Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

Introduction

In an increasingly competitive economy, and with retirement starting for the Baby Boomer generation, Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today's young people have the educational attainment and employment experience necessary to become highly skilled workers, contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the economy and among vulnerable youth populations, however, have heightened concern among policymakers that many young people may not be prepared to fill these roles.

The employment levels for youth under age 25 have generally declined since 2000, though attachment to the workforce has improved for this population in the wake of the recession that extended from December 2007 through June 2009. Certain young people in particular—including those from low-income families, high school dropouts, foster youth, and other at-risk populations—face barriers to completing school and entering the workforce. Since the 1960s, federal job training programs and policies have sought to connect these youth to education and employment pathways. Contemporary federal employment programs with this same purpose include the Youth Workforce Investment Activities (Youth) program; Job Corps; YouthBuild; and the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which includes a youth component. These programs provide a range of services and supports to youth. Some of the programs concentrate on specific job trades and/or serve targeted at-risk populations. Based on funding, Job Corps is the largest program. The programs were authorized through FY2003 under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 (P.L. 105-220). Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent years. On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed into law the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128). WIOA superseded WIA and makes significant amendments to the youth programs, including new services that are to be provided under the Youth program and new accountability provisions for the Job Corps program. Changes made by WIOA generally went into effect on July 1, 2015.¹

This report provides an overview of federal employment programs for vulnerable young people. It begins with a discussion of the current challenges in preparing all youth today for the workforce. The report then provides a chronology of job training and employment programs for at-risk youth that began in the 1930s and were expanded or modified from the 1960s through the 1990s. It goes on to discuss the four youth programs authorized under WIOA, and draws comparisons between these programs. Following this section is a detailed discussion of each of the programs.

Context

During economic downturns, youth are particularly vulnerable to job loss. From 2000 through 2012, the employment-to-population (E/P) ratio² among teens ages 16 to 19 steadily declined, from 36.8% to 26.1%, and increased slightly to 26.6% in 2013 and 27.3% in 2014. Over the summer, when teens are most likely to have jobs, the E/P ratio decreased steadily in the past several years. In July 2000, about four out of ten (44.1%) teens were employed, falling to a low of 25.2% in July 2011. The July 2015 E/P ratio was 28.1%.³ According to the research literature, possible consequences of reduced work among teens are reduced employment earnings, labor productivity in the future, and output in the economy.⁴ Similarly, the E/P ratio of young adults ages 20 through 24 have declined steadily. In 2014, the average E/P ratio for 20- through 24-year-olds was 62.9%, which represents about a 15% decrease from 2000.⁵

Even in periods of relative economic stability, some youth do not complete school and/or make the transition to the workforce. While the majority of young people graduate from (public) high school by age 18 or shortly thereafter,⁶ just over 7% of youth ages 16 through 24 have dropped out and have not earned a high school diploma or its equivalent.⁷ This figure is higher among black and Hispanic youth.⁸ Further, recent estimates of youth who are not working or in school (i.e., "disconnected") for at least a year are at least 2.0 million.⁹ Certain youth face barriers to remaining in school or securing employment, including poverty, their parents' level of education, and whether the youth are pregnant or parenting, among other factors. For example, youth ages 16 through 24 who are parenting are far more likely to be disconnected than their counterparts who are not.¹⁰ Youth in or aging out of foster care, runaway and homeless youth, and youth offenders, among other groups of youth, are particularly vulnerable to not completing high school, going on to college, or securing employment.¹¹

As they leave high school, either through graduation or by dropping out, young people can pursue various options. Youth with a high school diploma may attend a two- or four-year college, enlist in the armed services, or secure part-time or full-time employment (sometimes paired with attending school). Youth without a high school diploma can do some of these same things, but their opportunities are more limited. They cannot enroll in a four-year college or, in most cases, enlist in the military. These youth will likely have difficulty supporting themselves if they do work.

In fact, individuals who drop out are less likely to secure employment and are likely to have less earning power. As the level of education rises, the unemployment rate decreases and median weekly earnings increase for those who work.¹² In 2014, among workers with less than a high school degree, the unemployment rate was 9.0% and earnings averaged $488 per week. This is compared to an unemployment rate of 6.0% and $668 in weekly earnings for workers with a high school degree. Workers with a bachelor's degree had an unemployment rate of 3.5% and median weekly earnings of $1,101. With the shift to a knowledge-based economy, many new jobs will require some college education or better. According to DOL's Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the fastest growing occupations between 2012 and 2022 will require some postsecondary education.¹³ Further, in all career clusters, a bachelor's degree or better offers accessibility to the most high-paying jobs.¹⁴ Still, BLS predicts that the occupations with the largest numeric increases will not require workers to have postsecondary education.¹⁵

The costs of dropping out extend beyond the individual's foregone job opportunities and lower wages. According to the research literature, costs can be incurred by society overall. These costs include possible lost payroll tax revenue and increased transfers for welfare payments, imprisonment, and programs to re-enroll dropouts in school.¹⁶

Federal youth employment and job training programs have long targeted services to young people who leave school before graduating or are in school and may be vulnerable to dropping out. The purpose of these programs, as they currently exist, is to provide job training, employment, educational services, and social services that can help youth become economically self-sufficient and achieve their career and academic goals. These contemporary programs also emphasize leadership development and community service. Note that while youth employment and job training programs are also enhanced with state workforce and other dollars, the extent to which this support is provided is unclear.

History of Federal Youth Employment and Job Training Programs¹⁷

For more than 70 years, the federal government has played a role in helping young people secure employment and achieve academic success. Generally, these young people have been defined as being vulnerable in some way—either because they are economically disadvantaged and/or have a barrier to securing employment or completing their education. During the Great Depression, the focus was on employing idle young men in public works and other projects. The employment programs from this era included an educational component to encourage youth to obtain their high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government started funding programs for low-income youth, such as Job Corps, that address their multiple needs, including job training, educational services, housing, and supportive services. During the 1970s and 1980s, Job Corps was expanded and the federal government funded additional programs for both in-school and out-of-school youth. Funding was also appropriated to test the efficacy of some of these programs. The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 extended earlier programs and created new ones, with the intention of providing more seamless job training and education services for youth year-round. Generally, these programs are targeted to teenagers and young adults, usually not beyond age 24, who are at risk of dropping out or have already done so.

Depression Era

Prior to the 1930s, the federal government's involvement in youth employment was primarily limited to regulating child labor.¹⁸ The Great Depression served as a catalyst for the creation of federal programs to employ and educate young people who were out of work or at risk of dropping out of school due to financial difficulties. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) began in 1933 as an employment program for unemployed males ages 18 to 25 (and veterans, Indians, and residents of territories of any age) to participate in projects planned by the Departments of the Interior and Agriculture. These projects focused on creating and improving infrastructure, transportation, and recreational services, among other categories. The young men lived in camps and were provided with an allowance, food, and medical care. The CCC also included an educational component, which taught nearly 35,000 participants to read and write and assisted a smaller number with attaining their high school and college degrees. Until the program ended in 1945, it served nearly 3 million men, of whom approximately 10% were veterans.

Other Depression era programs—the Student Aid program, Works Project program, and Guidance and Placement program—were administered by the National Youth Administration, which was created as part of the now-defunct Works Progress Administration by an executive order in 1935. The programs provided funds for part-time employment of needy high school, college, and graduate students to assist them in completing school, as well as funds for part-time employment for unemployed out-of-school youth. These young people, all of whom were ages 16 through 25, were employed in a number of broad areas, including construction, clerical work, and research. These programs served hundreds of thousands of youth before they were discontinued in the early 1940s.

War on Poverty Programs

The 1960s marked a period of federal efforts to assist poor and disadvantaged children, adolescents, and their families through job training and other programs. In response to concerns about high unemployment, the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 (P.L. 87-415) and subsequent amendments to it authorized funding for employment training. Specifically, amendments to the act in 1963 (P.L. 88-214) encouraged the Department of Labor to provide assistance to youth so that they might be able to successfully enter the labor force, and expanded the share of job training funds that could be used to train youth under age 22 from 5% to 25%. Further, federal funding was first authorized through the 1963 amendments to provide employment opportunities to youth from low-income families.

President Lyndon B. Johnson's subsequent War on Poverty established new youth-targeted programs in job training and educational assistance under an initiative known as the Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC). The NYC was made up of work training programs, the Work Study program, and Job Corps. The work training programs provided work experience, job training, and supportive services to low-income unemployed youth ages 16 through 21 who were in school or out of school, including dropouts. The Work Study program was modeled on the Depression-era Student Aid program and provided money to high school and college students from low-income families who needed earnings to stay in school. The program continues today for college students. Job Corps, which also continues today, was established under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452) to provide educational and job training opportunities to disadvantaged youth at residential and non-residential centers. (See "Job Corps," below, for further information.)

Expanding Youth Programs

The 1973 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA, P.L. 93-203) was the first of four laws enacted during the 1970s and 1980s that focused greater federal attention on youth employment and training. The second law, the Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA, P.L. 95-93) was enacted in 1977 and established a variety of employment, training, and demonstration programs for youth. The 1982 Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA, P.L. 97-300) repealed CETA. JTPA was subsequently repealed by WIA. Separately, the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 (STWOA, P.L. 103-239) supported the development of programs that encouraged students to pursue learning opportunities and experiences that incorporated occupational skills. Activities authorized under these acts were administered by DOL. STWOA was additionally carried out by the Department of Education (ED).

Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) and Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA)

As amended through 1978, CETA authorized a range of employment and training programs for adults and youth. Job Corps and the Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged Youth (SPEDY) were the primary youth programs authorized under CETA. SPEDY provided funding to employers to hire low-income youth ages 14 through 21 during the summer months. Youth served as assistants in hospitals, libraries, community service organizations, and schools, among other settings.

The Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA), signed into law in 1977, amended CETA.¹⁹ YEDPA increased authorization of appropriations for Job Corps and SPEDY and authorized three additional programs targeted to "economically disadvantaged" (defined under the act) youth ages 14 through 21: Youth Employment and Training Programs (YETP), Youth Community Conservation and Improvement Projects (YCCIP), and Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP).²⁰ YEDPA was passed in response to high levels of unemployment among youth relative to adults, even during periods of economic expansion, and growing gaps in youth unemployment among whites and blacks, males and females, and in-school and out-of-school youth. The programs were carried out during the Carter Administration, from 1977 through 1981. Over this period, YEDPA served 6.1 million youth.

