenders, from FY1999 through FY2004, operated under what
is known as the Youth Offender Demonstration Project (YODP).97 The pilot funded 52 grantees to
assist youth at risk of court or gang involvement, youth offenders, and gang members ages 14 to
24 in finding long-term employment.
The more contemporary grant programs for youth offenders have funded multiple projects in
recent years that have a focus similar to the earlier projects under YODP. Recent projects have
included (1) education-related grants for the School District Youth Offender Initiative and
Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative; (2) apprenticeship and related grants under grants
collectively called Categorical Grants (Youth Offender Registered Apprenticeship, Alternative
Education, and Project Expansion Grants); (3) grants that focus on reentry, including Beneficiary-
Choice Demonstration, High Growth Youth Offender Initiative, Planning, State/Local
Implementation, and Replication Grants; and (4) grants that focus on community service,
including Civic Justice Grants and Serving Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training and
Service Learning. Grantees include local and state governments, nonprofit organizations,
including faith-based organizations; school districts; and community colleges.98
95 This is based on a review of initiatives funded by the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program. U.S. Department of
Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/
Youth_services/Discretionary.cfm.
96 This program was known as the Youth Offender Pilot Program, and funded 14 communities that provided
educational, employment, re-entry, and other services to youth.
97 The earliest funding for the program was authorized under Title IV of the Job Training Partnership Act. See U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Notice Inviting Proposals for Youth Offender
Demonstration Projects, August 28, 1998, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/sga/01-101sga.cfm.
98 For a list of grantees and grant funding amounts, see U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/.
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Each of these projects has been funded in at least one year since PY2006.99 The projects are
grouped below based on their focus. While the projects each have a distinct purpose, their overall
aim is to provide employment and other assistance to youth who are involved in the justice
system, or are at risk of becoming involved.
Education
The School District Youth Offender Initiative, also known as the School District Gang Reduction
grants, was funded with FY2006 appropriations and focused on developing strategies for
reducing youth involvement in gangs using a workforce development approach. The initiative
was aimed at helping five public school districts—Baltimore; Chicago; Milwaukee; Orange
County, FL; and Philadelphia—reduce the involvement of youth in gangs and violent crimes.
Grant funds can be used for a range of education and employment interventions for youth who are
involved, have been involved, or have a high risk of being involved in gangs or the juvenile
justice system. Youth were eligible if they are in school and in grades 8-12, or are high school
dropouts under the age of 21. School districts were required to partner with the local juvenile
justice system, the mayor’s office, the local WIB, the police department, and the U.S. Attorney’s
office in carrying out the program.
The Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative used FY2007 and FY2008 appropriations to
provide funding to three school districts—Berkshire Union Free School District in Canaan, NY;
Baltimore; and Philadelphia—to improve outcomes of students in nine high schools that have
been identified as persistently dangerous by the states’ department of education, pursuant to the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The grants funded a combination of new initiatives at
each school, including reduced class size in core 9th and 11th grade English and math, which have
a history of high rates of failure; a mentoring program using adult and peer mentors; career
academies with particular themes; and a summer bridge program with remediation in English and
math.
Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and Expansion Grants
The Categorical Grants project funded programs with FY2006 appropriations that provided
apprenticeship opportunities and alternative education to youth who had been adjudicated (i.e.,
cases have been judicially determined) or were at risk of involvement in the justice system. The
grantees with programs on apprenticeship opportunities were intended to prepare young adult
offenders for in-demand careers in fields such as construction, welding, masonry, and advanced
manufacturing. Programs with an alternative education focus were focused on creating or
enhancing schools to help young offenders earn diplomas and continue on to postsecondary
education or jobs. Some grantees received funding to expand their programs to additional sites
because of their records of successfully providing assistance to juvenile offenders. Grantees
included state departments of corrections, school boards, and nonprofit organizations.
99 Between PY2000 and PY2006, DOL used Youthful Offender funding to support the Serious and Violent Reentry
Initiative at the Department of Justice; to award competitive grants to serve youthful offenders in 29 communities; to
award non-competitive grants to several nonprofit organizations to serve young offenders and youth at risk of
becoming offenders; and to award grants to eight states to improve the academic and workforce preparation programs
in one juvenile correctional facility in each state.
