.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job
Training Programs
Adrienne L. Fernandes
Specialist in Social Policy
February 5, 2010
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R40929
CRS Report for Congress
P
repared for Members and Committees of Congress
c11173008
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Summary
In an increasingly global economy, and with retirement starting for the Baby Boomer generation,
Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young people have the
educational attainment and employment experience needed to become highly skilled workers,
contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the economy and
among certain youth populations, however, have heightened concern among policymakers that
some young people may not be prepared to fill these roles.
The employment levels for youth under age 25 have declined markedly in recent years, and the
current recession may cause these levels to decrease further. Certain young people—including
high school dropouts, current and former foster youth, and other at-risk populations—face
challenges in completing school and entering the workforce. While the United States has
experienced a dramatic increase in secondary school achievement in the past several decades,
approximately 9% of youth ages 18 through 24 have not attained a high school diploma or its
equivalent. In addition, millions of young people are out of school and not working.
Since the 1930s, federal job training and employment programs and policies have sought to
connect vulnerable youth to work and school. Generally, these young people have been defined as
being at-risk because they are economically disadvantaged and have a barrier to employment.
During the Great Depression, the focus was on employing young men who were idle through
public works and other projects. The employment programs from this era included an educational
component to encourage youth to obtain their high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the
federal government began funding programs for low-income youth that address their multiple
needs through job training, educational services, and supportive services.
Today’s primary federal youth employment and job training programs are authorized under the
Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA, P.L. 105-220), and are carried out by the Department of
Labor’s (DOL) Employment and Training Administration (ETA). Although these programs are
funded somewhat differently and have varying eligibility requirements, they generally have a
common purpose—to connect youth to educational and employment opportunities, as well as to
leadership development and community service activities. Many of the programs target the most
vulnerable youth, including school dropouts, homeless youth, and youth offenders. Based on
funding and the number of youth served, the WIA Youth Activities (Youth) formula program and
Job Corps are the largest. The Youth formula program provides an array of job training and other
services for youth through what are known as local workforce investment boards (WIBs). Job
Corps provides training in a number of trades at centers where youth reside. Another program,
YouthBuild, engages youth in educational services and job training that focus on the construction
trades. Separately, WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority has been used to carry out the
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which provides job training and other services to
juvenile and adult offenders. Finally, the Youth Opportunity Grant (YOG) program, which was
funded until FY2003, was targeted to youth who lived in select high-poverty communities.
This report accompanies two CRS reports—CRS Report R40930, Vulnerable Youth: Issues in the
Reauthorization of the Workforce Investment Act; and CRS Report R40830, Vulnerable Youth:
Federal Funding for Summer Job Training and Employment—and will be updated as warranted.
Congressional Research Service
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Context ....................................................................................................................................... 1
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job Training Programs .............................................. 3
Depression Era...................................................................................................................... 4
War on Poverty Programs...................................................................................................... 4
Expanding Youth Programs ................................................................................................... 5
CETA and YEDPA .......................................................................................................... 5
JTPA............................................................................................................................... 6
STWOA.......................................................................................................................... 7
WIA ............................................................................................................................... 7
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under Title I of the Workforce Investment Act............. 8
Coordination ......................................................................................................................... 9
Funding .............................................................................................................................. 10
Youth Activities Formula Grant Program................................................................................... 12
Overview and Purpose ........................................................................................................ 12
Program Structure ............................................................................................................... 12
Youth Councils ............................................................................................................. 14
Elements of Local Programs.......................................................................................... 14
Participants ......................................................................................................................... 16
Older and Out-of-School Youth ..................................................................................... 17
Allocations.......................................................................................................................... 17
Performance........................................................................................................................ 19
Job Corps.................................................................................................................................. 21
Overview and Purpose ........................................................................................................ 21
Program Structure ............................................................................................................... 21
Services ........................................................................................................................ 22
Participants ......................................................................................................................... 23
Allocations.......................................................................................................................... 24
Performance........................................................................................................................ 24
YouthBuild ............................................................................................................................... 24
Overview and Purpose ........................................................................................................ 24
Program Structure ............................................................................................................... 25
Participants ......................................................................................................................... 26
Allocations.......................................................................................................................... 27
Performance........................................................................................................................ 27
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders................................................................................................... 27
Overview and Purpose ........................................................................................................ 27
Program Structure ............................................................................................................... 28
Education...................................................................................................................... 29
Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and Expansion Grants ..................................... 30
Reentry ......................................................................................................................... 30
Participants ......................................................................................................................... 31
Allocations.......................................................................................................................... 31
Performance........................................................................................................................ 31
Congressional Research Service
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Youth Opportunity Grants ......................................................................................................... 32
Overview and Purpose ........................................................................................................ 32
Program Structure ............................................................................................................... 32
Participants ......................................................................................................................... 33
Allocations.......................................................................................................................... 33
Performance Measures ........................................................................................................ 33
Tables
Table 1. Funding for DOL Job Training Programs, FY2000-FY2009, Including the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (P.L. 111-5)
and Proposed Funding for FY2011 (Nominal Dollars) ........................................................... 11
Table 2. Elements of Youth Programs Funded by WIA Youth Activities Formula Grant
Program ................................................................................................................................. 15
Table 3. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs ......................................... 20
Table 4. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild..................................................................... 25
Table A-1. WIA Youth Activities State Allotments ..................................................................... 34
Appendixes
Appendix A. Workforce Investment Act Funding for Youth Programs........................................ 34
Appendix B. Definitions of Terms Used in WIA Youth Programs .............................................. 37
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 40
Congressional Research Service
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Introduction
In an increasingly competitive economy, and with retirement starting for the Baby Boomer
generation, Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young people have
the educational attainment and employment experience necessary to become highly skilled
workers, contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the
economy and among vulnerable youth populations, however, have heightened concern among
policymakers that many young people may not be prepared to fill these roles.
The employment levels for youth under age 25 have declined markedly in recent years, and the
current recession may cause these levels to decrease further. Certain young people in particular—
including those from low-income families, high school dropouts, foster youth, and other at-risk
populations—face barriers to completing school and entering the workforce. Since the 1960s,
federal job training programs and policies have sought to connect these youth to education and
employment pathways. Contemporary federal youth employment programs with this same
purpose are authorized under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 (P.L. 105-220). These
programs provide a range of services and supports to youth. They include the Youth Activities
(Youth) formula grant program; Job Corps; YouthBuild; the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
program, which includes a youth component; and the Youth Opportunity Grant (YOG) program.
Some of the programs concentrate on specific job trades and/or serve targeted at-risk populations.
Based on funding, Job Corps and the Youth program are the largest.
This report provides an overview of federal employment programs for vulnerable young people.
It begins with a discussion of the current challenges in preparing all youth today for the
workforce. The report then provides a chronology of job training and employment programs for
at-risk youth that began in the 1930s and were expanded or modified from the 1960s through the
1990s. It goes on to discuss the five youth programs currently authorized under WIA, and draws
comparisons between these programs. Following this section is a detailed discussion of each of
the programs. This report accompanies two CRS reports—CRS Report R40930, Vulnerable
Youth: Issues in the Reauthorization of the Workforce Investment Act; and CRS Report R40830,
Vulnerable Youth: Federal Funding for Summer Job Training and Employment.
Context
The current economic recession has focused attention on the role of the federal and state
governments in supporting workers who have been laid off or are at risk of being laid off. During
economic downturns, youth are particularly vulnerable to job loss. From 2000 through 2009, the
rate of employment among teens steadily declined.1 During the summer, when teens are most
likely to have jobs, the rate of employment has decreased most steeply. In June 2000, nearly half
(45.9%) of all teens were employed, compared to 29.3% in June 2009.2 The June 2009
1 Andrew Sum, Joseph McLaughlin, and Sheila Palma, The Collapse of the Nation’s Male Teen and Young Adult Labor
Market, 2000-2009: The Lost Generation of Young Male Workers, Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern
University, prepared for C.S. Mott Foundation, July 2009, http://www.nyec.org/content/documents/
ThecollapseoftheNation'sMaleTeenandYoungAdult.pdf. (Hereafter, Sum, McLaughlin, and Palma, The Collapse of the
Nation’s Male Teen and Young Adult Labor Market, 2000-2009.) See also U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, The Employment Situation, http://www.bls.gov/schedule/archives/empsit_nr.htm.
2 Ibid.
Congressional Research Service
1
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
employment rate is the lowest it has been during the post-World War II period. Young men have
experienced the greatest losses in summer employment. Among males ages 16 through 19, less
than one third (27.6%) were employed in June 2009, compared to 46.1% in June 2000. Rates of
employment among teens vary based on income.3 Since the summer of 2000, employment rates
of teens in every income category have decreased; however, the lowest-income youth have
experienced the sharpest declines. In June 2008 (the latest data analysis available), just over one
quarter (26.5%) of teens in households with incomes of less than $20,000 were employed. This is
compared to almost half of all youth in households with incomes of $60,000 to $150,000. The
declining rate of teen employment overall appears to be attributable to rising levels of joblessness
and not to a declining interest in employment among teens. 4 According to the research literature,
possible consequences of reduced work among teens are reduced employment earnings, labor
productivity in the future, and output in the economy. Similarly, the employment rates of young
adults ages 20 through 24 have declined steadily.5 Among males in this age group, the average
employment-to-population ratio was 65.1% in January through June of 2009, which represents
about a 12 percentage point decrease from the same period in 2000. The 2009 employment-to-
population ratio for these youth is the lowest it has been in the post-World War II period.
Even in periods of relative economic stability, some youth do not complete school and/or make
the transition to the workforce. While the majority of young people graduate from high school by
age 18 or shortly thereafter,6 about 9% of youth ages 18 through 24 have dropped out and have
not earned a high school diploma or its equivalent.7 This figure is higher among black and
Hispanic youth.8 Further, estimates of youth who are not working or in school (i.e.,
“disconnected”) for at least a year are approximately two million.9 Certain youth face barriers to
remaining in school or securing employment, including poverty, their parents’ level of education,
and whether the youth are pregnant or parenting, among other factors. For example, youth ages
16 through 24 who are parenting are far more likely to be disconnected than their counterparts
who are not.10 Youth in or aging out of foster care, runaway and homeless youth, and youth
offenders, among other groups of youth, are particularly vulnerable to not completing high
school, going on to college, or securing employment.11 For example, in a study of youth who had
3 Andrew Sum et al., The Historically Low Summer and Year Round Teen Employment Rate: The Case for an
Immediate National Public Policy Response to Create Jobs for the Nation’s Youth, Center for Labor Market Studies,
Northeastern University, September 15, 2008, http://www.nyec.org/content/documents/
The_Historically_Low_Summer_2008_Teen_Employment_Rate.pdf. (Hereafter, Sum et al., The Historically Low
Summer and Year Round Teen Employment Rate.)