YETP and YCCIP were intended to meet the immediate employment needs of youth, and funding for the programs was allocated primarily on a formula basis. YETP activities include work experience, pre-employment skills, and an emphasis on the transition from school to work. YCCIP was intended to assist unemployed, out-of-school youth obtain a high school degree, conditional on satisfactory performance in work and school. Further, it was aimed at improving coordination between the job training and educational systems as a means of addressing the dropout problem.²¹ Finally, YIEPP funded evaluations to test the efficacy of demonstration programs; the other two programs included funding for demonstration programs. During the YEDPA years, more than 60 major demonstrations were funded in about 300 sites, operated by DOL in cooperation with six other federal agencies and private nonprofit intermediaries.

Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)²²

CETA was repealed in 1982 by the Job Training Partnership Act. JTPA was distinct from its predecessor because it emphasized that states and localities, rather than the federal government, had the primary responsibility for administering job training and employment programs. Funding was appropriated under JTPA through FY1999. JTPA programs focused on the training needs of "economically disadvantaged" (defined under the act) youth and adults facing significant barriers to employment. These programs were frequently referred to as "second chance" programs because most of them were intended to train individuals who had not sufficiently benefitted from traditional secondary and post-secondary education. They included the Summer Youth Employment and Training program, the Youth Training Program, and Job Corps (discussed in the next section).

The Summer Youth Employment and Training program provided employment and training activities during the summer months for low-income youth ages 14 through 21 to strengthen basic educational skills, encourage school completion, provide work exposure, and enhance citizenship skills. In the summer of 1997, an estimated 500,000 youth participated. The Youth Training Program was established by the Job Training Reform Amendments of 1992 (P.L. 102-367), which amended JTPA to address concerns that school dropouts were not being reached by the then-existing combined program for disadvantaged adults and youth, and that the program primarily served youth who were the easiest to place in jobs and required the fewest services.²³ The program was year-round and provided direct services, such as on-the-job training, tutoring and study skills training, and school-to-work transition services. It also provided training-related and supportive services, including job search assistance, drug and alcohol abuse counseling, and cash incentives based on attendance and performance in a program. Economically disadvantaged in-school and out-of-school youth ages 16 through 21 were eligible, but 50% of participants in service delivery areas (SDAs), comprised of the state or one or more units of local government, had to be out of school. Further, at least 65% of youth had to be hard to serve, meaning they were school dropouts (if out of school), pregnant or parenting, or offenders, among other qualifications. In program year 1997, an estimated 107,000 youth participated. As discussed below, JTPA was repealed by WIA, the current law that authorizes youth job training and employment programs.

School to Work Opportunity Act (STWOA)

The School to Work Opportunity Act of 1994 authorized the School-to-Work (STW) program administered jointly by DOL and the Department of Education through the National School-to-Work Office. The program was funded from FY1994 through FY2000.²⁴ The law supported the development of programs with three main elements: work-based learning to provide participating students with work experience and on-the-job training; school-based learning, involving upgrading and integrating the occupational skills participating students learn in school and the workplace; and program coordination to aid the planning, implementation, and operation of the program. STWOA grants were competitively awarded to states, local partnerships, programs for Indian youth, and U.S. territories to implement school-to-work systems. In addition, STWOA authorized national activities, such as research and demonstrations. Some school-to-work programs that received seed money from the federal program continue to operate today.

Workforce Investment Act (WIA)

The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 replaced JTPA. WIA includes titles that authorize programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult education and literacy (Title II), employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation (Title IV). Title I of WIA authorized job training programs for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.²⁵ Funding was authorized for the program through FY2003, and Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent years.

Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA)

Congress took steps toward reauthorizing WIA from the 108^th to the 113^th Congresses. For example, during the 111^th Congress, the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP) Committee held a series of listening sessions in April 2009 to address the positive aspects of WIA and to increase understanding of the issues that can be addressed as part of any reauthorization legislation. The Senate HELP Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety subsequently conducted a hearing in July 2009 to discuss how WIA could be updated to help workers and employers meet the demands of a changing economy.²⁶ In October 2009, the House Education and Workforce Committee held a hearing on declining youth employment.²⁷ During the 112^th Congress, the House Education and Workforce Subcommittee on Higher Education and Workforce Training held hearings on removing inefficiencies in job training programs and modernizing WIA on May 11, 2011, and October 4, 2011, respectively. The full committee held a hearing on a reauthorization bill, the Workforce Investment Improvement Act of 2012 (H.R. 4297), on April 17, 2012. The committee marked up and favorably reported the bill on June 7, 2012. Also during the 112^th Congress, the Senate HELP Committee released discussion drafts in June 2011 of legislation to amend and reauthorize WIA, but they did not receive further action in that Congress.

In the 113^th Congress, the House Committee on Education and the Workforce ordered reported H.R. 803—the Supporting Knowledge and Investing in Lifelong Skills Act (SKILLS Act). This bill was introduced on February 25, 2013, by Representative Virginia Foxx, the chair of the Subcommittee on Higher Education and Workforce Training. A hearing on H.R. 803 was held before the full Committee on Education and the Workforce on February 26, 2013. The committee ordered the bill reported by a vote of 23 to 0 on March 6, 2013. The House passed the bill on March 15, 2013, by a vote of 215 to 202. In the Senate, Senators Patty Murray, Lamar Alexander, Tom Harkin, and Johnny Isakson introduced the Workforce Investment Act of 2013 (S. 1356) on July 24, 2013. The Senate HELP Committee held a markup of S. 1356 on July 31, 2013, and ordered the bill reported by a vote of 18 to 3. On May 21, 2014, House and Senate leaders announced an agreement that represented a compromise between H.R. 803 and S. 1356.²⁸ On June 25, 2014, the legislation was subsequently taken up, and passed, by the Senate as H.R. 803.

On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed into law the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128). As of July 1, 2015, the law superseded WIA. Like WIA, WIOA includes titles that authorize programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult education and literacy (Title II), employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation (Title IV). The major job training programs for youth and other workers are authorized in Title I.²⁹

Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under Title I of WIOA

WIOA authorizes, and Congress has funded, three job training and employment services for youth:

• Youth Workforce Investment Activities Program (hereinafter, Youth Program), a formula grant program for state and local workforce investment boards that includes employment and other services that are provided year-round;
• Job Corps, a program that provides job training and related services primarily at residential centers maintained by contractor organizations; and
• YouthBuild, a competitive grant program that emphasizes job training and education in the construction trades.

As mentioned, Job Corps was enacted as part of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452), and was later incorporated into CETA, JTPA, and WIA. YouthBuild was originally authorized under the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-550). The program was administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) until it was transferred to DOL in 2007 under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281) and incorporated into WIA. Under WIA's pilot and demonstration authority, DOL established the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders (ReXO) program, a program for juvenile and adult offenders that provides job training and other services. WIOA does not explicitly authorize the program; however, Congress appropriated funding in FY2015 (P.L. 113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169 authorizes evaluations and research.

The four programs are carried out by DOL's Employment and Training Administration (ETA). All of the programs offer employment, job training, and educational services. For example, local areas must provide specific elements, including mentoring and follow-up, to youth who receive services under the Youth program. YouthBuild program participants engage in employment and other activities primarily related to housing and other types of construction work. Job Corps is the only one of the programs that provides residential services; youth can live onsite and receive health care services, child care, and other supports. Further, the programs generally serve vulnerable youth, but some have more targeted eligibility criteria. Participants in the Youth program, YouthBuild, and Job Corps must be low-income and have specific employment barriers, though youth in the Youth program who are not in school do not have to be low-income under WIOA. The youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders serves youth who have become involved in the juvenile justice or criminal justice system or youth at risk of becoming involved. The programs are funded somewhat differently. DOL allocates funding for the Youth program to states based on a formula, while Job Corps enters into agreements with nonprofit and for-profit organizations and into interagency agreements with the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest Service. The other programs competitively award grants to nonprofit and other organizations and local communities. Table 1 summarizes the programs' major features and how they changed under WIOA.³⁰ These changes generally went into effect on July 1, 2015.

Coordination

The WIOA Youth program and other youth programs make up a job training and workforce system for youth. In some communities, this may be formalized while in others, coordination between the programs may be less structured. WIOA includes provisions that encourage or require the programs to coordinate with one another. The state workforce board may include representatives of organizations that have demonstrated experience and expertise in addressing the employment, training, or education needs of eligible youth, including representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school youth.³¹ These boards are responsible for carrying out WIOA programs at the state level and allocating funds to local workforce development boards.

Further, under the state workforce plan ("unified state plan"), states are required to submit a description of the state's strategic vision and goals for preparing an educated and skilled workforce—including preparing youth and individuals with barriers to employment—and for meeting the skilled workforce needs of employers, among other requirements.³² In addition, local workforce development boards, which receive funds to carry out the Youth program (and the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs) are now required, as part of their local plans, to describe and assess the type and availability of youth workforce investment activities in the local area, including activities for youth who are individuals with disabilities. The plan must identify successful models of such youth workforce investment activities.³³ Unlike WIA, WIOA does not require local workforce boards to have youth councils; however, they may choose to establish a standing committee to provide information and assist with planning to provide services to youth.³⁴ Further, the Youth program, Job Corps, and YouthBuild are required partners at one-stop centers. One-stop centers include federal programs that coordinate employment and other services in a community for all youth and adults.³⁵

Funding

Funding authorization for the youth programs under WIA expired in FY2003; however, funding was authorized through FY2012 for YouthBuild under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281), which amended WIA. Although funding authorization expired, Congress continued to appropriate funds for most programs authorized under the law. WIOA generally provides funding authorization from FY2015 through FY2019.

Like WIA, WIOA requires that funds appropriated for a program or activity carried out under Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis of a program year.³⁶ The program year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends June 30 of the following year. Funds for the Youth program may first become available for a new program year in the preceding April. In addition, Congress has tended to specify that funds appropriated for YouthBuild and the youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program are available for obligation beginning in the April preceding a given program year. Congress has generally required that obligated funds for Job Corps are made available for one program year, although funding for certain purposes can be obligated through later dates.

Funds obligated for any program year for a program or activity carried out under Title I of WIOA may be expended by each state receiving such funds during that program year and the two succeeding program years. Local areas may expend funds received from the state during the program year and the succeeding program year.³⁷

Funding for FY2000-FY2015

Table 2 includes the level of funds appropriated to each of the youth job training and employment programs for FY2000 through FY2015. Appropriations for these years correspond to the same program year, and are reported as such in the table (i.e., PY2000 through PY2015). Congress appropriated a total of $2.42 billion to $2.81 billion annually for these programs in most years over this period. Table A-1 in the Appendix presents Youth program funding allocated to the states and outlying areas for PY2009 through PY2015 (the most recent data available), including under the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5), the law that provided additional funding to create and preserve jobs, among other purposes.