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Reentry100
Multiple grant programs focus on assisting young adults as they transition from the juvenile
justice system. Two of the grants are currently funded while others received funding in the recent
past.
The Serving Juvenile Offenders in High-Poverty, High Crime Communities (funded with
FY2009, FY2010, and FY2011 appropriations) has sought to improve the long-term labor market
prospects of juvenile offenders ages 16 to 24 in high-poverty, high-crime areas. The grants funded
efforts at multiple sites to provide a combination of workforce development, education and
training, case management, mentoring, restorative justice (to provide community service or other
activities as a way to repair damage to the community), and activities to reduce community-wide
violence. For example, the grant funded the Latino Coalition for Faith & Community Leadership
and Public/Private Ventures to support training opportunities for high school dropouts and young
adult offenders ages 18 through 24 throughout the country.
Another grant, Strategies Targeted to Characteristics Common to Female Ex-Offenders, seeks to
provide employment and support services for previously incarcerated female youth and adults as
they transition back to their communities. Funds were awarded with FY2011 and FY2012
appropriations. Three grantees focus on youth.
The Beneficiary Choice Demonstration provided funding (in FY2006 and FY2008) to grantees to
assist ex-offenders ages 18 through 29 transition from prison to the workplace. Participants could
choose service providers from pools of faith-based and community groups. The grantees included
the Arizona Women’s Education and Employment, Inc., of Phoenix; the Colorado Department of
Labor and Employment; the City of Chicago; the Indianapolis Private Industry Council, Inc.; and
the Director’s Council of Des Moines, IA. For example, Colorado’s project focused on delivering
individualized, comprehensive offender reentry strategies through partners such as the
Department of Corrections, Salvation Army, Grant Valley Catholic Outreach, one-stop centers,
and Goodwill, among other entities. The project offered mentoring, counseling, housing,
education, and training and employment opportunities in industries with high growth.
Two grants funded with FY2012 appropriations—Face Forward-Serving Juvenile Offenders and
Intermediary Organizations Serving Juvenile Offenders in High-Poverty, High-Crime
Communities—are supporting community-based organizations that provide job training,
education, and support services to juvenile offenders and formerly incarcerated youth (grantees
funded with the second grant also provide assistance to formerly incarcerated women).
The High Growth Youth Offender Initiative funded efforts (in each of FY2004 through FY2008)
to help former offenders gain the skills necessary to enter industries with high growth. Projects
focused on addressing the workforce needs of growing industries that provide employment
opportunities and potential for advancement. Among the grantees were nonprofit organizations
and workforce boards.
Finally, the Planning, State/Local Implementation and Replication Grants funded (with FY2008
appropriations) four state juvenile justice agencies in the District of Columbia, Maryland, Texas,
100 Youth ages 18 and older may also be eligible to participate in the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI), which seeks to
reduce recidivism by helping former inmates find work when they return to their communities.
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and Washington to serve all youth returning from juvenile correctional facilities to one county in
the state; five counties to develop plans for serving all youth returning from correctional facilities
to the local area; and YouthBuild Newark to develop YouthBuild programs serving juvenile
offenders in four additional cities in New Jersey.
Multiple Education Pathways
Community Service/Restorative Justice
Blueprint
Some grants funded under the youth component of the
The Multiple Education Pathways Blueprint is
a one-time grant program funded under
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program focus on
WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority. In
community service and restorative justice projects to
FY2007, DOL provided $3.4 million to seven
repair the harm former offenders may have caused and
midsize cities “to ‘blueprint’ and implement a
to help rebuild the community. These grants are known
system that can reconnect youth [who have
dropped out of high school] to a variety of
as Civic Justice Corps Grants Serving Juvenile
high quality, innovative multiple education
Offenders (funded with FY2010 appropriations) and
pathways.” Each city has built a partnership
Serving Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training
among multiple stakeholders to study the
and Service Learning (funded with FY2011
scope of the dropout problem, map the
appropriations).
service and resources in their community,
and assess efforts to reform high schools.