4 Ibid.
5 Sum, McLaughlin, and Palma, The Collapse of the Nation’s Male Teen and Young Adult Labor Market, 2000-2009.
6 The average freshman graduation rate (AFGR) is an estimate of the percentage of an entering public school freshman
class graduating in four years. For the most recent school years, the AFGR has been about 75%. Of the 25% of youth
who do not graduate in four years, some continue in school because they have a learning disability or for other reasons;
however, many of these youth drop out, with some returning to school at a later time while they are working or are idle.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Dropout and Completion Rates in the United
States: 2006, Table 13, September 2008, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/dropout06/.
7 Ibid, Table 8.
8 Ibid.
9 CRS Report R40535, Disconnected Youth: A Look at 16- to 24-Year Olds Who Are Not Working or In School, by
Adrienne L. Fernandes and Thomas Gabe.
10 Ibid.
11 For further information about the challenges certain groups of youth face while making the transition to adulthood,
see CRS Report RL33975, Vulnerable Youth: Background and Policies, by Adrienne L. Fernandes.
Congressional Research Service
2
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
been in foster care and were, on average, about age 25, most had obtained a high school diploma
or passed the general education development (GED) test at about the same rate as young people
ages 18 to 29 in the general population. However, they were much less likely to have a bachelor’s
degree—1.8% versus 22.5% of all young people.12 Further, the employment rate for these foster
care alumni was 80%, while the employment rate for their counterparts in the general population
was 95%.
As they leave high school, either through graduation or by dropping out, young people can pursue
various options. Youth with a high school diploma may attend a two- or four-year college, enlist
in the armed services, or secure part-time or full-time employment (sometimes paired with
attending school). Youth without a high school diploma can do some of these same things, but
their opportunities are more limited. They cannot enroll in a four-year college or, in most cases,
enlist in the military. These youth will likely have difficulty supporting themselves if they do
work. For example, adults ages 18 and older who worked during 2007 earned an average of
$42,064, with earnings ranging from $21,484 for high school dropouts to $31,286 for high school
graduates and $57,181 for college graduates.13
Federal youth employment and job training programs have long targeted services to young people
who leave school before graduating or are in school and may be vulnerable to dropping out. The
purpose of these programs, as they currently exist, is to provide job training, employment,
educational services, and social services that can help youth become economically self-sufficient
and achieve their career and academic goals. These contemporary programs also emphasize
leadership development and community service. Note that while youth employment and job
training programs are also enhanced with state workforce and other dollars, the extent to which
this support is provided is unclear.
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job
Training Programs14
For more than 70 years, the federal government has played a role in helping young people secure
employment and achieve academic success. Generally, these young people have been defined as
being vulnerable in some way—either because they are economically disadvantaged and/or have
a barrier to securing employment or completing their education. During the Great Depression, the
focus was on employing idle young men in public works and other projects. The employment
programs from this era included an educational component to encourage youth to obtain their
high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government started funding programs
for low-income youth, such as Job Corps, that address their multiple needs, including job training,
educational services, housing, and supportive services. During the 1970s and 1980s, Job Corps
was expanded and the federal government funded additional programs for both in-school and out-
12 Peter J. Pecora et al., Improving Foster Family Care: Findings from the Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study, Casey
Family Programs, 2005, http://www.casey.org/Resources/Publications/ImprovingFamilyFosterCare.htm.
13 CRS Report RS22792, Education Matters: Earnings and Employment Outcomes by Educational Attainment, by
Linda Levine. This report also discusses changes in wages based on educational attainment from 1980 onward. It
shows that the wage premium of workers with bachelor’s degrees compared to workers with lower levels of education
has grown over this period.
14 Unless otherwise noted, this section draws heavily on an archived report by the Congressional Research Service,
Youth Employment: A Summary History of Major Federal Programs, 1933-1976. Available upon request.
Congressional Research Service
3
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
of-school youth. Funding was also appropriated to test the efficacy of some of these programs.
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 extended earlier programs and created new ones, with the
intention of providing more seamless job training and education services for youth year-round.
Generally, these programs are targeted to teenagers and young adults, usually not beyond age 24,
who are at risk of dropping out or have already done so.
Depression Era
Prior to the 1930s, the federal government’s involvement in youth employment was primarily
limited to regulating child labor.15 The Great Depression served as a catalyst for the creation of
federal programs to employ and educate young people who were out of work or at risk of
dropping out of school due to financial difficulties. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
began in 1933 as an employment program for unemployed males ages 18 to 25 (and veterans,
Indians, and residents of territories of any age) to participate in projects planned by the
Departments of the Interior and Agriculture. These projects focused on creating and improving
infrastructure, transportation, and recreational services, among other categories. The young men
lived in camps and were provided with an allowance, food, and medical care. The CCC also
included an educational component, which taught nearly 35,000 participants to read and write and
assisted a smaller number with attaining their high school and college degrees. Until the program
ended in 1945, it served nearly three million men, of whom approximately 10% were veterans.
Other Depression era programs—the Student Aid program, Works Project program, and Guidance
and Placement program—were administered by the National Youth Administration, which was
created as part of the now-defunct Works Progress Administration by an Executive Order in 1935.
The programs provided funds for part-time employment of needy high school, college, and
graduate students to assist them in completing school, as well as funds for part-time employment
for unemployed out-of-school youth. These young people, all of whom were ages 16 through 25,
were employed in a number of broad areas, including construction, clerical work, and research.
These programs served hundreds of thousands of youth before they were discontinued in the early
1940s.
War on Poverty Programs
The 1960s marked a period of federal efforts to assist poor and disadvantaged children,
adolescents, and their families through job training and other programs. In response to concerns
about high unemployment, the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 (P.L. 87-415)
and subsequent amendments to it authorized funding for employment training. Specifically,
amendments to the act in 1963 (P.L. 88-214) encouraged the Department of Labor to provide
assistance to youth so that they might be able to successfully enter the labor force, and expanded
the share of job training funds that could be used to train youth under age 22 from 5% to 25%.
Further, federal funding was first authorized through the 1963 amendments to provide
employment opportunities to youth from low-income families.
President Lyndon B. Johnson’s subsequent War on Poverty established new youth-targeted
programs in job training and educational assistance under an initiative known as the
Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC). The NYC was comprised of work training programs, the
15 John H. Bremner, Tamara K. Hareven, and Robert M. Mennel, eds., Children & Youth in America, Vol. II: 1866-
1932, Parts 1-6 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 687-749.
Congressional Research Service
4
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Work Study program, and Job Corps. The work training programs provided work experience, job
training, and supportive services to low-income unemployed youth ages 16 through 21 who were
in school or out of school, including dropouts. The Work Study program was modeled on the
Depression-era Student Aid program and provided money to high school and college students
from low-income families who needed earnings to stay in school. The program continues today
for college students. Job Corps, which also continues today, was established under the Economic
Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452) to provide educational and job training opportunities to
disadvantaged youth at residential and non-residential centers. (See “Job Corps,” below, for
further information.)
Expanding Youth Programs
The 1973 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA, P.L. 93-203) was the first of
four laws enacted during the 1970s and 1980s that focused greater federal attention on youth
employment and training. The second law, the Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project
Act (YEDPA, P.L. 95-93) was enacted in 1977 and established a variety of employment, training,
and demonstration programs for youth. The 1982 Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA, P.L. 97-
300) repealed CETA. JTPA was subsequently repealed by WIA. Separately, the School-to-Work
Opportunities Act of 1994 (STWOA, P.L. 103-239) supported the development of programs that
encouraged students to pursue learning opportunities and experiences that incorporated
occupational skills. Activities authorized under these acts were administered by DOL. STWOA
was additionally carried out by the Department of Education (ED).
CETA and YEDPA
As amended through 1978, CETA authorized a range of employment and training programs for
adults and youth. Job Corps and the Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged Youth
(SPEDY) were the primary youth programs authorized under CETA. SPEDY provided funding to
employers to hire low-income youth ages 14 through 21 during the summer months. Youth served
as assistants in hospitals, libraries, community service organizations, and schools, among other
settings.
The Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA), signed into law in 1977,
amended CETA.16 YEDPA increased authorization of appropriations for Job Corps and SPEDY
and authorized three additional programs targeted to “economically disadvantaged” (defined
under the act) youth ages 14 through 21: Youth Employment and Training Programs (YETP),
Youth Community Conservation and Improvement Projects (YCCIP), and Youth Incentive
Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP).17 YEDPA was passed in response to high levels of
16 Much of this section on YEDPA was drawn from Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R.
Papageorgiou, eds., Youth Employment and Training Programs: The YEDPA Years, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1985, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=
true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED265245&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED265245.
(Hereafter, Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs.)
17 A fourth, the Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC), was operated by the Department of Agriculture and
Department of the Interior, in cooperation with DOL, and targeted unemployed youth ages 16 to 23 who were not
necessarily disadvantaged. This program operated year-round and was separate from a similarly named program, the
Youth Conservation Corps (YCC). YCC was permanently authorized by the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970
(P.L. 91-378) and continues to operate.
Congressional Research Service
5
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
unemployment among youth relative to adults, even during periods of economic expansion, and
growing gaps in youth unemployment among whites and blacks, males and females, and in-
school and out-of-school youth. The programs were carried out during the Carter Administration,
from 1977 through 1981. Over this period, YEDPA served 6.1 million youth.
YETP and YCCIP were intended to meet the immediate employment needs of youth, and funding
for the programs was allocated primarily on a formula basis. YETP activities include work
experience, pre-employment skills, and an emphasis on the transition from school to work.