Job Corps has generally received the largest appropriation each year, followed by the Youth program, YouthBuild, and the youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders (although in two years, YouthBuild received less funding than the ReXO youth component).

FY2015 Funding

After passing a continuing resolution for FY2015 (PY2015), Congress enacted the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235) to fund DOL programs through FY2015. Funding for the youth programs totaled $2.6 billion. Funding increased from FY2014 by over $11 million for the Youth program; over $7 million for the YouthBuild program; and nearly $2 million for the youth component of the Reintegration of the Ex-Offenders program; Job Corps funding remained level.

FY2014 Funding

FY2014 (PY2014) appropriations were not enacted prior to the beginning of the fiscal year (October 1), resulting in a 16-day shutdown of the federal government. On October 16, 2013, the Senate and House agreed to a bill (H.R. 2775) to provide temporary government-wide FY2014 funding through January 15, 2014 (or until full-year funding was appropriated). This bill was signed by the President on October 17, 2013 (P.L. 113-46). A second short-term continuing resolution (P.L. 113-73) extended appropriations through January 18, 2014. On January 17, 2014, the President signed into law the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (P.L. 113-76) to fund appropriations through September 30, 2014. In total, $2.6 billion was appropriated for youth job training and employment programs.

Job Corps Transfer Authority³⁸

Congress appropriates funding for Job Corps under three accounts—administration; operations; and construction, rehabilitation, and acquisition (CRA).³⁹ The final FY2013 appropriations law (P.L. 113-6) authorized DOL to transfer up to $30 million of unobligated funds—from previous appropriations laws or P.L. 113-6, as of March 26, 2013 (the date of the law's enactment)—to the operations account from other Employment and Administration (ETA) accounts.⁴⁰ Notably, these funds could be used to fund operations in program year (PY) 2012 (which ended June 30, 2013) and possibly PY2013 (which ended June 30, 2014). Ultimately, $10 million was transferred from the ETA Training and Employment Services (TES) account to the Job Corps operations account.

The FY2013 transfer authority was in response to a shortfall in the operations account for PY2012, which had been preceded by a shortfall for PY2011. In May 2013, the DOL Office of Inspector General (OIG) released a performance audit report that discussed the cause of the PY2011 shortfall and addressed whether DOL management had implemented internal controls over Job Corps funds and expenditures during the first five months of PY2012. The report found that the PY2011 shortfall was due to (1) untimely communication about projected costs that exceeded appropriations for the program; (2) initial planning for costs that did not account for increased expenditures for three new centers; (3) inaccurately accounting for costs in cost projection models; and (4) lack of consistent monitoring of costs throughout the program year. The OIG audit also documented concerns with internal controls to manage Job Corps funding during the first five months of PY2012. Such concerns included deficiencies in the areas of budget execution, data that supported spending projections, and monitoring of projected to actual costs; and lack of policies concerning communication of financial and program risks and certain Job Corps activities pertaining to monitoring contracts.⁴¹

The next section of the report provides further discussion about the youth programs authorized under Title I of WIOA, and where applicable, WIA.

WIOA Youth Program⁴²

Overview and Purpose

The Youth program is one of three formula grant programs that was initially authorized by WIA, and is now authorized under WIOA as the Youth Workforce Investment Activities program. The other two WIA/WIOA programs target adults (Adult) and dislocated workers (Dislocated Worker), although youth ages 18 or older are eligible for services provided through the Adult Activities program. These programs provide core funding for a coordinated system of employment and training services overseen by a state workforce board and the governor, and composed of representatives of businesses and other partners.

WIA specified several purpose areas for the Youth program: to provide assistance in achieving academic and employment success through activities that improve educational and skill competencies and foster effective connections to employers; to ensure ongoing adult mentoring opportunities for eligible youth; to provide opportunities for training, continued supportive services, and participation in activities related to leadership, citizenship, and community service; and to offer incentives for recognition and achievement to youth.⁴³ WIOA does not include purpose areas for the Youth program; however, it retains many of the same elements specified under WIA, such as providing assistance to youth in achieving academic and employment success.

Program Structure

With assistance from the state workforce board, the governor develops a plan that is submitted to DOL. The plan is to address several items related to employment and training needs, performance accountability, and employment and training activities. Under WIA, the plan ("state plan") was submitted every five years and pertained generally to the statewide workforce investment system. It had to address items specific to youth, including a description of the factors used to distribute Youth funds to local areas; the state's strategy for providing comprehensive services to eligible youth, particularly those who have significant barriers to employment; the criteria used by local workforce boards in awarding and assessing providers for youth services; and a description of how the state would coordinate the Youth program with services provided by Job Corps, where applicable. Under WIOA, the plan ("unified state plan") is to be submitted every four years for the three programs (Youth, Adult, and Dislocated).⁴⁴ The unified state plan is to address youth primarily in two places. It must outline the state's strategic vision and goals for preparing an educated and skilled workforce, include preparing youth with barriers to employment. It must also outline the criteria to be used by local boards in awarding contracts for youth services and describing how local boards will take into consideration the ability of providers to meet performance measures that are based on primary indicators of performance for the Youth program (these indicators are discussed in a subsequent section).

As specified under WIOA, a local workforce area is overseen by the local workforce board (under WIA, this was called the local workforce investment board). Membership of the local board includes representatives of businesses, local education entities, labor organizations, community-based organizations, and economic development agencies, among others.⁴⁵ Local boards competitively award funds to local organizations and other entities to provide employment and job training services to youth. The local board develops a local plan that discusses items similar to those in the state plan, except that the plan describes the local area's one-stop delivery system. The local board is made up of partners that collaborate to provide coordinated employment and training services in the community.⁴⁶ Further, one-stop systems may have specialized centers to address special needs. WIOA specifies that this may include the needs of youth. The Youth program is a required partner in the one-stop system under WIOA. The proposed WIOA regulations issued in April 2015 specify that local boards must either collocate youth program staff at one-stop centers and/or ensure one-stop centers and staff are equipped to advise youth in order to increase youth access to services and connect youth to the program that best aligns with their needs.⁴⁷

Youth Councils

WIA required each local workforce board to establish a local youth council.⁴⁸ Together, the workforce investment board and the youth council were responsible for overseeing a local program funded by the Youth program. The purpose of the youth council was to provide expertise in youth policy and to assist the local board in developing portions of the local plan relating to eligible youth. As specified in the law, the councils were required to coordinate youth activities in a local area, develop portions of the local plan related to eligible youth, recommend eligible providers of youth activities to be competitively awarded grants or contracts, oversee the activities of the providers, and carry out other duties specified by the local board.⁴⁹

WIOA does not direct local workforce boards to have youth councils; however, local boards may include representatives of organizations that have demonstrated experience and expertise in addressing the employment, training, or education needs of eligible youth, including representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school youth.⁵⁰ In addition, the local board may establish a standing committee to provide information and to assist with planning, operational, and other issues relating to providing services to youth, including community-based organizations with a demonstrated record of success in serving eligible youth.⁵¹ As with WIA, the local board must ensure that parents and other stakeholders are involved in designing and implementing the Youth program.⁵² The April 2015 proposed rule for WIOA discusses the potential role of a standing youth council, including to recommend—policy direction to the local board for the design and development of programs to benefit all youth; the design of a comprehensive community workforce development system to ensure a full range of services and responsibilities for all youth, including disconnected youth; and ways to leverage resources and coordinate services among schools, public programs, and community-based organizations serving youth, among other possible responsibilities.⁵³

Allocations

Funding for the Youth program is allocated from DOL to states, including Washington, DC, and the outlying areas.⁵⁴ As with WIA, WIOA requires that not more than 0.25% is reserved for outlying areas and not more than 1.5% is reserved for youth activities in the Native American programs.⁵⁵ WIOA specifies that the allotments for the outlying areas are based on a competitive grant process.⁵⁶

The remainder of the funds are allocated to states by a formula based one-third on the relative number of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial unemployment (an average unemployment rate of at least 6.5% for the most recent 12 months), one-third on the relative "excess" number of unemployed individuals (an unemployment rate of at least 4.5%), and one-third on the relative number of disadvantaged youth (individuals 16 through 21 who receive an income that, in relation to family size, does not exceed the higher of the poverty line or 70% of the lower living standard income level).⁵⁷ Like WIA, WIOA specifies that states are to receive, at minimum, the higher of 90% of their relative share of the prior year's funding or, at maximum, 130% of their relative share of the prior year's funding.⁵⁸

Under WIA and WIOA, of the funds allocated to states for the Youth program (as well as for the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs), not more than 15% can be reserved for statewide activities (only 5% of reserved funds may be used for administrative activities, per WIOA).⁵⁹ States must use these funds for certain specified activities, and may use the funds for other specified activities. The two laws have an overlapping, but not identical, set of specified activities. For example, WIOA now requires states to use the statewide funds to carry out monitoring and oversight activities of the Youth program (and Adult and Dislocated Worker programs), which may include a review comparing the services provided to male and female youth.⁶⁰ WIOA also allows new discretionary activities, such as supporting financial literacy.