Partners are currently planning or pilot
These grants sought to provide community service
testing new approaches to education,
opportunities to juvenile offenders ages 18 to 24
including identifying youth at risk of dropping
involved with the juvenile justice system within the past
out, launching new supports during the
year. Programs funded under these grants were to
summer or first semester of high school,
offering Saturday school programs that get
provide the following: (1) meaningful community
youth back on track with their peers, and
service projects and service learning opportunities; (2)
providing sector-based education and training
educational interventions that lead to a credential and
programs.
increase placement in post-secondary education and/or
vocational training; (3) community connections that
Source: U.S. Department of Labor,
“Employment and Training Administration,
result in opportunities for offenders to rebuild trust; (4)
Multiple Education Pathways Initiative.”
high staff-to-participant ratios, including close adult
supervision on community service projects; (5) career development components that seek to place
each participant in a job, apprenticeship, or educational setting that leads to an industry-
recognized credential; and (6) post-program support and follow-up.
Participants
Each of the initiatives targets select groups of at-risk youth. However, the projects generally serve
youth ages 14 and older (or 18 or older) who have been involved with or have a high risk of
involvement in gangs or the juvenile justice system or criminal justice system, or attend
“persistently dangerous” schools, as reported by select states.
Allocations
Grants are competitively awarded to entities such as community-based organizations and state
and local juvenile justice agencies, based on ranked scores and other factors, depending on the
project. Notably, only schools that meet the criteria of “persistently dangerous,” as specified by
the states and as permitted under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), are
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eligible to apply for funds under the Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative.101 Allocations vary
for each of the projects, but, generally, grantees have received grants of $1 million to $5 million
for one or more years.
Performance
DOL has performance measures for each Youth Offender initiative. The standards vary for each
initiative depending on the focus of the grants and the population of youth served. However, the
program has uniform measures for the program overall: (1) percentage of youth ages 18 and older
entering employment or enrolling in post-secondary education, the military, or advanced
training/occupational skills training; (2) percentage of youth offenders ages 14 through 17 who
recidivate; and (3) percentage of youth offenders ages 18 and older who recidivate.102
Youth Opportunity Grants
Overview and Purpose
The Youth Opportunity Grants program was funded from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated
until 2005. As stated in WIA, the program was intended to provide employment, educational, and
youth development activities to increase the long-term employment of youth who live in
enterprise communities, empowerment zones, and high-poverty areas and who seek assistance.
By definition, enterprise communities and empowerment zones are in low-income areas. The
program enrolled 92,263 participants over the course of the grant period, of whom 52.7% were
female; 51.9% were in school and 48.1% were out of school; and 58.9% were black, 22.4%
Hispanic, and 11.2% American Indian or Native Alaskan. At enrollment, just over half of all
participants were attending school (54.3%). This is compared to 68.3% of youth in the
community overall who were attending school.
Program Structure
YOG funds were awarded to 36 communities, 24 in urban areas, 6 in rural areas, and 6 on tribal
lands.103 A local WIB was eligible to receive funding if it had been designated as an
empowerment zone or enterprise community; was in a state without such a zone or community
and was designated as a high-poverty area by the governor; or was one of two areas in a state
designated by the governor as areas for which a local board could apply for the grant and that met
certain poverty guidelines. Entities other than a local board were eligible to receive funding if
they were a recipient under WIA’s Native American programs (Section 136); served a community
101 ESEA requires each state receiving funds under the act to establish and implement a statewide policy requiring that
a student attending a persistently dangerous school, as determined by the state in consultation with a representative
sample of local education agencies (LEAs), or a student who becomes a victim of a violent criminal offense on school
grounds be allowed to attend a safe school within the LEA.
102 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Budget Justification of Appropriation
Estimates for Committees on Appropriations, FY2012, vol. I, p. TES-72.
103 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Youth Opportunity Grants: Lessons Can Be Learned from Program, but
Labor Needs to Make Data Available, GAO-06-53, December 2005.
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that met certain poverty guidelines; and were located on an Indian reservation or served
Oklahoma Indians or Alaska Native villages or Native groups.
According to a December 2005 report by GAO about the YOG program, recipients of the funds
included states, local WIBs, counties, cities, and other entities. These entities either provided
services directly to youth, or entered into contracts with organizations. As required under WIA,
grantees were required to provide a broad range of education, employment, and other related
activities that are currently provided under WIA Youth Activities (see Table 2). In addition,
grantees were required to implement youth development activities that addressed leadership
development, citizenship and community service, and recreational activities.
The programs were carried out at centers in each community. YOG communities had as few as
one or as many as 40 centers.104 Centers included at least a couple of the following amenities:
classrooms, recreational facilities, computer labs, career centers, health centers, and staff offices.