YCCIP was intended to assist unemployed, out-of-school youth obtain a high school degree,
conditional on satisfactory performance in work and school. Further, it was aimed at improving
coordination between the job training and educational systems as a means of addressing the
dropout problem.18 Finally, YIEPP funded evaluations to test the efficacy of demonstration
programs; the other two programs included funding for demonstration programs. During the
YEDPA years, more than 60 major demonstrations were funded in about 300 sites, operated by
DOL in cooperation with six other federal agencies and private nonprofit intermediaries.
JTPA19
CETA was repealed in 1982 by the Job Training Partnership Act. JTPA was distinct from its
predecessor because it emphasized that states and localities, rather than the federal government,
had the primary responsibility for administering job training and employment programs. Funding
was appropriated under JTPA through FY1999. JTPA programs focused on the training needs of
“economically disadvantaged” (defined under the act) youth and adults facing significant barriers
to employment. These programs were frequently referred to as “second chance” programs
because most of them were intended to train individuals who had not sufficiently benefitted from
traditional secondary and post-secondary education. They included the Summer Youth
Employment and Training program, the Youth Training Program, and Job Corps (discussed in the
next section).
The Summer Youth Employment and Training program provided employment and training
activities during the summer months for low-income youth ages 14 through 21 to strengthen basic
educational skills, encourage school completion, provide work exposure, and enhance citizenship
skills. In the summer of 1997, an estimated 500,000 youth participated. The Youth Training
Program was established by the Job Training Reform Amendments of 1992 (P.L. 102-367), which
amended JTPA to address concerns that school dropouts were not being reached by the then-
existing combined program for disadvantaged adults and youth, and that the program primarily
served youth who were the easiest to place in jobs and required the fewest services.20 The
program was year-round and provided direct services, such as on-the-job training, tutoring and
study skills training, and school-to-work transition services. It also provided training-related and
18 Other parts of YEDPA required close coordination with the school system. According to an assessment of the act’s
implementation, the schools maintained their focus on in-school youth and provided essentially the same set of
educational services as usual. The lack of influence of YEDPA on schools may be largely attributed to the schools’
resistance to allocating services according to income and the schools’ perception that their mission was exclusively to
educate students. Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs, pp. 84-87.
19 Unless otherwise noted, this section was drawn heavily from an archived report by the Congressional Research
Service, The Job Training Partnership Act: A Compendium of Programs. Available upon request.
20 Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Job Training Partnership Act: Legislation and Budget
Issues. Available upon request.
Congressional Research Service
6
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
supportive services, including job search assistance, drug and alcohol abuse counseling, and cash
incentives based on attendance and performance in a program. Economically disadvantaged in-
school and out-of-school youth ages 16 through 21 were eligible, but 50% of participants in
service delivery areas (SDAs), comprised of the state or one or more units of local government,
had to be out of school. Further, at least 65% of youth had to be hard to serve, meaning they were
school dropouts (if out of school), pregnant or parenting, or offenders, among other
qualifications. In program year 1997, an estimated 107,000 youth participated. As discussed
below, JTPA was repealed by WIA, the current law that authorizes youth job training and
employment programs.
STWOA
The School to Work Opportunity Act of 1994 authorized the School-to-Work (STW) program
administered jointly by DOL and the Department of Education through the National School-to-
Work Office. The program was funded from FY1994 through FY2000.21 The law supported the
development of programs with three main elements: work-based learning to provide participating
students with work experience and on-the-job training; school-based learning, involving
upgrading and integrating the occupational skills participating students learn in school and the
workplace; and program coordination to aid the planning, implementation, and operation of the
program. STWOA grants were competitively awarded to states, local partnerships, programs for
Indian youth, and U.S. territories to implement school-to-work systems. In addition, STWOA
authorized national activities, such as research and demonstrations. Some school-to-work
programs that received seed money from the federal program continue to operate today.
WIA
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 replaced JTPA. WIA includes titles that authorize
programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult education and literacy (Title II),
employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation (Title IV). Title I of WIA authorizes
job training programs for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.22 As described by DOL in a 2000
Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) to state and local workforce development
boards, WIA places “new emphasis on serving youth within a comprehensive statewide
workforce development system.” The programs for youth are discussed in further detail below.
21 Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The School-to-Work Opportunities Act. Available upon
request.
22 For further information about the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs, see CRS Report RL33687, The Workforce
Investment Act (WIA): Program-by-Program Overview and Funding of Title I Training Programs, by David H.
Bradley.
Congressional Research Service
7
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under
Title I of the Workforce Investment Act
Job training and employment services for youth under WIA include:
• WIA Youth Activities, a formula grant program for states that includes
employment and other services that are provided year-round;
• Job Corps, a program that provides job training and related services primarily at
residential centers maintained by contractor organizations;
• YouthBuild, a competitive grant program that emphasizes job training and
education in construction;
• Reintegration of Ex-Offenders, a demonstration program for juvenile and adult
offenders that provides job training and other services and is authorized under
WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority; and
• Youth Opportunity Grants program, a multi-site demonstration program funded
through FY2003 that created centers in low-income communities where youth
could receive employment and other services.
WIA’s authorization of appropriations expired at the end of FY2003. However, Congress
continues to appropriate funds, including those for youth job training programs—except for the
Youth Opportunity Grants program, which has not been funded since FY2003. All of the
programs are carried out by DOL’s Employment and Training Administration (ETA).23 As
mentioned above, Job Corps was enacted as part of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L.
88-452), and was later incorporated into CETA and JTPA. YouthBuild was originally authorized
under the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-550). The
program was administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) until it
was transferred to DOL in 2007 under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281) and
incorporated into WIA. Unlike other youth programs authorized under WIA, regulations have not
yet been promulgated for YouthBuild as authorized under WIA. DOL expects the rules to be
promulgated in the near future.24
All of the programs offer employment, job training, and educational services. For example, local
areas must provide 10 specific elements, including mentoring and follow-up, to youth who
receive services under the Youth Activities formula grant program. YouthBuild program
participants engage in employment and other activities primarily related to housing and other
types of construction work. Job Corps is the only one of the programs that provides residential
services; youth can live onsite and receive health care services, child care, and other supports. As
with Job Corps, the YOG program established centers, albeit non-residential, where youth could
receive employment and other services. Further, the programs generally serve vulnerable youth,
23 The Office of Job Corps is being transferred from the Office of the Secretary to ETA pursuant to the Consolidated
Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-117).
24 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, YouthBuild General Program Questions,
http://www.doleta.gov/youth_services/youthbuild/Updated_05_29_07/
REVISED%20YouthBuild%20General%20Program%20Questions%206-13-07.pdf.
Congressional Research Service
8
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
but some have more targeted eligibility criteria. Participants in the Youth Activities formula grant
program, YouthBuild, and Job Corps must be low-income and have specific employment barriers.
The Youthful Offender component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders serves youth who have
become involved in the juvenile justice or criminal justice system or youth at risk of becoming
involved. When the YOG program was in operation, youth automatically qualified for the
program if they lived in low-income communities. Finally, the programs are funded somewhat
differently. DOL allocates funding for Youth Activities to states based on a formula, while Job
Corps enters into agreements with nonprofit and for-profit organizations and other federal
agencies. The other programs competitively award grants to nonprofit and other organizations and
local communities.
Coordination
Together, the WIA Youth program and other WIA programs collectively make up a job training
and workforce system for youth. In some cases, WIA includes provisions that encourage or
require the programs to coordinate with one another. In submitting their state workforce
investment plans to DOL, states must specify how they will coordinate Youth Activities
programming with services provided by Job Corps centers in places where they exist. In addition,
youth councils, comprised of stakeholders with an interest in the employment and other needs of
youth, must include representatives from Job Corps, where applicable. Further, Youth Activities,
Job Corps, and YouthBuild are required partners at one-stop centers. One-stop centers include
approximately 20 federal programs that coordinate employment and other services in a
community for all youth and adults.
The White House Task Force for Disadvantaged Youth, convened in 2002 under President George
W. Bush, sought to improve coordination of youth programs across the federal government and
use federal resources to assist the neediest youth, including those who would be eligible for
programs under Title I of WIA. In response, ETA established the Shared Youth Vision, which is
intended to connect the most at-risk youth to work and school.25 As part of these efforts, DOL has
partnered with other federal agencies, including the U.S. Departments of Education, Health and
Human Services, and Justice to improve communication and collaboration across programs that
target at-risk youth groups under an initiative called the “Shared Youth Vision.”26 Together, the
agencies convened an Interagency Work Group and conducted regional forums to develop and
coordinate policies and research on the vulnerable youth population. The purpose of these forums
was to create and implement plans to improve communication and collaboration between local
organizations that serve at-risk youth. DOL competitively awarded grants totaling $1.6 million to
16 states to assist them in developing strategic plans to link their systems that serve youth.
25 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter
No. 3-04 (“The Employment and Training Administration’s (ETA’s) new strategic vision to serve out-of-school and at-
risk youth under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA)”), July 16, 2004.
26 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “Shared Youth Vision, Mission and
Objectives,” http://www.doleta.gov/ryf/whitehousereport/vmo.cfm.
Congressional Research Service
9
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Funding
Funding authorization for the youth programs under WIA expired in FY2003.27 Although funding
authorization has expired, Congress has continued to appropriate funds for most programs
authorized under the law. Table 1 summarizes funding for FY2000 through FY2010, as well as
funding appropriated under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5)
and funding proposed by the Obama Administration for FY2011. Table A-1 in Appendix A
presents Youth Activities funding allocated to the states and outlying areas for PY2008 and
PY2009, and under ARRA (the most recent years for which funding data are available).
As shown in Table 1, Congress appropriated a total of $2.7 billion in FY2000, a total of $2.8
billion in FY2009 (not including ARRA), and slightly higher amounts in intervening years. The
figure for FY2010 is not yet final because the amount of funding for the youth component of the
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program has not yet been announced.
Job Corps has received the largest appropriation each year, followed by the Youth Activities
formula grant program, Youth Opportunity Grants (funded only through FY2003), YouthBuild,
and the youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders (although in two years,
YouthBuild has received less funding than the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders’ youth component).