The balance of funding that goes to states is allocated to local areas on the same basis that Youth funds are allocated to states, to take into account the relative numbers of unemployed individuals and low-income youth in the area compared to other local areas of the state. In addition, the law includes provisions for minimum (90% of the average allocation for the preceding two years) and maximum (130% of the average allocation for the preceding two years) funding that goes to local areas.⁶¹ Local areas may reserve no more than 10% of funds allotted under the program for administrative costs. WIA and WIOA specify different processes for local boards to competitively award funds. Under WIA, the local boards competitively awarded grants or contracts to youth providers based on the recommendations of the youth council and criteria specified in the state plan. Under WIOA, local boards are to award grants or contracts on a competitive basis to youth providers based on criteria in the state plan, and by taking into consideration the ability of the providers to meet performance accountability measures that are based on primary indicators of performance for the Youth program. Further, a local board may award funding on a sole-source basis if the board determines there is an insufficient number of eligible providers of youth workforce investment activities in the local area to participate on a competitive basis. Local boards may terminate "for cause" the eligibility of these providers.⁶² The proposed regulation on WIOA issued by DOL in April 2015, specifies that if a local board establishes a standing youth committee, it may assign it the responsibility of selecting youth providers.⁶³

Elements of Local Programs

Youth programs carried out locally by local workforce boards are responsible for providing direct services to youth participants. The programs must be designed to include an objective assessment of the youth's skills, and they must develop service strategies for these youth that are linked to employment goals.⁶⁴ These service strategies must be directly linked to one or more of the indicators of performance for the program and they must identify career pathways that both include both education and employment goals. Each local Youth program must also provide specific services, or elements. Table 3 shows the 10 elements that were required under WIA and the 14 elements required under WIOA. Some of these elements are the same. WIOA amended some of these elements and added some new ones. The table is organized based on whether the elements are targeted for educational achievement, linkages between educational achievement and employment services, employment services, leadership development activities, additional support for youth services, and other activities.⁶⁵

Local boards must provide to each youth information on the full array of applicable or appropriate services available through the local board, other eligible providers, or one-stop partners, and they must also refer youth to appropriate training and educational programs, among other activities.⁶⁶ In addition, at least 20% of the funds allocated to the local area must be used to provide youth (whether in-school or out-of-school) with paid and unpaid work experiences that have academic and occupational education as a component.

In guidance on WIA, DOL said that although local boards had to make all program elements available to youth, each individual youth did not need to participate in all elements. Further, local programs that received Youth funding were not required to provide all program elements if certain services were already accessible for all eligible youth in the area; however, these other services had to be closely coordinated with the local programs.⁶⁷ WIOA states much of the same, noting that each of the elements need not be offered by each provider of youth services. In the April 2015 proposed rule for WIOA, DOL notes that the local program must have an agreement in place if it partners with another organization to ensure that a program element will be offered by that organization. In practice, this means that youth program case managers must contact and monitor the other provider to ensure the activity is of high quality and beneficial to the youth participant.⁶⁸

Participants

WIA and WIOA have different eligibility requirements for youth participants. Some of these distinctions are described in Table 4. Notably, WIA enabled local areas to serve youth up to the age of 21, compared to age 24 for out-of-school youth under WIOA. In addition, WIOA requires local areas (and states) to use no less than 75% of funds for serving out-of-school youth. This is compared to no less than 30% of funds for this population under WIA. Also under WIOA, not more than 5% of the in-school youth in a local area may be eligible because they are an offender. Both laws address whether a state (and local area for WIOA) may adjust the share of out-of-school youth served (down to 50% under WIOA; percentage not specified under WIA) if the state determines it will be unable to use a certain share of funding to serve these youth.⁶⁹ WIA required all youth to be low-income, except that up to 5% of participants in a local area did not have to meet the income criteria if they meet certain other criteria such as being a high school dropout. WIOA requires in-school youth generally and two groups of out-of-school youth to be low-income, and enables up to 5% of these youth to not meet the income criteria.⁷⁰ Under WIA, youth ages 18 through 21 could enroll in the Youth Activities formula grant program or Adult program, or may co-enroll in both programs.⁷¹ The same is true under WIOA for youth ages 18 through 24.⁷²

Performance

WIA established state and local performance measures as part of the accountability system for the Youth program.⁷³ This accountability system is in effect until PY2016. The measures, or "core indicators," for youth ages 14-18 were different than the indicators for youth ages 19-21, as shown in Table 5. The measures for younger youth focused on skill attainment and educational attainment. The older youth outcomes focused on employment. For each of the core indicators, the states negotiate with DOL to establish a level of performance. That is, the "measures" are identified in WIA, but the "levels" are determined by negotiation between states and DOL. The adjustments made for each state take into account specified factors, such as how the levels compare with the levels of performance established for other states given the differences in economic conditions, characteristics of program participants, and the services to be provided. Measures are reported as part of the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD), which also collects demographic and other information about youth, adults, and dislocated workers who exit the program. Similarly, local workforce areas negotiate with the governor on the local levels of performance based on the state adjusted levels of performance. Separately, ETA implemented a "Common Measures" policy for several workforce programs and revised the reporting requirements for WIA Title I programs.⁷⁴ Specifically, ETA introduced three youth measures, as listed in Table 5. It is important to note, however, that ETA specifically indicated that the Common Measures were not to supersede the existing statutory performance reporting requirements for WIA. Despite this, DOL has granted waivers to multiple states to permit implementation of and reporting on only the Common Measures rather than on the current, fuller array of measures in WIA for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.⁷⁵ These states only negotiate performance levels for the Common Measures.

WIOA creates six primary indicators of performance for the Youth program that will supersede the existing performance measures that are outlined in WIA. These six primary indicators will apply to all youth, regardless of age, and will go into effect in PY2016:⁷⁶

• percentage of program participants who are in education or training activities, or in unsubsidized employment, during the second quarter after exit from the program;
• percentage of program participants who are in education or training activities, or in unsubsidized employment, during the fourth quarter after exit from the program;
• median earnings of program participants who are in unsubsidized employment during the second quarter after exit from the program;
• percentage of program participants who obtain a recognized postsecondary credential, or a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent,⁷⁷ during participation in or within one year after exit from the program;
• percentage of program participants who, during a program year, are in an education or training program that leads to a recognized postsecondary credential or employment and who are achieving measurable skill gains toward such a credential or employment; and
• indicators of effectiveness in serving employers.⁷⁸

As with WIA, states will be required to reach an agreement with DOL, in conjunction with the Department of Education (ED), about the levels of performance for each state. These levels of performance are to be based on specified factors, including how the levels compare with other states' adjusted levels of performance. Further, states are to ensure the levels are adjusted using an objective statistical model established by DOL.⁷⁹

The following sections of the report discuss, in less detail, additional programs for youth that are authorized under WIA.

Job Corps⁸⁰

Overview and Purpose

The Job Corps program is carried out by the Office of Job Corps within the Employment and Training Administration, and consists of residential centers throughout the country. The purpose of the program is to provide disadvantaged youth with the skills needed to obtain secondary school diplomas or recognized postsecondary credentials leading to successful careers in in-demand industry sectors or occupations or the Armed Forces, which will result in economic self-sufficiency and opportunity for advancement; or enrollment in postsecondary education, including apprenticeship programs.⁸¹

Program Structure

As of the date of this report, 126 Job Corps centers operate throughout the country. Of these 126 centers, 27 are known as Civilian Conservation Corps Centers, which are operated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest Service, through an interagency agreement with DOL.⁸² Programs at these sites focus on conserving, developing, or managing public natural resources or public recreational areas. Most Job Corps centers are located on property that is owned or leased long-term by the federal government. Job Corps campuses include dormitories, classrooms, workshops for various trades, wellness (or health) centers, a cafeteria, a career services building, and administrative buildings. Centers follow detailed guidelines about all aspects of the program as they are outlined in the program's policy guidance, known as the Policy and Requirements Handbook.⁸³

As specified under WIOA (and previously under WIA), Job Corps centers may be operated by a federal, state, or local agency; an area career and technical education school, or residential vocational school; or a private organization. Authorization and funding for new Job Corps centers are contained in appropriations law. DOL initiates a competitive process seeking applicants that are selected based on their ability to coordinate activities in the workforce system for youth, their ability to offer vocational training opportunities that reflect local employment opportunities, and past performance. Additionally, under WIOA, an entity applying to operate a center must submit to DOL certain information, such as a description of the entity's strong fiscal controls in place. WIA did not specify the length of time DOL and the center operator may enter into an agreement; however, in practice the contract period is two years, with three one-year-option renewals. WIOA specifies the contract may be for up to a two-year period with up to three one-year renewal periods.⁸⁴

WIA also did not include provisions for high-performing centers; however, WIOA designates centers as high-performing based on their ranking and performance under the primary indicators of performance for eligible youth (see following discussion on indicators). It also enables the operator of a high-performing center to compete in any competitive selection process carried out for an award to operate such center.

WIOA further provides that DOL may not renew the agreement with an operator if the center is ranked in the lowest 10% of centers, and fails to achieve an average of 50% or higher in the expected levels of performance under each of the primary indicators of performance for eligible youth in the program.⁸⁵ The law allows DOL to renew an agreement with these centers under certain circumstances (i.e., performance is due to circumstances beyond the operator's control, etc.), and specifies standards that all centers must meet for agreements to be renewed (i.e., satisfactory record of integrity and business ethics, etc.).

Services

While at a Job Corps center, students receive the following services:

• education program, including English language acquisition programs;
• career and technical education, work experience, and work-based learning; and
• recreational activities, physical rehabilitation and development, driver's education, and counseling, which may include information about financial literacy.

Youth also receive personal allowances and transition allowances as they are leaving the program. WIOA specifies that these transition allowances are to be incentive-based to reflect the graduate's completion of academic, career and technical education or training, and attainment of recognized postsecondary credentials.⁸⁶ It also struck the provision in WIA pertaining to allowances for former enrollees.

Students tend to experience the program in four stages.⁸⁷ In the first phase, students learn about the program and center through orientation sessions and other outreach efforts conducted by the center and its contractor for outreach and admissions. Students who decide they want to pursue the program and are selected participate in the second phase, which emphasizes career preparation, in the first few weeks of the program. Students learn about life at the center and focus on personal responsibility, social skills, and career explanation. Students also receive assessments of their abilities in math and reading, and they work with staff to develop and commit to what is known as a Personal Career Development Plan (PCDP). This plan includes the students' personal, academic, and career goals, which are evaluated as they progress through the program.

The third phase focuses on career development and is the stage at which most youth spend the majority of their time in the program. During this period, students learn and demonstrate career technical, academic, and employability skills. Training focuses on academic subject matters and how they are applied to specific trades or occupations. Students who did not graduate from high school can pursue a high school diploma or GED. Most Job Corps centers have developed a high school diploma program for their students through partnerships with public, private, and/or charter schools. Students who have already graduated focus on developing their technical skills at the center and on work sites under the direction of Job Corps' employer partners. Job Corps centers offer several technical training clusters, such as construction, health care, business and finance, hospitality, and advanced manufacturing. During this period, students also begin to look for a job and learn how to identify and access the support services that are needed to live independently.

Finally, in the fourth phase, students participate in a period of career transition, in which they receive placement services that focus on placing them in full-time jobs that are related to their vocational training and pay wages that allow them to be self-sufficient, or placing them in higher education or advanced training programs, including apprenticeship programs. For one year after exiting the program, Job Corps must provide graduates with services that include transition support and workplace counseling. Some graduates may go on to participate in advanced training. These students continue to remain in the program for another year while obtaining additional training and education, such as an Associate's Degree.