Some centers operated out of local high schools. At least one of the programs established a
charter school to provide alternative educational services to youth, while another had a recording
studio for youth to record music. Program staff included case managers to help identify youth’s
needs and connect them to services and activities, as well as employment specialists to help youth
look for, secure, and retain employment or help them transition to college. Program staff also
followed up with youth. WIA required grantees to provide intensive placement services, as well
as follow-up services for not less than two years after the youth completed the program.
A key feature of YOG was the networks that the grantees created in each community. According
to the GAO report, the networks were often comprised of educational, occupational, and other
providers for youth services. The networks were facilitated by formal arrangements among the
partners and referrals to other organizations, such as those that provided GED preparation and
clothing for interviews. Some participants at some of the centers had the opportunity to enroll part
time at a community college to earn academic credit. Partners also provided referrals to the
grantees.
Participants
Unlike other youth programs authorized under WIA, youth could participate in the YOG program
as long as they lived in a community receiving funds. Therefore, youth did not have to show that
they met income and other eligibility criteria.
Allocations
Funds were awarded to communities for a one-year period, with renewals in each of the four
succeeding years. WIA required that grants were distributed equitably among local boards and
other entities serving urban and rural areas, taking into account the poverty rate in these areas.
Grant applicants were required to describe how the activities carried out at the YOG center(s)
would be linked to the activities under the WIA Youth Activities program and the type of
community support for the activities, among other requirements.
104 Ibid.
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Performance Measures
As specified under Section 167(f) of WIA, DOL set performance measures for the Youth
Opportunity grants and negotiated with grantees on the levels expected to be achieved for each
measure. The performance measures included a completion rate, placement rate, retention rate,
participation rate, and enrollment rates for in-school and for out-of-school youth.
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Appendix A. Workforce Investment Act Funding for Youth Programs
Table A-1. WIA Youth Activities State Allotments, PY2008-PY2013, Plus Funding Under the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5)
Includes al otments for outlying areas and Native Americans
PY2008
ARRA
PY2009
PY2010
PY2011
PY2012
PY 2013
State
(P.L. 110-161)
(P.L. 111-5)
(P.L. 111-8)
(P.L. 110-351)
(P.L. 112-5)
(P.L. 112-74)
(P.L. 113-6)
Total
$924,069,465
$1,188,000,000
$924,069,000
$924,069,000
$825,913,862
$824,353,022
$781,375,289
Alabama
10,066,414
11,647,403
9,059,768
11,777,698
12,455,574
11,711,479
10,504,766
Alaska
3,401,753
3,936,018
3,061,576
2,755,418
2,216,462
2,024,817
1,919,253
Arizona
15,410,351
17,830,637
13,869,309
15,982,731
15,326,190
16,510,641
15,938,449
Arkansas
10,427,807
12,065,555
9,385,022
8,446,520
6,794,393
6,431,994
6,367,716
California
131,478,160
186,622,034
145,161,310
136,875,948
117,952,080
123,857,750
118,211,133
Colorado
10,263,091
11,874,970
9,236,777
11,132,070
9,788,025
11,882,561
11,600,883
Connecticut
7,422,406
11,034,723
8,583,204
8,869,254
8,060,872
8,794,724
8,152,502
Delaware
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
District of Columbia
3,430,967
3,969,821
3,087,869
2,779,082
2,402,872
2,323,591
2,074,840
Florida
25,652,600
42,873,265
33,348,363
43,352,872
50,372,277
53,892,125
47,791,321
Georgia
20,223,508
31,361,665
24,394,229
28,251,785
24,305,197
25,482,266
25,123,453
Hawai
2,404,095
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,690,193
2,272,811
2,243,958
2,174,842
Idaho
2,290,478