Funding for Job Corps has increased over time, from $1.4 billion in FY2000 to $1.7 billion in
FY2009. In contrast, funding for Youth Activities has decreased, from $1.0 billion in FY2000 to
$924.1 million in FY2009. Funding has fluctuated for the other two major programs, YouthBuild
and the youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders Program. Funding for YouthBuild
in FY2010 is $102.5 million, the highest level to date. In FY2009, the youth component of the
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program was $88.5 million, the highest level to date (the FY2010
funding for the youth component is not yet final).
ARRA provided additional funding to states and localities for the youth programs. As stated in the
law, its purposes are to stimulate economic activity in selected industrial sectors to save existing
jobs and create new jobs, reduce taxes, invest in future technologies, and fund infrastructure
improvements. The law appropriated $1.2 billion for grants for Youth Activities, $250 million for
Job Corps, and $50 million for YouthBuild.
Section 189(g)(1)(A) of WIA requires that funds obligated for a program or activity carried out
under Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis of a program year.28 The
program year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends
June 30 of the following year. Under Section 189(g)(1)(B), funds for Youth Activities may first
become available for a new program year in the preceding April. In addition, Congress has tended
to specify that funds appropriated for YouthBuild and the youth component of the Reintegration
of Ex-Offenders program are available for obligation beginning in the April preceding a given
program year.
Pursuant to Section 189(g)(2), funds obligated for any program year for a program or activity
carried out under Title I may be expended by each state receiving such funds during that program
27 Congress may sometimes choose to appropriate funds even after the expiration of the funding authorization.
28 Section 173(h)(2), which pertains to authorization for YouthBuild, states that notwithstanding Section 189(g),
appropriations for any fiscal year for programs and activities carried out under this section are to be available for
obligation only on the basis of a fiscal year.
Congressional Research Service
10
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
year and the two succeeding program years. 29 Local areas may expend funds received from the
state during the program year and the succeeding program year. Congress has generally required
that obligated funds for Job Corps are made available for one program year, although funding for
certain purposes can be obligated through later dates.
Table 1. Funding for DOL Job Training Programs, FY2000-FY2009, Including the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (P.L. 111-5)
and Proposed Funding for FY2011
(Nominal Dollars)
(dollars in thousands)
Total
Youthful Offender
Youth
Funding,
Fiscal
Youth
(Reintegration of
Opportunity
All
Year
Activities Job
Corps YouthBuilda
Ex-Offenders)b
Grantsc
Programs
FY2000 $1,000,965 $1,357,776
$43,000
$13,907
$250,000 $2,665,648
FY2001 1,127,965 1,399,148
60,000
55,000
250,000 2,892,113
FY2002 1,127,965 1,458,732
65,000
55,000
225,100 2,931,797
FY2003 994,459
1,509,094 59,610
54,643
44,211 2,662,017
FY2004 995,059
1,541,151 65,000
49,705
0 2,650,915
FY2005 986,288
1,551,861 62,000
69,440
0 2,669,589
FY2006 940,500
1,564,180 62,000
49,104
0 2,615,784
FY2007 940,500
1,566,178 49,500
49,104
0 2,605,282
FY2008 924,069
1,610,506 58,952
55,000
0 2,648,527
FY2009 924,069
1,683,938 70,000
88,500
0 2,766,507
ARRA 1,200,000 250,000 50,000
0
0 1,500,000
FY2010 924,069
1,708,205 102,500
[108,493]d
0
2,734,779e
FY2011 1,025,000 1,707,363 120,000
[98,000]d
0
2,852,363e
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from Department of Labor (DOL) budget
justifications, Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) budget justifications, DOL Employment
and Training Administration budget information at http://www.doleta.gov/budget.
a. YouthBuild was transferred from HUD to DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281).
b. Prior to FY2008, the Reintegration of Youthful Offenders program was a stand-alone program. It is now
part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which includes funding for juvenile and adult activities.
Funding for the program is authorized under Section 171 (Demonstration and pilot projects) of WIA and
Section 112 (Responsible reintegration of offenders) of the recently enacted Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-
199). Section 112 authorizes DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of providing
mentoring, job training and job placement services, and other comprehensive transitional services to assist
eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining employment.
c. The Youth Opportunity Grants program was funded from FY1999 (not shown in the table) through
FY2003, and was operational through FY2005.
29 Funds obligated for any program year for a pilot or demonstration program (Section 171) are to remain available
until expended.
Congressional Research Service
11
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
d. The Department of Labor has not specified how much funding is available for the Youthful Offender
component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program.
e. The total excludes the amount for the Youthful Offenders component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
program.
The next section of the report provides further discussion about the five youth programs
authorized under Title I of WIA.
Youth Activities Formula Grant Program30
Overview and Purpose
The Youth Activities formula grant program is one of three state formula grant programs
authorized by WIA. The other two programs target adults (Adult Activities) and dislocated
workers (Dislocated Worker Activities), although youth ages 18 or older are eligible for services
provided through the Adult Activities program. These programs provide core funding for a
coordinated system of employment and training services overseen by a state workforce
investment board (WIB) and the governor, and comprised of representatives of businesses and
other partners. The WIA Youth Activities formula grant program is arguably the centerpiece of the
federal youth job training and employment system. As specified in the law, the program has
several purposes: to provide assistance in achieving academic and employment success through
activities that improve educational and skill competencies and foster effective connections to
employers; to ensure ongoing adult mentoring opportunities for eligible youth; to provide
opportunities for training, continued supportive services, and participation in activities related to
leadership, citizenship, and community service; and to offer incentives for recognition and
achievement to youth.
Unlike JTPA, which had two separate programs for summer and year-round activities, WIA funds
both under the Youth formula program. WIA also mandates that certain elements be made
available to all youth participants through Youth Activities, including summer opportunities
linked to academic and occupational learning (see Table 2). Under JTPA, several of these
elements were either optional or not present. In addition, the Youth program requires that 30% of
WIA youth funds be spent on out-of-school youth. While JTPA’s Youth Training Program
required half of all youth to be out of school, the larger summer youth program did not set any
requirements for this population.
Program Structure
DOL provides funding to state WIBs based on their relative31 unemployment and youth poverty
status. 32 In turn, the state WIBs distribute 85% of funds, also based on unemployment and
30 Title I, Chapter 4 of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 CFR 664.
31 The word “relative” as used in this report means the number of individuals in a state compared to the total number in
all states.
32 Under WIA, of the funds appropriated for Youth Activities, not more than 0.25% is reserved for outlying areas and
not more than 1.5% is reserved for Youth Activities for Native Americans. The remainder of funds are allocated to
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
12
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
poverty factors, to local workforce areas that are designated by the governor. The state retains as
much as 15% for statewide activities.33 A local area is overseen by the local WIB. Membership of
the local WIB includes representatives of businesses, local education entities, labor organizations,
community-based organizations, and economic development agencies, among others. Local
WIBs, in coordination with their youth councils (discussed below), competitively award funds to
local organizations and other entities to provide employment and job training services to youth. A
2004 report by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) examined the entities that local
WIBs contract with to provide these services. Based on a survey of all local WIBs, the report
found that about half of all youth received Youth Activities services through community-based
organizations, secondary schools, and colleges or universities.34 A smaller share of youth received
services through one-stop centers (discussed below) and other entities, such as local or state
governments and private employers.
With assistance from the state WIB, the governor develops a five-year plan that addresses several
items related to employment and training needs, performance accountability, and employment
and training activities. The plan must address items specific to Youth Activities (Section 112),
including a description of the factors used to distribute funds to local areas for Youth Activities;
the state’s strategy for providing comprehensive services to eligible youth, particularly those who
have significant barriers to employment; the criteria used by local boards in awarding and
assessing providers for youth activities’ grants; and a description of how the state will coordinate
Youth Activities with services provided by Job Corps and Youth Opportunity grants, where
applicable.
The local WIB develops a local plan that discusses items similar to those in the state plan, except
that the plan describes the local area’s one-stop delivery system, which is comprised of partners
that collaborate to provide coordinated employment and training services in the community.
Nearly 20 federal programs must provide services through the one-stop system, either by co-
location, electronic linkages, or referrals. A local program funded by the Youth Activities formula
grant program and the one-stop workforce system are encouraged to work together to facilitate
the coordination and delivery of comprehensive, longer-term workforce services for youth.35 In
(...continued)
states by a formula based one-third on the relative number of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial
unemployment (an unemployment rate of at least 6.5%), one-third on the relative “excess” number of unemployed
individuals (an unemployment rate more than 4.5%), and one-third on the relative number of low-income youth.
Section 127(b) of WIA.
33 Alternatively, a state may distribute to local areas a portion equal to not less than 70% of the funds they would have
received using the employment and poverty factors, with the remaining portion of funds allocated on the basis of a
formula that incorporates additional factors relating to excess youth poverty in urban, rural, and suburban local areas
and excess unemployment above the state average in these areas. Such a formula must be developed by the state WIB
and approved by the DOL Secretary as part of the state plan. Section 128(b)(3) of WIA.
34 The report found that in-school youth were most likely to receive services through—in this order—community
organizations, secondary schools, colleges or universities, youth one-stop centers, adult one-stop centers, and other
providers, such as local or state governments. Out-of-school youth were most likely to receive services through—in this
order—community organizations, colleges or universities, secondary schools, adult one-stop centers, youth adult one-
stop centers, and other providers, such as local or state governments. U.S. General Accounting Office, Workforce
Investment Act: Labor Actions Can Help States Improve Quality of Performance Outcome Data and Delivery of Youth
Services, GAO-04-308, February 2004, pp. 17-19. (GAO is now know as the Government Accountability Office.)
(Hereafter, Government Accountability Office, Workforce Investment Act: Labor Actions Can Help States Improve
Quality of Performance Outcome Data and Delivery of Youth Services, February 2004.)
35 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter
(TEGL) No. 9-00, (“Workforce Investment Act of 1998, Section 129—Competitive and Non-competitive Procedures
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
13
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
fact, as a required partner in the one-stop system, a local program must use a portion of its funds
to create and maintain the one-stop delivery system and enter into a memorandum of
understanding with the local WIB relating to the operation of the one-stop, among other
requirements.36
Youth Councils
Each local WIB is required under law to establish a local youth council (Section 117(h)).