Job Corps centers provide services both on-site and off-site, and contract some of these services. Centers rely on outreach and admissions (OA) contractors to recruit students to the program. These contractors may include a one-stop center, community action organizations, private for-profit and nonprofit businesses, labor organizations, or other entities that have contact with youth. Contractors seek out potential applicants, conduct interviews with applicants to identify their needs and eligibility status, and identify youth who are interested and likely Job Corps participants. Similarly, centers rely on career transition services (CTS) providers—organizations that enter into a contract or other agreement with Job Corps—to provide placement services for graduates and, to the extent possible, former students. Services such as career and technical training are sometimes provided by outside organizations.

In addition, each Job Corps center director must establish relationships with employers, applicable one-stop centers and local boards, and other stakeholders.⁸⁸ Each center must also establish a workforce council, made up of employers who must have substantial management and other responsibilities and represent businesses with employment opportunities for youth in the program; representatives of labor organizations, where present, and employees; and Job Corps students and graduates. A majority of the members must be employers. The council must work with local workforce boards and review local market information to provide recommendations to the center director about the center's education and training offerings, including emerging occupations that would suitable for training. WIOA also requires the council to determine in-demand industries in the state for graduates to seek employment.⁸⁹

Finally, each center must establish a community relations council to serve as a liaison between the center and the surrounding communities.⁹⁰ The councils are to be comprised of representatives of business, civic, and educational organizations; elected officials; representatives from law enforcement agencies; other service providers; students; and staff. Centers must provide opportunities for students and staff to participate in community service activities on a regular basis.

Allocations

DOL enters into contracts with nonprofit and for-profit organizations to operate the centers. Contracts are competitively awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with other factors. The contract period is two years, with three one-year-option renewals. DOL transfers funding for Civilian Conservation Centers to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) under an interagency agreement.

Participants

Job Corps participants must be ages 16 through 24,⁹¹ low-income, and be one or more of the following: (1) basic skills deficient; (2) a school dropout; (3) homeless, a runaway, or a foster child (including an individual who was in foster care and has aged out of foster care; (4) a parent; (5) in need of additional education, vocational training, or intensive counseling and related assistance in order to participate in regular schoolwork or to secure and maintain employment; or (6) victims of a severe form of trafficking, as defined by the Trafficking Victims Protection Act. A veteran is eligible if he or she meets the eligibility criteria; however, the income requirement does not apply if the veteran's income earned in the military (within the six-month period prior to applying for the program) exceeds the income limit.⁹²

Job Corps centers take additional factors into consideration when selecting participants, such as whether the program can best meet their educational and vocational needs and whether the youth can engage successfully in group situations and settings. The applicant must also pass a background check that is conducted in accordance with applicable state and local laws.⁹³ WIA prohibited an individual from being denied a position in the Job Corps program solely on the basis of his or her contact with the criminal justice system. Under WIOA, an individual can be denied a position if he or she has been convicted of a felony consisting of murder (as described in Title 18 of the U.S. Code), child abuse, or a crime involving rape or sexual assault.⁹⁴ Each Job Corps center must develop standards for student conduct and implement a zero tolerance policy for violence and drug and alcohol use. Students are dismissed from the program if they violate this policy.

WIA specified that when selected for the program, students are usually placed at the site closest to their home; however, DOL could waive this requirement if the enrollee meets certain other criteria. WIOA changed this requirement such that the enrollee is to be assigned to the center that offers the type of career and technical education and training that he or she selects (unless the parent or the guardian of an enrollee under 18 objects). Among the centers that offer such education and training, the enrollee is to be assigned to the one closest to his or her home.⁹⁵ No more than 20% of participants may live off the grounds of the Job Corps center. Priority in non-residential placements is to be given to participants who are single parents.⁹⁶

WIA specified that no individual may be enrolled in Job Corps for more than two years, except in certain cases. WIOA makes additional exceptions for enrolling for more than two years: (1) an individual with a disability who would reasonably be expected to graduate, if allowed to participate for up to an additional year; and (2) in the case of an individual who participates in national service (as authorized by the Civilian Conservation Center program) who may extend enrollment to equal the period of service.⁹⁷

Performance

WIA requires DOL to establish multiple performance metrics for Job Corps. Pursuant to WIOA, these are generally in effect until PY2016 (July 1, 2016). Specifically, DOL had to establish indicators of performance for centers and the program that are consistent year to year, and that include certain specified measures relating to graduation, unsubsidized employment, average wage, postsecondary education or advance training programs. WIA also directed the Secretary to establish indicators of performance for local and national Job Corps recruitment service providers (known as Outreach and Admissions, or OA, staff) that relate to the number of enrollees retained in the program for 30 days and for 60 days after they are placed. The law did not specify performance indicators for career transition services (CTS) providers who assist youth as they transition from the center to the workplace. It additionally directed DOL to collect and submit as part of an annual report to Congress information on the expected and actual performance of each center, the program, and recruiters along with other items, such as the number of enrollees served, number of enrollees and graduates who enter postsecondary education, and average learning gains.⁹⁸

DOL reports on performance through four report cards that include information about various aspects of the program's performance: Outreach and Admissions (OA) Report Card, which pertains to the recruiters; Center Report Card, which pertains to each individual center and all centers combined; Career Technical Training Reporting and Improvement System, which pertains to the students completing career technical training programs at centers; and Career Transitions Services (CTS) Report Card, which pertains to CTS providers.⁹⁹ The report cards include the measurements specified in statute, as well as additional performance metrics. These additional measures were developed from DOL policy and the Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA), which established requirements in statute for most agencies to set performance goals, measure performance, and report the information to Congress for potential use.¹⁰⁰ The program also collects information to assess performance through the Common Measures. As explained previously, DOL introduced the Common Measures for WIA Title I programs in 2005. The Common Measures for Youth are placement in employment and education, attainment of a degree or certificate, and literacy and numeracy gains. Together, these various measures are used by the Office of Job Corps to evaluate student performance and how well students are served at each of the centers.

Beginning with PY2016 (July 1, 2016), WIOA directs DOL to establish expected levels of performance for the program and individual centers that relate to each of the six primary indicators of performance for the Youth Workforce Activities program. Specifically, these indicators pertain to (1) entry into education, training, or unsubsidized employment (during both the (a) second quarter and (b) fourth quarter after exiting the program); (2) median earnings; (3) obtaining a recognized postsecondary credential or secondary school diploma or its equivalent; (4) participation in an education or training program that leads to a credential or employment; and (5) program effectiveness in serving employers. WIOA further specifies performance measures for the OA staff and CTS providers. The OA performance measures pertain to recruitment, including whether the youth are from the state or region where their center is located, and the cost per graduate. The CTS performance measures include the performance measures for the Youth Workforce Investment Activities program, among others. WIOA further requires DOL to report to Congress certain specified information about enrollees and graduates. The report must include some of the same information under current law, as well as information on the performance of each center, program, and recruiter based on their specified performance measures. It adds other items to the report such as demographic information on enrollees; the number of graduates who entered apprenticeships; the total cost per enrollee and graduate; information about the state of Job Corps buildings and facilities; and national and community service activities of enrollees, particularly those at CCCs.

Performance Oversight

WIA specified that a Job Corps center failing to meet expected performance levels (as specified in the law) can be placed under a performance improvement plan (PIP). PIPs are documented plans that outline deficiencies in program performance, corrective actions, and targets for improvement. Under WIA, the plan had to encompass certain actions taken by DOL, including providing technical assistance to the centers; changing the vocational training offered at the center; changing the management staff of the center; replacing the operator of the center; reducing the capacity of the center; relocating the center; or closing the center. WIA also enabled DOL to establish a PIP when a Job Corps center failed to meet additional criteria established by the Secretary. These discretionary PIPs had to include the actions described above. WIOA maintained these same requirements, and adds that a PIP established when a center fails to meet expected performance levels must require the specified actions (i.e., providing technical assistance to the centers, etc.) to be undertaken within a one-year period.¹⁰¹

Prior to the closure of any Job Corps center, DOL must ensure (1) that the proposed decision to close the center is announced in advance to the general public through publication in the Federal Register or other appropriate means; (2) that a reasonable comment period, not to exceed 30 days, is established for interested individuals to submit written comments to the Secretary; and (3) that the Member of Congress who represents the district in which a center is located is notified within a reasonable period of time in advance of any final decision to close the center. Finally, WIOA directs DOL to provide for a third-party evaluation of the program every five years, and to submit the results to Congress. The evaluation must address the general effectiveness of the program in relation to its costs; the effectiveness of the performance measures for the program; the effectiveness of the structure and mechanisms for delivering services; the impact of the program on the community, businesses, and participants involved; the extent to which the program and activities meet the needs of various demographic groups, and other such factors that may be appropriate.¹⁰²

Financial Oversight

WIA did not require reporting on financial oversight measures specifically for Job Corps; however, WIOA requires DOL to prepare and submit reports to Congress that include information about implementing financial oversight measures suggested in the 2013 DOL IG report about oversight of Job Corps funding,¹⁰³ a description of any budgetary shortfalls in the period covered by the report, and an explanation for approving contract expenditures that are in excess of the amount specified under a contract. The reports are to be provided every six months for an initial three-year period, then annually for another two years. WIOA further requires DOL to submit an additional report to Congress if the program has a budget shortfall, including an explanation of how the shortfall will be addressed. The report must be submitted within 90 days after the shortfall is identified.¹⁰⁴

YouthBuild¹⁰⁵

Overview and Purpose

In 2007, YouthBuild was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281). The program was authorized under WIA, and the WIOA provisions for the program are effective as of July 1, 2015. As stated in the law, the purpose of YouthBuild is to (1) enable disadvantaged youth to obtain the education and employment skills necessary to achieve economic self-sufficiency in occupations in demand and post-secondary education and training opportunities; (2) provide disadvantaged youth with opportunities for meaningful work and service to communities; (3) foster the development of employment and leadership skills and commitment to community development among youth in low-income communities; and (4) expand the supply of permanent affordable housing for homeless individuals and low-income families by utilizing the energy of disadvantaged youth. WIOA adds an additional purpose area: (5) to improve the quality and energy efficiency of community and other nonprofit and public facilities, including those facilities that are used to serve homeless and low-income families.¹⁰⁶ WIOA makes few other changes to YouthBuild.