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,950,667
3,428,419
4,027,145
3,623,538
Illinois
41,245,377
62,203,400
48,384,035
43,545,632
36,086,031
32,767,678
33,775,763
Indiana
20,463,638
23,677,573
18,417,265
19,697,136
16,043,006
15,457,182
15,696,820
Iowa
4,091,704
5,172,183
4,023,109
4,750,212
5,519,334
4,962,142
4,671,103
Kansas
6,155,030
7,121,714
5,539,524
5,930,458
5,248,975
5,511,824
5,304,061
CRS-40
PY2008
ARRA
PY2009
PY2010
PY2011
PY2012
PY 2013
State
(P.L. 110-161)
(P.L. 111-5)
(P.L. 111-8)
(P.L. 110-351)
(P.L. 112-5)
(P.L. 112-74)
(P.L. 113-6)
Kentucky
14,567,756
17,709,821
13,775,333
14,303,105
12,514,937
12,676,374
11,299,654
Louisiana
17,295,855
20,012,271
15,566,262
14,009,636
11,269,372
11,409,318
9,733,043
Maine
3,280,785
4,293,710
3,339,802
3,476,520
2,887,584
2,831,274
2,888,765
Maryland
10,013,008
11,585,610
9,011,703
11,311,383
10,073,999
10,354,690
10,289,216
Massachusetts
21,466,585
24,838,038
19,319,917
17,387,925
15,988,686
15,009,154
12,803,985
Michigan
57,931,951
73,949,491
57,520,566
51,768,509
41,642,666
37,407,571
31,911,591
Minnesota
10,984,461
17,789,172
13,837,056
14,264,509
11,474,392
10,523,152
9,841,004
Mississippi
15,536,771
18,687,021
14,535,436
13,081,892
10,523,093
9,452,885
8,556,357
Missouri
19,654,610
25,400,077
19,757,091
17,781,382
14,549,044
15,108,428
13,072,955
Montana
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,344,418
2,174,750
2,405,630
2,105,266
Nebraska
2,544,921
2,944,616
2,290,428
2,518,508
2,288,141
2,207,155
2,157,402
Nevada
4,529,527
7,570,212
5,888,382
7,654,897
8,303,837
9,104,832
9,407,590
New Hampshire
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,253,475
2,024,817
1,919,253
New Jersey
16,249,272
20,834,103
16,205,512
20,938,294
20,362,826
20,322,861
21,422,496
New Mexico
5,389,263
6,235,678
4,850,334
4,365,301
4,775,669
4,918,291
4,195,688
New York
54,654,801
71,526,360
55,635,768
51,835,670
46,253,787
45,892,839
46,093,646
North Carolina
19,061,803
25,070,698
19,500,888
25,351,154
24,598,968
23,736,834
26,575,543
North Dakota
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
Ohio
48,535,694
56,158,510
43,682,103
39,313,893
31,915,350
29,136,945
25,942,472
Oklahoma
7,526,029
8,708,036
6,773,423
6,970,582
6,877,913
6,676,111
5,982,158
Oregon
13,022,777
15,068,081
11,720,493
13,707,810
11,026,583
10,760,018
9,901,654
Pennsylvania
32,746,691
40,647,780
31,617,301
31,871,328
29,506,561
28,346,353
27,854,861
Puerto Rico
36,693,982
42,456,987
33,024,567
29,722,110
23,908,509
21,476,993
18,321,559
CRS-41
PY2008
ARRA
PY2009
PY2010
PY2011
PY2012
PY 2013
State
(P.L. 110-161)
(P.L. 111-5)
(P.L. 111-8)
(P.L. 110-351)
(P.L. 112-5)
(P.L. 112-74)
(P.L. 113-6)
Rhode Island
3,357,319
5,611,097
4,364,513
4,531,698
3,767,218
3,687,520
3,676,868
South Carolina
21,357,908
24,712,293
19,222,108
17,299,897
13,916,063
12,754,206
12,151,961
South Dakota
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
Tennessee
19,653,705
25,099,116
19,522,993
18,716,506
16,288,215
15,784,120
15,045,025
Texas
70,870,137
82,000,708
63,783,091
57,404,782
52,833,195
55,664,646
52,525,623
Utah
4,379,351
5,067,154
3,941,414
3,547,273
4,121,624
5,347,985
4,562,251
Vermont
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
Virginia
9,462,211
12,982,612
10,098,341
13,127,843
13,540,444
13,020,339
12,509,940
Washington
20,263,008
23,445,432
18,236,698
17,997,280
15,992,583
16,959,549
16,388,794
West Virginia
4,618,029
5,343,318
4,156,224
3,924,261
4,315,932
4,577,244
3,904,748
Wisconsin
11,934,438
13,808,812
10,740,989
13,963,286
13,099,180
12,342,748
12,133,146
Wyoming
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
State Total
907,898,249
1,167,210,000
907,897,792
907,897,792
811,460,369
809,926,844
767,701,222
Outlying Areas Total
2,310,174
2,970,000
2,310,173
2,310,173
2,064,785
2,060,883
1,953,438
Native Americans
13,861,042
17,820,000
13,861,035
13,861,035
12,388,708
12,365,295
11,720,629
Source: Congressional Research Service presentation of U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, State Statutory Formula Funding,
http://www.doleta.gov/budget/statfund.cfm.