Together, the WIB and the youth council oversee a local youth program funded by Youth
Activities. The purpose of the youth council is to provide expertise in youth policy and to assist
the local board in developing portions of the local plan relating to eligible youth. As specified in
the law, the councils must coordinate youth activities in a local area, develop portions of the local
plan related to eligible youth, recommend eligible providers of youth activities to be
competitively awarded grants or contracts, oversee the activities of the providers, and carry out
other duties specified by the local WIB.
The youth council is comprised of members of the local board with special interest or expertise in
youth policy; representatives of youth service, juvenile justice, and local law enforcement
agencies; representatives of local public housing authorities; and parents of eligible youth seeking
assistance through the adult activities or dislocated workers activities, among others. A 2002
study by GAO of the Youth Activities program included survey data about the membership of
local youth councils. At the time, 92% of youth councils included participants from youth-serving
agencies and 93% included people who had experience in youth activities. Seventy-five percent
of youth councils had personnel from public housing authorities and 71% included parents of
WIA-eligible youth. Most youth councils expanded their membership to include optional
representatives, such as local educators.37
Elements of Local Programs
Local programs are responsible for carrying out the purposes of the act. In addition to assessing
the skills of youth who receive services, local programs must provide 10 activities or “elements”
to youth, as summarized in Table 2. DOL classifies elements based on whether they are targeted
to educational achievement, summer employment, employment services, leadership development
activities, or additional support for youth services. In addition, programs must provide follow-up
services.38 Note that although local WIBs must make all 10 program elements available to youth,
(...continued)
for Providing Youth Activities Under Title I”), January 31, 2001; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and
Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 16-00 (“Availability of Funds to
Support Planning Projects that Enhance Youth Connections and Access to the One-Stop System”), March 19, 2001.
(Hereafter, U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, TEGL No. 16-00, March 19, 2001.)
36 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter
No. 16-00, March 19, 2001.
37 U.S. General Accounting Office, Workforce Investment Act: Youth Provisions Promote New Service Strategies, but
Additional Guidance Would Enhance Program Development, GAO-02-213, April 2002, pp. 20-21. (GAO is now know
as the Government Accountability Office.) (Hereafter, Government Accountability Office, Workforce Investment Act:
Youth Provisions Promote New Service Strategies, but Additional Guidance Would Enhance Program Development.)
38 These elements are classified in the PY2008 Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data
Book. See PY2008 Data Book, January 19, 2010, http://www.doleta.gov/Performance/Results/pdf/
PY_2008_WIASRD_Data_Book_FINAL_1192010.pdf.
Congressional Research Service
14
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
each individual youth does not need to participate in all elements. Further, local programs that
receive Youth Activities funding need not provide all 10 program elements if certain services are
already accessible for all eligible youth in the area; however, these other services must be closely
coordinated with the local programs.39 Local WIBs must provide to each youth information on the
fully array of applicable or appropriate services available through the local board, other eligible
providers, or one-stop partners, and they must also refer youth to appropriate training and
educational programs, among other activities.
Table 2. Elements of Youth Programs Funded by
WIA Youth Activities Formula Grant Program
Educational achievement
• Tutoring, study skills training, and instruction leading to completion of secondary school, including dropout
prevention strategies.
• Alternative secondary school services, as appropriate.
Summer employment opportunities
• Summer employment opportunities that are directly linked to academic and occupational learning.
Employment services
• As appropriate, paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.
• Occupational skill training, as appropriate.
Leadership development activities
• Leadership development opportunities, which may include, but are not limited to, community service and peer-
centered activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors during non-school hours, as
appropriate; community and service learning projects; organizational and teamwork training, including team
leadership training; and citizenship training, including life skills training such as parenting, work behavior training,
and budgeting of resources, among other activities.
Additional support for youth services
• Supportive services.
• Adult mentoring for the period of participation and a subsequent period, for a total of not less than 12 months.
• Comprehensive guidance and counseling, which may include drug and alcohol abuse counseling and referral, as
appropriate.
Follow-up services
• Follow-up services for not less than 12 months after the completion of participation, as appropriate; follow-up
services for youth include regular contact with a youth participant’s employer, including assistance in addressing
work-related problems that arise; assistance in securing better jobs, career development, and further education;
work-related peer groups; adult mentoring; and tracking the progress of youth in employment after training.
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on Section 129(c)(2) of the Workforce Investment Act and
Department of Labor, PY 2008 WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B.
39 Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL)
No. 9-00, January 23, 2001; and Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and
Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-00, April 23, 2001. Local WIBs are advised to establish ongoing
relationships with non-WIA funded activities that provide services for WIA-eligible youth.
Congressional Research Service
15
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
What Elements Mean in Practice
As part of a 2004 survey of local WIBs, GAO found that most local programs used multiple
service providers to deliver youth services, although some used a small number. For example, a
single WIA provider in rural Wisconsin delivered all 10 elements in a long-term, year-round
program for out-of-school youth. Youth participants worked in teams to build or refurbish low-
income housing. At the building sites, youth received paid employment, occupational training,
leadership training, and mentoring from an adult supervisor. Off site, youth received classroom
instruction to prepare for their high school equivalency exam; career counseling; and support
services, such as meals and health care. Upon exiting, they received monthly follow-up services
for at least two years.
According to the GAO report, schools were also used as youth service providers. Many of the
schools provided youth services directly or collaborated with other education providers. For
instance, an education provider in New Jersey collaborated with local school districts,
universities, and private businesses to operate a program designed to help youth explore careers
in the food industry. During the summer, 30 in-school youth ages 14 through 16 learned basic job
skills in the classroom, visited farms and food businesses, and worked at local food businesses
and restaurants. During the school year, students were placed in paid internships in the food
industry and received mentoring services from employers.
The 2004 report also discusses that local areas developed partnerships with the business
community to deliver services. Over one-third of local WIBs reported that businesses subsidized
work experience for WIA youth. Examples of the types of services provided to youth through
these partnerships include work readiness training, in issues such as punctuality, teamwork,
respect for others, and appropriate dress, that businesses assisted with; and financial management
curricula provided by businesses.
Finally, a 2004 report for DOL by Social Policy Research Associates drew on data from site visits
to a small number of states and local areas in 2000 and 2001 to understand how the elements are
carried out.40 For example, paid and unpaid work experience entailed work experience in
conjunction with other services to increase a youth’s education and occupational skills. For
instance, in Du Page County, IL, the local WIB developed paid and unpaid work experiences in
information technology occupations, such as web design and computer maintenance.
Participants
A youth is eligible for the Youth Activities formula grant program if he or she is age 14 through
21,41 is a low-income individual, and has one or more of the following barriers:
• deficient in basic literacy skills;
40 Social Policy Research Associates, The Workforce Investment Act After Five Years: Results from the National
Evaluation of the Implementation of WIA, prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor, June 2004,
http://www.doleta.gov/reports/searcheta/occ/papers/SPR-WIA_Final_Report.pdf. (Hereafter, Social Policy Research
Associates, The Workforce Investment Act After Five Years: Results from the National Evaluation of the
Implementation of WIA, June 2004.)
41 ARRA effectively authorizes programs funded by Youth Activities via the law to temporarily extend the age of
eligibility from 21 to 24.
Congressional Research Service
16
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
• a school dropout;
• homeless, a runaway, or a foster child;
• pregnant or parenting;
• an offender; or
• requires additional assistance to complete an educational program or to secure
and hold employment. 42
At least 30% of all Youth Activities formula grant funds must be used for activities for out-of-
school youth, or youth who have dropped out or received a high school diploma or its equivalent
but are basic skills deficient, unemployed, or underemployed.43
Older and Out-of-School Youth
Youth ages 18 through 21 may enroll in the Youth Activities formula grant program or Adult
Activities program, or may co-enroll in both programs. Less than 1% of youth tend to enroll in
both programs.44 Participation in the adult program is based on a “sequential service” strategy that
consists of three levels of services. Any individual may receive “core” services (e.g., job search
assistance). To receive “intensive” services (e.g. individual career planning and counseling), an
individual must have received core services and need intensive services to become employed or
to obtain or retain employment that allows for self-sufficiency. To receive training services (e.g.
occupational skills training), an individual must have received intensive services and need
training services to become employed or obtain or retain employment that allows for self-
sufficiency.
Allocations
Funding for the Youth Activities formula grant program is allocated from DOL to states,
including Washington, DC, and territories. Under current law, not more than 0.25% is reserved
for outlying areas45 and not more than 1.5% is reserved for youth activities in the Native
American programs (Section 166). The remainder of the funds are allocated to states by a formula
based one-third on the relative number of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial
unemployment (an unemployment rate of at least 6.5%), one-third on the relative “excess”
number of unemployed individuals (an unemployment rate of at least 4.5%), and one-third on the
relative number of low-income youth. In addition, states receive, at minimum, the higher of 90%
42 These terms are defined in Appendix B. Up to 5% of youth participants in a local area may be individuals who do
not meet the income criteria, but have at least one barrier to employment, some of which are not identical to those listed
above: (1) deficient in basic literacy skills; (2) a school dropout; (3) homeless or a runaway; (4) an offender; (5) one or
more grade levels below the grade level appropriate to the individual’s age; (6) pregnant or parenting; (7) possess one
or more disabilities, including learning disabilities; or (8) face serious barriers to employment as identified by the local
WIB (20 C.F.R. 664.220).
43 Title I, Section 101(33) of the Workforce Investment Act.
44 Ibid, Table II-14.
45 The outlying areas comprise the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau.
Congressional Research Service
17
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
of their relative share of the prior year’s funding or 0.25% of the total allocation, or at maximum,
130% of their relative share of the prior year’s funding.46
Of the funds allocated to states for the Youth Activities formula grant program (as well as for the
Adult and Dislocated Worker programs), not more than 15% can be reserved for statewide
activities (Section 128(a)). States may use some of this funding for certain purposes related to
youth activities, such as disseminating a list of eligible providers of youth activities and providing
additional assistance to local areas that have high concentrations of eligible youth, among other
activities. Funds may not be used to develop or implement education curricula for school systems
in the state.