Program Structure

DOL competitively awards YouthBuild funds to organizations, which carry out the program in cooperation with subgrantees or contractors or through arrangements made with local education agencies and certain other entities. Entities that are eligible to apply for funding include a public or private nonprofit agency or organization, including a consortium of such agencies or organizations. Specifically, such entities may include community-based or faith-based organizations; entities that carry out activities authorized under certain other parts of WIOA, such as a local workforce board; community action agencies; state or local housing development agencies; an Indian tribe or agencies primarily serving Indians; state or local youth service or conservation corps; or any other entity eligible to provide education or employment training under a federal program.¹⁰⁷

While in the program, youth participate in a range of education and workforce investment activities, as listed in Table 6. These activities include instruction, skill building, alternative education, mentoring, and training in rehabilitation or construction of housing. Notably, any housing unit that is rehabilitated or reconstructed may be available only for rental by, or sale to, homeless individuals or low-income families; or for use as transitional or permanent housing to assist homeless individuals achieve independent living. All educational programs, including programs that award academic credit, and activities supported with YouthBuild funds must be consistent with applicable state and local educational standards.

At least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain work and skill development activities (these activities are denoted by footnote "a" in Table 6). At least an additional 50% of the time, participants must be engaged in education and related services and activities designed to meet their educational needs (these activities are denoted by footnote "b" in Table 6). WIOA made a change to some of these activities to enable them to include, if approved by the DOL Secretary, training and supports in additional in-demand industry sectors or occupations. This is consistent with a 2012 regulation for the program that enables grantees to expand their occupational skills training beyond construction skills training; however, all programs must still provide training in the construction trades.¹⁰⁸

Participants

Youth are eligible for the program if they are (1) ages 16 through 24; (2) a member of a low-income family, a youth in foster care, a youth offender, an individual with a disability, a child of incarcerated parents, or a migrant youth; and (3) a school dropout. However, up to 25% of youth in the program are not required to meet the income or dropout criteria, so long as they are basic skills deficient despite having earned a high school diploma, GED, or the equivalent; or have been referred by a high school for the purpose of obtaining a high school diploma.

Allocations

Grants are competitively awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with other factors, such as the applicant's potential for developing a successful YouthBuild program; the need for the program in the community; the applicant's commitment to providing skills training, leadership development, and education to participants; regional distribution of grantees; and the applicant's coordination of activities to be carried out with certain other stakeholders, including employers, one-stop partners, and national service and other systems; among other criteria.

DOL makes awards for three years (two years of program operations with a one-year period of follow-up). Applicants must provide cash or in-kind resources equivalent to at least 25% of the grant award amount as matching funds. Prior investments and federal resources do not count toward the match.

Performance

WIA requires grantees to use common indicators of performance for youth and lifelong learning, as identified by the Secretary. Accordingly, DOL directs YouthBuild grantees to report the Common Measures and two additional performance measures for all youth in the program. The two other measures are retention in employment or education and recidivism. Retention in employment and education tracks the share of young people who are employed or in an educational placement for each of the three quarters after exiting. The recidivism measure tracks the share of youth arrested and convicted of a new crime or parole violation within one year of enrollment.¹⁰⁹

As of PY2016 (July 1, 2016), WIOA will require grantees to meet the primary indicators of performance for eligible youth described in the Youth program. Specifically, these indicators pertain to entry into education, training, or unsubsidized employment (both two and four quarters after exiting the program); median earnings; obtaining a recognized postsecondary credential or secondary school diploma or its equivalent; participation in an education or training program that leads to a credential or employment; and program effectiveness in serving employers.¹¹⁰

Reintegration of Ex-Offenders¹¹¹

Overview and Purpose

Section 171 of WIA authorizes DOL to conduct pilot and demonstration programs. The purpose of these programs is to develop and evaluate innovative approaches to providing employment and training services. In recent years, two programs have been specified in appropriations language and funded under the authority of Section 171. One of the programs—Reintegration of Ex-Offenders—is targeted, in part, to youth. The youth component is comprised of related initiatives that seek to assist youth offenders and youth at risk of dropping out (or who have dropped out) with pre-release, mentoring, housing, case management, and employment services; to reduce violence within persistently dangerous schools through a combination of mentoring, educational, employment, case management, and violence prevention strategies; and to provide alternative education and related services for youth at risk of involvement with the justice system.¹¹²

Grants for youth offenders have been funded under WIA since FY2000.¹¹³ The program was a stand-alone program until FY2008, when it was made a part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which also supports the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI) for adults. Funding for the program was authorized under both WIA and Section 112 (Responsible Reintegration of Offenders) of the Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-199), enacted on April 9, 2008. The Second Chance Act authorizes DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of providing mentoring, job training and job placement services, and other comprehensive transitional services to assist eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining employment.

Congress appropriated funding for the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program in FY2015 (P.L. 113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169 authorizes evaluations and research.

Program Structure

The earliest initiatives for youth offenders, from FY1999 through FY2004, operated under what is known as the Youth Offender Demonstration Project (YODP).¹¹⁴ The pilot funded 52 grantees to assist youth at risk of court or gang involvement, youth offenders, and gang members ages 14 to 24 in finding long-term employment.

The more contemporary grant programs for youth offenders have funded multiple projects in recent years that have a focus similar to the earlier projects under YODP. Recent projects have included (1) education-related grants for the School District Youth Offender Initiative and Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative; (2) apprenticeship and related grants under grants collectively called Categorical Grants (Youth Offender Registered Apprenticeship, Alternative Education, and Project Expansion Grants); (3) grants that focus on reentry, including Beneficiary-Choice Demonstration, High Growth Youth Offender Initiative, Planning, State/Local Implementation, and Replication Grants; and (4) grants that focus on community service, including Civic Justice Grants and Serving Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training and Service Learning. Grantees include local and state governments, nonprofit organizations, including faith-based organizations; school districts; and community colleges.¹¹⁵

Each of these projects has been funded in at least one year since PY2006.¹¹⁶ The projects are grouped below based on their focus. While the projects each have a distinct purpose, their overall aim is to provide employment and other assistance to youth who are involved in the justice system, or are at risk of becoming involved.

Education

The School District Youth Offender Initiative, also known as the School District Gang Reduction grants, was funded with FY2006 appropriations and focused on developing strategies for reducing youth involvement in gangs using a workforce development approach. The initiative was aimed at helping five public school districts—Baltimore; Chicago; Milwaukee; Orange County, FL; and Philadelphia—reduce the involvement of youth in gangs and violent crimes. Grant funds could be used for a range of education and employment interventions for youth who are involved, have been involved, or have a high risk of being involved in gangs or the juvenile justice system. Youth were eligible if they were in school and in grades 8-12, or were high school dropouts under the age of 21. School districts were required to partner with the local juvenile justice system, the mayor's office, the local WIB, the police department, and the U.S. Attorney's office in carrying out the program.

The Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative used FY2007 and FY2008 appropriations to provide funding to three school districts—Berkshire Union Free School District in Canaan, NY; Baltimore; and Philadelphia—to improve outcomes of students in nine high schools that have been identified as persistently dangerous by the states' department of education, pursuant to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The grants funded a combination of new initiatives at each school, including reduced class size in core 9^th and 11^th grade English and math, which have a history of high rates of failure; a mentoring program using adult and peer mentors; career academies with particular themes; and a summer bridge program with remediation in English and math.

Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and Expansion Grants

The Categorical Grants project funded programs with FY2006 appropriations that provided apprenticeship opportunities and alternative education to youth who had been adjudicated (i.e., cases have been judicially determined) or were at risk of involvement in the justice system. The grantees with programs on apprenticeship opportunities were intended to prepare young adult offenders for in-demand careers in fields such as construction, welding, masonry, and advanced manufacturing. Programs with an alternative education focus were focused on creating or enhancing schools to help young offenders earn diplomas and continue on to postsecondary education or jobs. Some grantees received funding to expand their programs to additional sites because of their records of successfully providing assistance to juvenile offenders. Grantees included state departments of corrections, school boards, and nonprofit organizations.

Reentry¹¹⁷

Multiple grant programs have focused on assisting young adults as they transition from the juvenile justice system. Two of the grants are currently funded while others received funding in the recent past.

Face Forward-Serving Juvenile Offenders grants (funded with FY2012, FY2013, FY2014 and FY2015 appropriations) seek to help improve long-term labor market outcomes for juvenile justice-involved youth. The grants are supporting community-based organizations to provide juvenile offenders with support services, training, and skills development. Eligible youth are ages 16 to 24 and meet certain criteria related to their involvement in the juvenile justice system. Another grant, Strategies Targeted to Characteristics Common to Female Ex-Offenders (funded with FY2011, FY2012, and FY2013 appropriations), focuses on providing employment and support services for previously incarcerated female youth and adults as they transition back to their communities.

The Serving Juvenile Offenders in High-Poverty, High Crime Communities (funded with FY2009, FY2010, FY2011, and FY2013 appropriations) has sought to improve the long-term labor market prospects of juvenile offenders ages 16 to 24 in high-poverty, high-crime areas. The grants funded efforts at multiple sites to provide a combination of workforce development, education and training, case management, mentoring, restorative justice (to provide community service or other activities as a way to repair damage to the community), and activities to reduce community-wide violence. For example, the grant funded the Latino Coalition for Faith & Community Leadership and Public/Private Ventures to support training opportunities for high school dropouts and young adult offenders ages 18 through 24 throughout the country.

The Beneficiary Choice Demonstration provided funding (in FY2006 and FY2008) to grantees to assist ex-offenders ages 18 through 29 transition from prison to the workplace. Participants could choose service providers from pools of faith-based and community groups. The grantees included the Arizona Women's Education and Employment, Inc., of Phoenix; the Colorado Department of Labor and Employment; the City of Chicago; the Indianapolis Private Industry Council, Inc.; and the Director's Council of Des Moines, IA. For example, Colorado's project focused on delivering individualized, comprehensive offender reentry strategies through partners such as the Department of Corrections, Salvation Army, Grant Valley Catholic Outreach, one-stop centers, and Goodwill, among other entities. The project offered mentoring, counseling, housing, education, and training and employment opportunities in industries with high growth.

The High Growth Youth Offender Initiative funded efforts (in each of FY2004 through FY2008) to help former offenders gain the skills necessary to enter industries with high growth. Projects focused on addressing the workforce needs of growing industries that provide employment opportunities and potential for advancement. Among the grantees were nonprofit organizations and workforce boards.