Note: The program year for Youth Activities is July 1 through June 30, although funds may be made available on April 1, pursuant to Section 189(g)(1)(B) of the
Workforce Investment Act. Funds for the program are available for two program years, including funds appropriated under ARRA. ARRA funds were available for two
program years—PY2009 and PY2010, which extended through June 30, 2011. For purposes of the summer youth component, youth may participate in summer activities
from May 1 through September 30, though it would appear that youth could participate only through the end of June in 2011.
a. ARRA appropriated $1.2 billion for the Youth Activities program. Section 801 of ARRA permitted DOL to use 1% ($12 million) of funds for administration,
management, and oversight of the program.
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Appendix B. Definitions of Terms Used in WIA
Youth Programs
• Advanced training refers to an occupational skills employment/training program,
not funded under Title I of WIA, that does not duplicate training received under
Title I. It includes only training outside of the one-stop, WIA, and partner system
(i.e., training following exit). This measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth
measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B,
February 17, 2006.)
• Advanced training/occupational skills training refers to an organized program of
study that provides specific vocational skills that lead to proficiency in
performing actual tasks and technical functions required by certain occupational
fields at entry, intermediate, or advanced levels. Such training should (1) be
outcome-oriented and focused on a long-term goal as specified in the Individual
Service Strategy, (2) be long-term in nature and commence upon program exit
rather than being short-term training that is part of services received while
enrolled in ETA-funded youth programs, and (3) result in attainment of a
certificate (defined below). This measure is used as part of WIA youth common
measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B,
February 17, 2006.)
• Basic skills goal refers to a measurable increase in basic education skills,
including reading comprehension, math computation, writing, speaking,
listening, problem solving, reasoning, and the capacity to use those skills. This
measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth measures. (Training and
Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
• Certificate refers to a document awarded in recognition of an individual’s
attainment of measureable technical or occupational skills necessary to gain
employment or advance within an occupation. These technical or occupational
skills are based on standards developed or endorsed by employers. Certificates
awarded by workforce investment boards are not included in this definition.
Work readiness certificates are also not included in this definition. A certificate is
awarded in recognition of an individual’s attainment or technical or occupational
skills by specified entities, such as a professional, industry, or employment
organization, Job Corps Centers, etc. This measure is used as part of WIA youth
Common Measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05,
Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
• Credential refers to a nationally recognized degree or certificate or state/locally
recognized credential. Credentials include, but are not limited to, a high school
diploma, GED, or other recognized equivalents, post-secondary
degrees/certificates, recognized skill standards, and licensure or industry-
recognized certificates. States should include all state education agency-
recognized credentials. In addition, states should work with local workforce
investment boards to recognize successful completion of the training services
listed above that are designed to equip individuals to enter or re-enter
employment, retain employment, or advance into better employment. This
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measure is used as part of WIA youth statutory measures. (Training and
Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
• Deficient in basic literacy skills may be defined at the state or local level. The
definition must include criteria to determine that an individual (1) computes or
solves problems, reads, writes, or speaks English at or below the 8th grade level
on a generally accepted standardized test or would receive a comparable score on
a criterion-referenced test; or (2) is unable to compute or solve problems, read,
write, or speak English at a level necessary to function on the job, in the
individual’s family, or in society. If the definition is established at the state level,
the policy must be included in the state plan. (20 C.F.R. 664.205).
• Ever in foster care refers to a person who is in foster care or has been in the
foster care system (as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
• Individual with a disability refers to an individual with any disability as defined
in section 3 of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The act defines
“disability” with respect to an individual as (1) a physical or mental impairment
that substantially limits one or more major life activities of such individual; (2)
having a record of such an impairment; or (3) being regarded as having such an
impairment. “Being regarded as having such an impairment” refers to whether
the individual establishes that he or she has been subjected to an action
prohibited under the Americans with Disabilities Act because of an actual or
perceived physical or mental impairment, whether or not the impairment limits or
is perceived to limit a major life activity.