The balance of funding is allocated to local areas on the same basis that Youth Activities’ funds
are allocated to states, to take into account the relative numbers of unemployed individuals and
low-income youth in that area compared to other local areas of the state (Section 128(b)). Local
WIBs may reserve no more than 10% of funds allotted under the Youth program (and Adult and
Dislocated Worker programs) for administrative costs. The local WIBs are responsible for
competitively awarding grants or contracts to youth providers, based on the recommendations of
the youth council and the criteria listed in the state plan (Section 117(d)(2)(B) and Section 123).
When funds exceed $1 billion, DOL is to reserve a portion for Youth Opportunity grants,
discussed in more detail below, and the Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers program (see text box
below) before allocating funds to states. In addition, if appropriations exceeded $1 billion for
youth activities for FY1999, DOL was to make available such sums as necessary for the Role
Model Academy Project. Funds have not been appropriated for the Youth Opportunity grants and
Migrant and Seasonal Farmerworkers program since FY2003, the last year that Congress
appropriated more than $1 billion for Youth Activities. The Role Model Academy Project
received $10 million in FY1999 to establish a training academy for youth on an old military base.
However, the project operated for only one year due to problems with the grant and the project
did not enroll youth. 47
46 In years where appropriations exceed $1 billion, the minimum allotments are the higher of (1) 90% of a state’s
relative share of the previous year’s funding, (2) the amount the state received in 1998, or (3) 0.3% of the first $1
billion plus 0.4% of the amount over $1 billion.
47 According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, the grantee spent all of the
grant funds except for $12,355. An audit by the Office of the Inspector General (OIG) resulted in $262,258 in
disallowed costs. The grantee appealed the determination, and the Department of Labor and the grantee entered into a
settlement agreement in which the grantee agreed to pay $90,000. This is based on Congressional Research Service
correspondence with the Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration in October 2009.
Congressional Research Service
18
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Performance
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker
Programs for Youth
Section 136 of WIA sets forth state and
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker programs are authorized
local performance measures as part of
under Section 167 of WIA. Of appropriations exceeding $1
the accountability system. The measures,
billion for Youth Activities, 4% is to be allocated to youth
or “core indicators,” for youth ages 14
activities for farmworkers. The law specifies that every two
through 18 are different than the
years, DOL must, on a competitive basis, make grants or enter
into contracts to carry out workforce investment activities
indicators for youth ages 19 through 21,
(including those for youth) and provide related assistance for
as shown in Table 3. The measures for
eligible migrant and seasonal farmworkers. These activities may
younger youth focus on skill attainment
include employment; training; educational assistance; literacy
and educational attainment. The older
assistance; an English language program; workers’ safety
training; housing; supportive services; dropout prevention
youth outcomes focus on employment.
activities; follow-up services for those placed in employment,
For each of the core indicators, the states
self-employment, and related business enterprise development;
negotiate with DOL to establish a level
and technical assistance to build capacity in management
of performance. That is, the “measures”
information technology.
are identified in WIA Section 136, but
Funds were al ocated in FY1999 through FY2003 for workforce
the “levels” are determined by
investment activities targeted to youth from migrant and
negotiation between states and DOL.48
seasonal farmworker families. The projects provided a variety
Measures are reported as part of the
of educational, employment, and youth development activities
to migrant youth.
Workforce Investment Act Standardized
Record Data (WIASRD), which also
Migrant youth can qualify for education and other services as
collects demographic and other
dependents under the Adult Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker
program authorized under Section 167 of WIA. Youth ages 18
information about youth, adults, and
and older can also be served as adults under the program.
dislocated workers who exit the
Source: Congressional Research Service correspondence with
program.
the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, September 2009.
ETA implemented a “Common
Measures” policy for several workforce
programs and revised the reporting requirements for WIA Title I programs.49 Specifically, ETA
introduced three youth measures, as listed in Table 3. It is important to note, however, that ETA
specifically indicated that the Common Measures were not to supersede the existing statutory
performance reporting requirements for WIA. Despite this, DOL has granted waivers to more
than half of all states to permit implementation of and reporting on only the Common Measures
rather than on the current, fuller array of measures in WIA for youth, adults, and dislocated
workers.50
48 In their state plans, states must identify the expected (adjusted) level of performance for each of the core indicators
for the first three program years of the plan, which covers five program years. In order to “ensure an optimal return on
the investment of Federal funds in workforce investment activities,” the Secretary and the governor of each state shall
“reach agreement on the levels of performance” for all youth and other indicators identified in Section 136(b)(2)(A).
This agreed-upon level then becomes the “state adjusted level of performance” that is incorporated into the plan.
49 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter
(TEGL) No. 18-04 (“Announcing the Soon-to-be Proposed Revisions to Existing Performance Reporting Requirements
... ”), February 28, 2005.
50 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “Workforce Investment Act (WIA) Waiver
Summary Report: WIA Inception—December 16, 2008,” http://www.doleta.gov/waivers/pdf/
WIA_Waivers_Summary.pdf.
Congressional Research Service
19
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Table 3. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs
WIA Statutory Measures
Common Measures
Youth
• Skill Attainment Rate: (Number of basic
• Placement in Employment
(ages 14 through 18)
skills goals attained + Number of work
and Education: Number of
readiness skills goals attained + Number
youth in employment
of occupational skills goals attained)/
(including the military) or
(Number of basic skills goals set +
enrolled in post-
Number of work readiness skills goals
secondary education
set + Number of occupational skills
and/or advanced training
goals set).
or occupational skills
training in the first quarter
• Diploma or Equivalent Attainment Rate:
after the exit quarter /
Number of younger youth attaining
Number of youth exiters
secondary school diploma or equivalent
during the exit quarter.
by end of 1st quarter after exit /
Number of younger youth exiters
• Attainment of a Degree or
during exit quarter.
Certificate: Number of
youth participants who
• Retention Rate: Number of youth in
attain a diploma, GED, or
postsecondary education, advanced
certificate by the end of
training, employment, or apprenticeships
the third quarter after the
/ Number of younger youth exiters
exit quarter / Number of
during exit quarter.
youth exiters during the
Youth
•
exit quarter.
Entered Employment Rate: Number of
(ages 19 through 21)
older youth employed in 1st quarter
• Literacy or Numeracy Gains:
after exit quarter / Number of older
Number of youth
youth exiters during the exit quarter.
participants who increase
• Employment Retention Rate at Six Months:
one or more educational
Number of older youth employed in 3rd
functional levels / Number
quarter after exit / Number of older
of youth participants who
youth exiters during the exit quarter.
have completed a year in
the program (i.e., one
• Earnings Change in Six Months: Earnings in
year from the date of first
2nd and 3rd quarter after exit minus
youth program service) +
earnings in 2nd and 3rd quarter prior to
the number of youth
participation / Number of older youth
participants who exit
exiters during the exit quarter.
before completing a year
in the program.
• Credential/Certificate Rate: Number of
older youth employed, in postsecondary
education, or in advanced training after
1st quarter of exit and received
credential by end of 3rd quarter /
Number of older youth exiters during
the exit quarter.
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-220), ETA
Training and Employment Guidance Letter No. 7-99 (“Core and Customer Satisfaction Performance Measures
for the Workforce Investment System “), March 3, 2000, and ETA Training and Employment Guidance Letter
No. 17-05 (“WIA Title IB Performance Measures and Related Clarifications,” Attachment D), February 17, 2006.
Note: Some of the terms, such as “basic skills goals,” “credential,” and “certificate” are defined in Appendix B.
The next section of the report discusses, in less detail, four additional programs for youth that are
authorized under WIA.
Congressional Research Service
20
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Job Corps51
Overview and Purpose
The Job Corps program is carried out by the Office of Job Corps within the Office of the DOL
Secretary,52 and consists of residential centers throughout the country. The purpose of the
program is to provide disadvantaged youth with the skills needed to obtain and hold a job, enter
the Armed Forces, or enroll in advanced training or higher education. In addition to receiving
academic and employment training, youth also engage in social and other services to promote
their overall well-being.
Program Structure
Currently, 123 Job Corps centers operate throughout the country and one other center is
scheduled to be operational by July 2011.53 Of the 122 centers, 28 sites are known as Civilian
Conservation Corps Centers, which are jointly operated by DOL and the Department of
Agriculture or the Department of the Interior.54 Programs at these sites focus on conserving,
developing, or managing public natural resources or public recreational areas. Most Job Corps
centers are located on property that is owned or leased long-term by the federal government.
Job Corps centers may be operated by a federal, state, or local agency; an area vocational
education school, or residential vocational school; or a private organization. Authorization and
funding for new Job Corps centers are contained in appropriations law. DOL initiates a
competitive process seeking applicants that are selected based on their ability to coordinate
activities in the workforce system for youth, their ability to offer vocational training opportunities
that reflect local employment opportunities, past performance, proposed costs, and other factors.
Job Corps campuses include dormitories, classrooms, workshops for various trades, wellness (or
health) centers, a cafeteria, a career services building, and administrative buildings. Each Job
Corps center must develop standards for student conduct and implement a zero tolerance policy
for violence and drug and alcohol use. Students are dismissed from the program if they violate
this policy. Centers also follow detailed guidelines about all aspects of the program as they are
outlined in the Policy and Requirements Handbook.55
51 Title I, Subtitle J of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 670.
52 Since FY2006, Congress has directed DOL to operate the Job Corps Office in the Office of the Secretary. Federal
regulations established the Office of Job Corps within the Office of the Secretary, pursuant to Secretary’s Order 09-
2006. U.S. Department of Labor, “Establishment of the Office of Job Corps Within the Office of the Secretary;
Delegation of Authority and Assignment of Responsibility to Its Director and Others,” 71 Federal Register 16192,
March 30, 2006.
53. U.S. Department of Labor, Education and Training Administration, Office of Job Corps, Budget Justification of
Appropriation Estimates for Committees on Appropriations, FY2011, vol. III, p. OJC-17.
54 Ibid.
55 U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook, July 15, 2009,
http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/prh.sflb.
Congressional Research Service
21
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Services
Students may participate in the Job Corps program for up to two years. While at a Job Corps
center, students receive the following services:
• academic, vocational, employment, and social skills training;
• work-based learning, which includes vocational skills training and on-the-job
training; and
• counseling and other residential support services, including transportation, child
care, a cash clothing allowance or clothing that is needed for participating in the
program, and living and other allowances.