Finally, the Planning, State/Local Implementation and Replication Grants funded (with FY2008 appropriations) four state juvenile justice agencies in the District of Columbia, Maryland, Texas, and Washington to serve all youth returning from juvenile correctional facilities to one county in the state; five counties to develop plans for serving all youth returning from correctional facilities to the local area; and YouthBuild Newark to develop YouthBuild programs serving juvenile offenders in four additional cities in New Jersey.

Community Service/Restorative Justice

Some grants funded under the youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program focus on community service and restorative justice projects to repair the harm former offenders may have caused and to help rebuild the community. These grants are known as Civic Justice Corps Grants Serving Juvenile Offenders (funded with FY2010 appropriations) and Serving Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training and Service Learning (funded with FY2011 appropriations).

These grants sought to provide community service opportunities to juvenile offenders ages 18 to 24 involved with the juvenile justice system within the past year. Programs funded under these grants were to provide the following: (1) meaningful community service projects and service learning opportunities; (2) educational interventions that lead to a credential and increase placement in post-secondary education and/or vocational training; (3) community connections that result in opportunities for offenders to rebuild trust; (4) high staff-to-participant ratios, including close adult supervision on community service projects; (5) career development components that seek to place each participant in a job, apprenticeship, or educational setting that leads to an industry-recognized credential; and (6) post-program support and follow-up.

Military and Vocational Training

For FY2015, DOL has awarded funding to three Youth ChalleNGe sites to expand their programs with vocational education including work-based learning, job-shadowing, and other opportunities to prepare youth for the labor market. The Youth ChalleNGe Program is a quasi-military training program administered by the Army National Guard to improve outcomes for youth who have dropped out of school or have been expelled. Youth are eligible for the program if they are ages 16 to 18 and enroll prior to their 19th birthday; have dropped out of school or been expelled; are unemployed; are not currently on parole or probation for anything other than juvenile status offenses and not serving time or awaiting sentencing; and are drug free.¹¹⁸ In recent years, nearly 9,000 cadets (students) have graduated annually. The program consists of three phases: a two-week pre-program residential phase where applicants are assessed to determine their potential for completing the program; a 20-week residential phase; and a 12-month post-residential phase. During the residential phase, youth—known as cadets—work toward their high school diploma or GED and develop life-coping, job, and leadership skills.

Participants

Each of the initiatives targets select groups of at-risk youth. However, the projects generally serve youth ages 14 and older (or 18 or older) who have been involved with or have a high risk of involvement in gangs or the juvenile justice system or criminal justice system, or attend "persistently dangerous" schools, as reported by select states.

Allocations

Grants are competitively awarded to entities such as community-based organizations and state and local juvenile justice agencies, based on ranked scores and other factors, depending on the project. Notably, only schools that meet the criteria of "persistently dangerous," as specified by the states and as permitted under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), are eligible to apply for funds under the Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative.¹¹⁹ Allocations vary for each of the projects, but, generally, grantees have received grants of $1 million to $5 million for one or more years.

Performance

DOL has performance measures for each Youth Offender initiative. The standards vary for each initiative depending on the focus of the grants and the population of youth served. However, the program has uniform measures for the program overall: (1) percentage of youth ages 18 and older who are out of school entering employment or enrolling in post-secondary education, or occupational training; (2) percentage of youth offenders ages 14 through 17 who recidivate; and (3) percentage of youth offenders ages 18 and older who recidivate.¹²⁰