Low-income individual means an individual who:
(1) receives, or is a member of a family that receives, cash payments through a
federal, state, or local income-based public assistance program;
(2) received an income, or is a member of a family that received a total family
income (excluding unemployment compensation and certain other payments), for
the six-month period prior to applying for youth employment and training
activities, that, in relation to family size, did not exceed the higher of the poverty
line, for an equivalent period, or 70% of the lower living standard income level,
for an equivalent period;
(3) is a member of a household that receives food stamps105 (or has been
determined to be eligible for food stamps within the six-month period prior to
applying for youth employment and training activities);
(4) qualifies as a homeless individual, as defined by the McKinney-Vento
Homeless Assistance Act; or
(5) is a foster child on behalf of whom state or local government payments are
made.
In cases permitted by DOL in regulations, an individual with a disability, whose
own income meets the standards specified in the first two criteria but who is a
member of a family whose income does not meet such requirements, may qualify
(WIA Section (101)(25)).
105 The Food Stamp program was recently renamed the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP).
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• Occupational skills goal refers to a measurable increase in primary occupational
skills encompassing the proficiency to perform actual tasks and technical
functions required by certain occupational fields at entry, intermediate, or
advanced levels. Secondary occupational skills entail familiarity with and use of
set-up procedures, safety measures, work-related terminology, record keeping
and paperwork formats, tools, equipment and materials, and breakdown and
clean-up routines. This measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth measures.
(Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17,
2006.)
• Out-of-school youth means a youth eligible for services under Youth Activities
who is a school dropout; or an eligible youth who has received a secondary
school diploma or its equivalent but is basic skills deficient, unemployed, or
underemployed (WIA Section (101)(33) and 20 C.F.R. 664.300).
• Offender means any adult or juvenile who (1) is or has been subject to any stage
of the criminal justice process, for whom services under this act may be
beneficial; or (2) requires assistance in overcoming artificial barriers to
employment resulting from a record of arrest or conviction (WIA Section
(101)(27)).
• Pregnant or parenting youth is an individual who is under 22 years of age and
pregnant, or a youth (male or female) who is providing custodial care for one or
more dependents under age 18 (as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
• Requires additional assistance refers to an individual who needs help in
completing an educational program or securing and holding employment. The
term may be defined at the state or local level. If the definition is established at
the state level, the policy must be included in the state plan (20 C.F.R. 664.210).
• School dropout refers to an individual who is no longer attending any school and
has not received a high school diploma or its equivalent. A youth’s dropout status
is determined at the time he or she registers for youth activities. An individual
who is not in school at the time of registration and is subsequently placed in an
alternative school may be considered an out-of-school youth.
• Supportive services means services such as transportation, child care, dependent
care, housing, and needs-related payments that are necessary to enable an
individual to participate in services provided by the Youth Activities program and
other programs authorized under Title I of WIA. In addition, supportive services
for youth also includes linkages to community services, referrals to medical
services, and assistance with uniforms or other appropriate work attire and work-
related tools, including such items as eyeglasses and protective eye gear (Section
101(46) of WIA, and as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
• Work readiness skills goal refers to a measurable increase in work readiness
skills, including world-of-work awareness, labor market knowledge, occupational
information, values clarification and personal understanding, career planning and
decision making, and job search techniques (resumes, interviews, applications,
and follow-up letters). They also encompass survival/daily living skills such as
using the phone, telling time, shopping, renting an apartment, opening a bank
account, and using public transportation; and include positive work habits,
attitudes, and behaviors such as punctuality, regular attendance, presenting a neat
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appearance, getting along and working well with others, exhibiting good conduct,
following instructions and completing tasks, accepting criticism from supervisors
and co-workers, showing initiative and reliability, and assuming the
responsibilities involved in maintaining a job. This category also entails
developing motivation and adaptability, obtaining effective coping and problem-
solving skills, and acquiring an improved self image. This measure is used as part
of WIA statutory youth measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter
17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
Author Contact Information
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara
Specialist in Social Policy
afernandes@crs.loc.gov, 7-9005
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