Students tend to experience the program in four stages.56 In the first phase, students learn about
the program and center through orientation sessions and other outreach efforts conducted by the
center and its contractor for outreach and admissions. Students who decide they want to pursue
the program and are selected participate in the second phase, which emphasizes career
preparation, in the first few weeks of the program. Students learn about life at the center and
focus on personal responsibility, social skills, and career explanation. Students also receive
assessments of their abilities in math and reading, and they work with staff to develop and
commit to what is known as a Personal Career Development Plan (PCDP). This plan includes the
students’ personal, academic, and career goals, which are evaluated as they progress through the
program.
The third phase focuses on career development and is the stage at which most youth spend the
majority of their time in the program. During this period, students learn and demonstrate career
technical, academic, and employability skills. Training focuses on academic subject matters and
how they are applied to specific trades or occupations. Students who did not graduate from high
school can pursue a high school diploma or GED. Most Job Corps centers have developed a high
school diploma program for their students through partnerships with public, private, and/or
charter schools. Students who have already graduated focus on developing their technical skills at
the center and on work sites under the direction of Job Corps’ employer partners. Job Corps
centers offer several technical training clusters. The clusters that are most commonly offered are
construction, business and finance, health care, hospitality, manufacturing, automotive and
machine repair, information technology services, renewable resources and energy, retail, and
transportation.57 During this period, students also begin to look for a job and learn how to identify
and access the support services that are needed to live independently.
Finally, in the fourth phase, students participate in a period of career transition, in which they
receive placement services that focus on placing them in full-time jobs that are related to their
vocational training and pay wages that allow them to be self-sufficient, or placing them in higher
education or advanced training programs, including apprenticeship programs. For one year after
exiting the program, graduates must receive services that include transition support and
workplace counseling. Some graduates may go on to participate in advanced training. These
56 Ibid.
57 U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Job Corps, Job Corps Annual Report: Program Year July 1, 2006—June 30,
2007, pp. 18-21, http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/py06report.sflb.
Congressional Research Service
22
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
students continue to remain in the program for another year while obtaining additional training
and education, such as an Associate’s Degree.
Job Corps centers provide services both on-site and off-site, and contract some of these services.
Centers rely on outreach and admissions contractors to recruit students to the program. These
contractors may include a one-stop center, community action organizations, private for-profit and
nonprofit businesses, labor organizations, or other entities that have contact with youth.
Contractors seek out potential applicants, conduct interviews with applicants to identify their
needs and eligibility status, and identify youth who are interested and likely Job Corps
participants. Similarly, centers rely on placement agencies—organizations that enter into a
contract or other agreement with Job Corps—to provide placement services for graduates and, to
the extent possible, former students. Services such as vocational training are sometimes provided
by outside organizations, such as the Home Builders Institute.
In addition, each Job Corps center must have a business and community liaison designated by the
center director to establish relationships with employers, applicable one-stop centers and local
boards, and other stakeholders. Each center must also establish an Industry Advisory Council,
comprised of employers; representatives of labor organizations, where present, and employees;
and Job Corps students and graduates. A majority of the members must be local and distant
business owners, chief executives or chief operating officers of non-governmental employers, or
other private sector employers, and they must have substantial management and other
responsibilities and represent businesses with employment opportunities for youth in the program.
The council must work with local WIBs and review local market information to provide
recommendations to the center director about the center’s education and training offerings,
including emerging occupations that would suitable for training.
Finally, each center must establish a Community Relations Council to serve as a liaison between
the center and the surrounding communities.58 The councils are to be comprised of representatives
of business, civic, and educational organizations; elected officials; representatives from law
enforcement agencies; other service providers; students; and staff. Centers must provide
opportunities for students and staff to participate in community service activities on a regular
basis.
Participants
Job Corps participants must be ages 16 through 24,59 low-income, and facing one or more of the
following barriers to education and employment: (1) basic skills deficient; (2) homeless, a
runaway, or a foster child; (3) a parent; or (4) in need of additional education, vocational training,
or intensive counseling and related assistance in order to participate in regular schoolwork or to
secure and maintain employment.60 Notably, the program does not impose an upper age limit for
students with disabilities. Job Corps centers take additional factors into consideration when
selecting participants, such as whether the program can best meet their educational and vocational
needs and whether the youth can engage successfully in group situations and settings. The
applicant must also pass a background check that demonstrates he or she is not on probation or
58 Ibid.
59 No more than 20% of participants may be ages 22 through 24 on the date of enrollment.
60 Some of these terms are defined in Appendix B.
Congressional Research Service
23
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
parole, or subject to similar findings. When selected for the program, students are usually placed
at the site closest to their home. No more than 20% of participants may live off the grounds of the
Job Corps center. Priority in non-residential placements is to be given to participants who are
single parents.
Allocations
DOL enters into contracts with nonprofit and for-profit organizations, the Department of
Agriculture, and the Department of Labor to operate the centers. Contracts are competitively
awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with other factors. The contract
period is two years, with three one-year-option renewals.
Performance
WIA specifies that Job Corps collect data on 25 measures related to performance and retention in
the program. These measures pertain to graduation rates, graduates’ entry into full-time or part-
time unsubsidized employment, the average wage received by graduates at certain points in time,
job retention at select points in time, entry into post-secondary education or advanced training
programs, attainment of job readiness and employment skills, and the share of dropouts from the
program, among other data. The program also collects information to assess performance through
the Common Measures. As explained above, DOL introduced the Common Measures for WIA
Title I programs in 2005. The Common Measures for Youth are placement in employment and
education, attainment of a degree or certificate, and literacy and numeracy gains.61 The measures
in WIA and the Common Measures are interwoven into the Job Corps’ performance management
system that is used by the Job Corps Office to evaluate student performance and how well
students are served at each of the centers.62
YouthBuild63
Overview and Purpose64
In 2007, YouthBuild was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to
DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281). The program is authorized under WIA.
As stated in the law, the purpose of YouthBuild is to (1) enable disadvantaged youth to obtain the
education and employment skills necessary to achieve economic self-sufficiency in occupations
in demand and post-secondary education and training opportunities; (2) provide disadvantaged
youth with opportunities for meaningful work and service to communities; (3) foster the
61 See Table 3 for a definition of these terms.
62 The performance management system is comprised of four outcome measure systems: Outreach and Admissions
(OA) Report Card, Center Report Card, Career Technical Training Reporting and Improvement System, and Career
Transitions Services (CTS) Report Card.
63 Title I, Subtitle D, Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
64 For an overview of the differences between the YouthBuild Program as administered by HUD and DOL, see U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, YouthBuild Transfer Act: Synopsis and Section-by-
Section Analysis, http://www.doleta.gov/youth_services/YouthBuildSec-by-Sec%20Analysis%20FINAL.pdf.
Congressional Research Service
24
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
development of employment and leadership skills and commitment to community development
among youth in low-income communities; and (4) expand the supply of permanent affordable
housing for homeless individuals and low-income families by utilizing the energy of
disadvantaged youth.
Program Structure
DOL competitively awards YouthBuild funds to organizations, which carry out the program in
cooperation with subgrantees or contractors or through arrangements made with local education
agencies and certain other entities. Entities that are eligible to apply for funding include a public
or private nonprofit agency or organization, including a consortium of such agencies or
organizations; community-based or faith-based organizations; entities that carry out activities
authorized under certain other parts of WIA; community action agencies; state or local housing
development agencies; an Indian tribe or agencies primarily serving Indians; state or local youth
service or conservation corps; or any other entity eligible to provide education or employment
training under a federal program.
While in the program, youth participate in a range of education and workforce investment
activities, as listed in Table 4. These activities include instruction, skill building, alternative
education, mentoring, and training in rehabilitation or construction of housing. Notably, any
housing unit that is rehabilitated or reconstructed may be available only for rental by, or sale to,
homeless individuals or low-income families; or for use as transitional or permanent housing to
assist homeless individuals achieve independent living. In addition to construction activities,
programs can support career pathway training targeted toward other high-demand occupations
and industries offered within a YouthBuild program. All educational programs, including
programs that award academic credit, and activities supported with YouthBuild funds must be
consistent with applicable state and local educational standards.
At least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain work and skill development activities
(these activities are denoted by footnote a in Table 4). At least an additional 50% of the time,
participants must be engaged in education and related services and activities designed to meet
their educational needs (these activities are denoted by footnote b in Table 4). Youth are offered
positions in the program for a period of six months to two years, and are provided with a year of
follow-up services.
Table 4. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild
Education and Workforce Investment Activities, General y
• Work experience and skills training, coordinated, to the maximum extent feasible, with pre-apprenticeship and
registered apprenticeship programs, in the rehabilitation and construction activities (see below).a
• Occupational skills training.a
• Other paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.a
• Services and activities designed to meet the educational needs of participants, including skills instruction and
remedial education, language instruction educational programs for individuals with limited English proficiency,
assistance in obtaining postsecondary education and required financial aid, and alternative secondary school
services.b
• Counseling services and related activities.b
Congressional Research Service
25
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
• Activities designed to develop employment and leadership skills, including community service and peer-centered
activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors, and activities related to youth policy
committees that participate in decision-making related to the program.b
• Supportive services and provision of need-based stipends to enable individuals to participate in the program, and
supportive services to assist individuals, for a period not to exceed 12 months after the completion of training, in
obtaining or retaining employment, or applying for and transitioning to postsecondary education.b
• Job search assistance.a
Rehabilitation or Construction of Housing
• Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of housing, including residential
housing for homeless individuals or low-income families, or transitional housing for homeless individuals.
• Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of community and other public
facilities, except that not more than 10% of funds appropriated to carry out this section may be used for such
supervision and training.
Administrative Costs
• Payment of administrative costs of the applicant, except that not more than 15% of the amount of assistance
provided under this subsection to the grant recipient may be used for such costs.
Other
• Adult mentoring.
• Provision of wages, stipends, or benefits to participants in the program.
• Ongoing training and technical assistance that is related to developing and carrying out the program.
• Leadership development opportunities, which may include, but are not limited to, community service and peer-
centered activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors during non-school hours, as
appropriate; community and service learning projects; organizational and teamwork training, including team
leadership training; and citizenship training, including life skills training such as parenting, work behavior training,
and budgeting of resources, among other activities.
• Follow-up services.