Funding for the WIOA Youth Program

Author Contact Information

Footnotes

1.	U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), Employment and Training Administration (ETA), Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 19-14, "Vision for the Workforce System and Initial Implementation of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014," February 19, 2015; and DOL, ETA, TEGL No. 23-14, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) Youth Program Transition." See also, U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking," PUT 80 Federal Register 20689–21150, April 16, 2015; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration and U.S. Department of Education, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Joint Rule for Unified and Combined State Plans, Performance Accountability, and the One-Stop System Joint Provisions; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking," PUT 80 Federal Register 20573—20687, April 16, 2015.
2.	The employment-to-population (E/P) ratio is the proportion of individuals in the population as a whole who are employed.
3.	DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. (Hereinafter, DOL, BLS, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.)
4.	Andrew Sum, Joseph McLaughlin, and Sheila Palma, The Collapse of the Nation's Male Teen and Young Adult Labor Market, 2000-2009: The Lost Generation of Young Male Workers, Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern University, prepared for C.S. Mott Foundation, July 2009, http://www.nyec.org/content/documents/ThecollapseoftheNation'sMaleTeenandYoungAdult.pdf. See also, CRS Report R42519, Youth and the Labor Force: Background and Trends, by [author name scrubbed].
5.	DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
6.	The average freshman graduation rate (AFGR) is an estimate of the percentage of an entering public school freshman class graduating in four years. For the most recent school years, the AFGR has been between 74% and 81%. Of the approximately 20% to 25% of youth who do not graduate in four years, some continue in school because they have a learning disability or for other reasons; however, many of these youth drop out, with some returning to school at a later time. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2015, "Averaged Freshman Graduation Rate (AFGR) for Public High School Students: School Years 1990-91 through 2011-2012," Indicator 28, Figure 1, May 2015, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015144.pdf.
7.	Ibid, "Status Dropout Rates of 16- Through 24-year-olds, by Race/Ethnicity: 1990 through 2013," Indicator 29, Figure 2.
8.	Ibid.
9.	CRS Report R40535, Disconnected Youth: A Look at 16- to 24-Year Olds Who Are Not Working or In School, by [author name scrubbed] and [author name scrubbed].
10.	Ibid.
11.	For further information about the challenges certain groups of youth face while making the transition to adulthood, see CRS Report RL33975, Vulnerable Youth: Background and Policies, by [author name scrubbed].
12.	DOL, BLS, "Employment projections: Earnings and Unemployment Rates by Educational Attainment," April 2015, http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm.
13.	Emily Richards and David Terkanian, "Occupational Employment Projections to 2022," Monthly Labor Review, December 2013, pp. 9-10, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2013/article/pdf/occupational-employment-projections-to-2022.pdf. (Hereinafter Emily Richards and David Terkanian, "Occupational Employment Projections to 2022.") See also, Anthony P. Carnevale, Nicole Smith, and Jeff Strohl, Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements through 2018, Georgetown University, Center on Education and the Workforce, June 2010, http://cew.georgetown.edu/JOBS2018/.
14.	Anthony P. Carnevale et al., Career Cluster: Forecasting Demand for High School Through College Jobs 2008-2018, November 2011, http://cew.georgetown.edu/clusters/.
15.	Emily Richards and David Terkanian, "Occupational Employment Projections to 2022."
16.	Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, The Consequences of Dropping Out of High School: Joblessness and Jailing of High School Dropouts and the High Cost for Taxpayers, October 1, 2009, http://iris.lib.neu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=clms_pub; Paul E. Barton, One Third of a Nation: Rising Dropout Rates and Declining Opportunities, Educational Testing Services, February 2009, http://www.ets.org/Media/Education_Topics/pdf/onethird.pdf; and Clive R. Belfield, Henry M. Levin, and Rachel Rosen, The Economic Value of Opportunity Youth, prepared for the Corporation for National and Community Service and the White House Council for Economic Solutions, January 2012, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED528650.pdf.
17.	Unless otherwise noted, this section draws heavily on an archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Youth Employment: A Summary History of Major Federal Programs, 1933-1976. Available upon request.
18.	John H. Bremner, Tamara K. Hareven, and Robert M. Mennel, eds., Children & Youth in America, Vol. II: 1866-1932, Parts 1-6 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 687-749.
19.	Much of this section on YEDPA was drawn from Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R. Papageorgiou, eds., Youth Employment and Training Programs: The YEDPA Years, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1985, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED265245&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED265245. (Hereinafter, Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs.)
20.	A fourth, the Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC), was operated by the Department of Agriculture and Department of the Interior, in cooperation with DOL, and targeted unemployed youth ages 16 to 23 who were not necessarily disadvantaged. This program operated year-round and was separate from a similarly named program, the Youth Conservation Corps (YCC). YCC was permanently authorized by the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970 (P.L. 91-378) and continues to operate.
21.	Other parts of YEDPA required close coordination with the school system. According to an assessment of the act's implementation, the schools maintained their focus on in-school youth and provided essentially the same set of educational services as usual. The lack of influence of YEDPA on schools may be largely attributed to the schools' resistance to allocating services according to income and the schools' perception that their mission was exclusively to educate students. Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs, pp. 84-87.
22.	Unless otherwise noted, this section was drawn heavily from an archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The Job Training Partnership Act: A Compendium of Programs. Available upon request.
23.	Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Job Training Partnership Act: Legislation and Budget Issues. Available upon request.
24.	Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The School-to-Work Opportunities Act. Available upon request.
25.	For further information about the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs, see CRS Report RL33687, The Workforce Investment Act (WIA): Program-by-Program Overview and Funding of Title I Training Programs, by [author name scrubbed].
26.	U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP), Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety, Modernizing the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 to Help Workers and Employers Meet the Changing Demands of a Global Market, 111th Cong., 1st sess., July 16, 2009.
27.	U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Ensuring Economic Opportunities for Young Americans, 111th Cong., 1st sess., October 1, 2009.
28.	House Committee on Education and the Workforce and Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (HELP) Committee, "Bipartisan, Bicameral Group Announces Deal to Improve American Workforce Development System," May 21, 2014.
29.	Most workforce programs operate on a program year basis, which extends from July 1 of one year through June 30 of the following year. WIOA specifies that most of the bill's provisions go into effect at the beginning of the first full program year following the law's enactment, which is July 1, 2015. DOL, ETA has a website that includes guidance and other information about the new law. See DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act," http://www.doleta.gov/wioa/.
30.	Another youth program, Youth Opportunity Grants program, was authorized under WIA. The program was funded from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated until 2005. As stated in WIA, the program was intended to provide employment, educational, and youth development activities to increase the long-term employment of youth who live in enterprise communities, empowerment zones, and high-poverty areas and who seek assistance. By definition, enterprise communities and empowerment zones are in low-income areas. WIOA did not reauthorize this program.
31.	Section 101(b)(1)(II) of WIOA.
32.	Section 102(b)(1)(D) of WIOA.
33.	Section 108(b)(9) of WIOA.
34.	Section 107(b)(4)(ii) of WIOA.
35.	Section 121(b)(1)(B) of WIOA.
36.	Section 189(g)(1)(A) of WIOA. Section 173(h)(2), which pertains to authorization for YouthBuild, states that notwithstanding Section 189(g), appropriations for any fiscal year for programs and activities carried out under this section are to be available for obligation only on the basis of a fiscal year.
37.	Section 189(g)(2) of WIOA.
38.	For further information, see CRS Report R43611, Recent Developments in the Job Corps Program: Frequently Asked Questions, by [author name scrubbed].
39.	Appropriations law generally specifies that funds appropriated for the administration account are available for the fiscal year in which they are appropriated; funds appropriated for the operations account are available for the accompanying program year (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 support the program in PY2013); and funds appropriated for the CRA account are available for the accompanying program year and the two succeeding program years (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 are available through June 30, 2017).
40.	The FY2014 appropriations law (P.L. 113-76) and FY2015 appropriations law (P.L. 113-235) authorize DOL to transfer up to 15% of CRA funds to the operations account or administration account.
41.	DOL, Office of Inspector General, Office of Audit, The U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds, Report No. 22-13-015-03-370, May 31, 2013, http://www.oig.dol.gov/public/reports/oa/2013/22-13-015-03-370.pdf. (Hereinafter, U.S. DOL, Office of Inspector General, The U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds.)
42.	Title I, Chapter 4 of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 664.
43.	Section 129(a) of WIA.
44.	Section 102 and Section 103 of WIOA (and Section 112(b)(12) of WIA).
45.	Section 107(b) of WIOA (Section 117(b) of WIA).
46.	Section 121 of WIOA (Section 134(b) of WIA).
47.	DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.700).
48.	Section 117(h) of WIA.
49.	Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIA. WIA specified that the youth council include members of the local board with special interest or expertise in youth policy; representatives of youth service, juvenile justice, and local law enforcement agencies; representatives of local public housing authorities; and parents of eligible youth seeking assistance through the Adult or Dislocated Worker programs, among others. Further, the local board had to ensure that parents, participants, and other members of the community with experience relating to programs for youth were involved in the design and implementation of the Youth program.
50.	Section 107(2)(iv) of WIOA.
51.	Section 107(b)(4)(A)(ii) of WIOA.
52.	Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIOA.
53.	DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.100).
54.	The outlying areas comprise the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau. WIOA specifies that the Republic of Palau may not apply for funding during any period during which DOL and the Department of Education (ED) determine that a Compact of Free Association (COFA) is in effect and contains provisions for training and education assistance that prohibit the assistance provided under WIOA. COFA defines the relationship that Palau has entered into as an associated state agreement with the United States.
55.	Section 127(1) of WIOA (Section 127(1) of WIA).
56.	Section 127(b)(1)(B)(ii) of WIOA (and Section 127(1)(B)(ii) of WIA). In practice, funds for outlying areas were distributed under WIA by formula.
57.	The word "relative" means the number of individuals in a state compared to the total number in all states.
58.	As with WIA, WIOA provides small state minimums such that no state receives less than—the total of three-tenths of 1% of $1 billion that is allocated to states, or two-thirds of 1% of the excess if the allocation exceeds $1 billion. Under WIA, in years where appropriations exceed $1 billion, the minimum allotments were the higher of (1) 90% of a state's relative share of the previous year's funding, (2) the amount the state received in 1998, or (3) 0.3% of the first $1 billion plus 0.4% of the amount over $1 billion.
59.	Section 128(a) of WIOA (Section 128(a) of WIA).
60.	Section129(b) of WIOA (Section129(b) of WIA).
61.	Section 128(b) of WIOA (Section 128(b) of WIA).
62.	Section 107(d)(10(B) and Section 123 of WIOA. "For cause" is not defined under WIOA. (Section 117(d)(2)(B) and Section 123 of WIA.)
63.	DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.400).
64.	Section 129(c) of WIOA (Section 129(c) of WIA).
65.	These elements were classified under these categories (for purposes of WIA) in the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data Book.
66.	Section 129(c)(3) of WIOA (Section 129(c)(3) of WIA).
67.	DOL, ETA, TEGL No. 9-00, "Workforce Investment Act of 1998, Section 129—Competitive and Non-competitive Procedures for Providing Youth Activities Under Title I", January 31, 2001, and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter No. 18-00, April 23, 2001. Local boards are advised to establish ongoing relationships with non-WIA funded activities that provide services for WIA-eligible youth.
68.	DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.470).
69.	A local area is exempt if it is in a state that (1) receives 90% of the allotment percentage for the preceding fiscal year for the Youth program (per Section 127(b)(1)(C)(iv)(I)) or Adult program (Section 132(b)(1)(B)(iv)(I)); or (2) receives the small state minimum allotment under the Youth program (per Section 127(b)(1)(C)(iv)(II)) or Adult program (per Section 132(b)(1)(B)(iv)(II). A local area that meets one of these two criteria would be able to decrease the funds used for out-of-school youth to 50% of their allotment (that is used for non-administrative costs) only if the state (1) determines that the local area will be unable to use at least 75% of the funds available due to a low number of out-of-school youth; (2) submits to the Secretary, on behalf of the local area, a request including a proposed percentage decrease (not less than 50%), and (3) a summary of the analysis about the determination. This request has to be approved by the Secretary. WIA included these same requirements.
70.	Section 129(a)(4) of WIOA (Section 129(c)(4) of WIA).
71.	Less than 1% of youth tend to enroll in both programs as implemented under WIA. See Social Policy Research Associates, WIASRD Data Book, Table II-14.
72.	DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.430).
73.	Section 136 of WIA.
74.	DOL, ETA, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-04 "Announcing the Soon-to-be Proposed Revisions to Existing Performance Reporting Requirements... ," February 28, 2005.
75.	U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, "WIA Waiver Authority: Increased Flexibility and Improved Programmatic Outcomes, Summary of WIA Waivers," http://www.doleta.gov/waivers/.
76.	Section 116(A) of WIOA.
77.	Program participants who obtain a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent are to be included in the percentage counted if, in addition to obtaining such diploma or its recognized equivalent, they have obtained or retained employment or are in an education or training program leading to a recognized postsecondary credential within one year after exit from the program.
78.	The law specifies that DOL and the Department of Education are to jointly develop and establish one or more indicators of performance that indicate the effectiveness of the Youth program (and Adult and Dislocated Worker programs) in serving employers.
79.	Section 116(b(3)(v) of WIOA.
80.	Title I, Subtitle J of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 670.
81.	Section 141 of WIA and WIOA. These are the purposes under WIOA. The purposes specified under WIA are similar.
82.	Under WIA, the DOL Secretary may select an entity to operate a CCC on a competitive basis if the center fails to meet national performance standards (as with DOL-operated centers). WIOA specifies that DOL must select another entity to operate a CCC if it fails to meet the expected levels of performance relating to the primary indicators of performance or fails to improve performance after three program years. WIOA also adds that enrollees in CCCs may provide assistance in addressing disasters, consistent with current child labor laws.
83.	DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook, http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/prh.sflb. (Hereinafter, DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook.)
84.	Section 147(a) of WIOA (Section 147(a) of WIA).
85.	Section 147(g) of WIOA.
86.	Section 150 of WIOA (Section 150 of WIA).
87.	DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook.
88.	Section 154 of WIOA (Section 154 of WIA). WIA specified that a business and community liaison designated by the director was responsible for these activities.
89.	Section 154 of WIOA (Section 154 of WIA). WIA referred to this body as the industry advisory council.
90.	Ibid.
91.	No more than 20% of participants may be ages 22 through 24 on the date of enrollment. The age limit may be waived by DOL, in accordance with DOL regulations, for individuals with a disability.
92.	Section 145 of WIOA (Section 145 of WIA).
93.	Section 145(a) of WIOA (Section 145(a) of WIA).
94.	Section 145(b) of WIOA (Section 145(b) of WIA).
95.	Section 145(d) of WIOA (Section 145(d) of WIA).
96.	Section 147(b) of WIOA (Section 147(b) of WIA).
97.	Section 146 of WIOA (Section 146 of WIA).
98.	Section 159(c) and Section 159(d) of WIA.
99.	For further information, see DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, "Performance Management System Overview Guide."
100.	DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, "Performance Management System Overview Guide."
101.	Section 159(f) of WIA and WIOA.
102.	Section 161(b) of WIOA.
103.	DOL, Office of Inspector General, The U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds.
104.	Section 161(a) of WIOA.
105.	Title I, Subtitle D, Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
106.	Section 171(a) of WIOA (Section 173A(a) of WIA).
107.	Section 173(b) of WIOA (Section 173A(b) of WIA).
108.	U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, "YouthBuild Program Final Rule," 77 Federal Register 9112, February 15, 2012.
109.	U.S. DOL., ETA, "ETA Quarterly Workforce System Results, YouthBuild," http://www.doleta.gov/performance/results/#etaqr.
110.	Section 171(c) of WIOA (and Section 173(c) of WIA).
111.	Title I, Subtitle D, Section 171 of the Workforce Investment Act.
112.	This is based on a review of initiatives funded by the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program. DOL, ETA, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/Youth_services/Discretionary.cfm.
113.	This program was known as the Youth Offender Pilot Program, and funded 14 communities that provided educational, employment, re-entry, and other services to youth.
114.	The earliest funding for the program was authorized under Title IV of the Job Training Partnership Act. See U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Notice Inviting Proposals for Youth Offender Demonstration Projects, August 28, 1998, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/sga/01-101sga.cfm.
115.	For a list of grantees and grant funding amounts, see DOL, ETA, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/.
116.	Between PY2000 and PY2006, DOL used Youthful Offender funding to support the Serious and Violent Reentry Initiative at the Department of Justice; to award competitive grants to serve youthful offenders in 29 communities; to award non-competitive grants to several nonprofit organizations to serve young offenders and youth at risk of becoming offenders; and to award grants to eight states to improve the academic and workforce preparation programs in one juvenile correctional facility in each state.
117.	Youth ages 18 and older may also be eligible to participate in the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI), which seeks to reduce recidivism by helping former inmates find work when they return to their communities.
118.	For further information about Youth ChalleNGe, see CRS Report RL34306, Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring Programs and Issues, by [author name scrubbed].
119.	ESEA requires each state receiving funds under the act to establish and implement a statewide policy requiring that a student attending a persistently dangerous school, as determined by the state in consultation with a representative sample of local education agencies (LEAs), or a student who becomes a victim of a violent criminal offense on school grounds be allowed to attend a safe school within the LEA.
120.	DOL, ETA, Budget Justification of Appropriation Estimates for Committees on Appropriations, FY2016, vol. I, p. TES-83.