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998.
a. This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain
work and skill development activities.
b. This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 50% of the time, youth must participate in
education and related services and activities.
Participants
Youth are eligible for the program if they are (1) ages 16 through 24; (2) a member of a low-
income family, a youth in foster care, a youth offender, an individual with a disability, a child of
incarcerated parents, or a migrant youth; and (3) a school dropout.65 However, up to 25% of
youth in the program are not required to meet the income or dropout criteria, so long as they are
basic skills deficient despite having earned a high school diploma, GED, or the equivalent; or
have been referred by a high school for the purpose of obtaining a high school diploma.
65 Some of these terms are defined in Appendix B.
Congressional Research Service
26
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Allocations
Grants are competitively awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with
other factors, such as the applicant’s potential for developing a successful YouthBuild program;
the need for the program in the community; the applicant’s commitment to providing skills
training, leadership development, and education to participants; regional distribution of grantees;
and the applicant’s coordination of activities to be carried out with certain other stakeholders,
including employers, one-stop partners, and national service and other systems; among other
criteria.
DOL makes awards for three years (two years of program operations with a one-year period of
follow-up). Awards range from approximately $700,000 to $1.2 million annually.66 Applicants
must provide cash or in-kind resources equivalent to at least 25% of the grant award amount as
matching funds. Prior investments and federal resources do not count toward the match.
Performance
YouthBuild grantees report the Common Measures and two additional performance measures for
all youth in the program through a management information system (MIS) designed specifically
for the program.67 The two other measures are retention in employment or education and
recidivism. Retention in employment and education tracks the share of young people who are
employed or in an educational placement for each of the three quarters after exiting. The
recidivism measure tracks the share of youth arrested and convicted of a new crime or parole
violation within one year of enrollment.
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders68
Overview and Purpose
Section 171 of WIA authorizes DOL to conduct pilot and demonstration programs. The purpose
of these programs is to develop and evaluate innovative approaches to providing employment and
training services. In recent years, two programs have been specified in appropriations language
and funded under the authority of Section 171. One of the programs—Reintegration of Ex-
Offenders—is targeted, in part, to youth. The youth component of the program is known as the
Youthful Offender program. (Other, shorter-term programs that do not focus on youth offenders,
per se, but do specifically target vulnerable youth have also been funded, as described in the text
box below.) The Youthful Offender program is comprised of related initiatives that seek to assist
youth and young adults returning from prison or juvenile justice facilities with pre-release,
66 This is based on a review of grants awarded in 2007 and 2008. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, YouthBuild Grantee Information, http://www.doleta.gov/youth_services/youthbuildgrantee.cfm.
67 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, YouthBuild Reporting Requirements and
Common Measures, available at http://www.doleta.gov/youth_services/youthbuild/Updated_05_29_07/
REVISED%20YouthBuild%20Common%20Measure%20Questions%205-29-07.pdf; and U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration and Workforce3One, Understanding and Using YouthBuild Performance
Measures webinar, January 6, 2009.
68 Title I, Subtitle D, Section 171 of the Workforce Investment Act.
Congressional Research Service
27
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
mentoring, housing, case management, and employment services; to reduce violence within
persistently dangerous schools through a combination of mentoring, educational, employment,
case management, and violence prevention strategies; and to provide alternative education and
related services for youth at risk of involvement with the justice system.69
The Youthful Offender program has operated under WIA since FY2000.70 The program was a
stand-alone program until FY2008, when it was made a part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
program. It also supports the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI) for adults. Funding for the program
is authorized under both WIA and Section 112 (Responsible Reintegration of Offenders) of the
Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-199), enacted on April 9, 2008. The Second Chance Act authorizes
DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of providing mentoring, job
training and job placement services, and other comprehensive transitional services to assist
eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining employment. DOL is currently
conducting a review of current grants for ex-offender programs, and plans to work with the
Department of Justice to carry out programs for ex-offenders.71
Program Structure
The earliest Youthful Offender initiatives, from FY1999 through FY2004, operated under what is
known as the Youth Offender Demonstration Project (YODP).72 The pilot funded 52 grantees to
assist youth at risk of court or gang involvement, youth offenders, and gang members ages 14 to
24 in finding long-term employment. The more contemporary Youthful Offender program has
funded five types of projects in recent years that have a focus similar to the earlier projects under
YODP. Recent projects have included the School District Youth Offender Initiative; Persistently
Dangerous Schools Initiative; Categorical Grants (Youth Offender Registered Apprenticeship,
Alternative Education, and Project Expansion Grants); Beneficiary-Choice Demonstration; High
Growth Youth Offender Initiative; and Planning, State/Local Implementation, and Replication
Grants. Grantees include local and state governments, nonprofit organizations, including faith-
based organizations; school districts; and community colleges.73 These programs have been
funded in at least one year since PY2006.74 The projects are grouped below based on their focus.
While the projects each have a distinct purpose, their overall aim is to provide employment and
69 This is based on a review of initiatives funded by the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program. U.S. Department of
Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/
Youth_services/Discretionary.cfm.
70 This program was known as the Youth Offender Pilot Program, and funded 14 communities that provided
educational, employment, re-entry, and other services to youth.
71 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Budget Justification of Appropriation
Estimates for Committees on Appropriations, FY2010, volume I, TES-74.
72 The earliest funding for the program was authorized under Title IV of the Job Training Partnership Act. See U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Notice Inviting Proposals for Youth Offender
Demonstration Projects, August 28, 1998, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/sga/01-101sga.cfm.
73 For a list of grantees and grant funding amounts, see U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/Youth_services/Discretionary.cfm.
74 Between PY2000 and PY2006, DOL used Youthful Offender funding to support the Serious and Violent Reentry
Initiative at the Department of Justice; to award competitive grants to serve youthful offenders in 29 communities; to
award non-competitive grants to several non-profit organizations to serve young offenders and youth at risk of
becoming offenders; and to award grants to eight states to improve the academic and workforce preparation programs
in one juvenile correctional facility in each state.
Congressional Research Service
28
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
other assistance to youth who are involved in the justice system, or are at risk of becoming
involved.
Education
The School District Youth Offender Initiative, also known as the School District Gang Reduction
grants, intends to develop strategies for reducing youth involvement in gangs using a workforce
development approach. The initiative is aimed at helping five public school districts—Baltimore;
Chicago; Milwaukee; Orange County, FL; and Philadelphia—reduce the involvement of youth in
gangs and violent crimes. Grant funds can be used for a range of education and employment
interventions for youth who are involved, have been involved, or have a high risk of being
involved in gangs or the juvenile justice system. Youth are eligible if they are in school and in
grades 8-12, or are high school dropouts under the age of 21. School districts are required to
partner with the local juvenile justice system, the mayor’s office, the local WIB, the police
department, and the U.S. Attorney’s office in carrying out the program.
The Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative provides funding to three school districts—
Berkshire Union Free School District in Canaan, NY; Baltimore; and Philadelphia—to improve
outcomes of students in nine high schools that have been identified as persistently dangerous by
the states’ department of education, pursuant to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act.
The grants fund a combination of new initiatives at each school, including reduced class size in
core 9th and 11th grade English and math, which have a history of high rates of failure; a
mentoring program using adult and peer mentors; career academies with particular themes; and a
summer bridge program with remediation in English and math.
Congressional Research Service
29
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Apprenticeships, Alternative Education,
and Expansion Grants
Foster Care Youth
Demonstration Project
The Categorical Grants project funds programs that
DOL awarded demonstration grants in 2005
provide apprenticeship opportunities and alternative
and 2006 to five states—California, Illinois,
education to youth who have been adjudicated (i.e.,
Michigan, New York, and Texas—to design
cases have been judicially determined) or are at risk of
and implement programs to improve the self
sufficiency, education attainment, and
involvement in the justice system. The programs with
employment skills of youth aging out of foster
apprenticeship opportunities prepare young adult
care. The purpose of the grant, known as the
offenders for in-demand careers in fields such as
Foster Care Youth Demonstration Project,
construction, welding, masonry, and advanced
was to encourage states to develop best
manufacturing. Programs with an alternative education
practices around serving foster youth in the
workforce investment system, and to
focus are creating or enhancing schools to help young
integrate these practices across the state. The
offenders earn diplomas and continue on to
five states were required to target the
postsecondary education or jobs. Some grantees
programs to youth in areas with the largest
received funding to expand their programs to additional
foster care populations. DOL awarded each
sites because of their records of successfully providing
state $800,000 total; states were required to
provide 100% matching funds. The programs
assistance to juvenile offenders. Grantees include state
served over 1,000 youth.
departments of corrections, schools boards, and non-
Source: Congressional Research Service,
profit organizations.
based on Institute for Educational Leadership,
Foster Care Youth Demonstration Project,
Final Evaluation Report, Executive Summary, July
Reentry75
2008.
The Beneficiary Choice Demonstration has provided
funding to grantees to assist ex-offenders ages 18
through 29 transition from prison to the workplace. Participants may choose service providers
from pools of faith-based and community groups. The grantees include the Arizona Women’s
Education and Employment, Inc., of Phoenix; the Colorado Department of Labor and
Employment; the City of Chicago; the Indianapolis Private Industry Council, Inc.; and the
Director’s Council of Des Moines, IA. For example, Colorado’s project focuses on delivering
individualized, comprehensive offender reentry strategies through partners such as the
Department of Corrections, Salvation Army, Grant Valley Catholic Outreach, one-stop centers,
and Goodwill, among other entities. The project offers mentoring, counseling, housing, education,
and training and employment opportunities in industries with high growth.76 The project is
working to increase its network to include all organizations that choose to provide offender
services.
The High Growth Youth Offender Initiative has funded efforts to help former offenders gain the
skills necessary to enter industries with high growth. Projects have focused on addressing the
workforce needs of growing industries that provide employment opportunities and potential for
advancement. Among the grantees are nonprofit organizations and workforce boards.
75 Youth ages 18 and older may also be eligible to participate in the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI), which seeks to
reduce recidivism by helping former inmates find work when they return to their communities.
76 For further information about DOL’s recent efforts to fund initiatives that promote employment in high-growth
industries, see CRS Report RL33811, The President’s Demand-Driven Workforce Development Initiatives, by Ann
Lordeman and Linda Levine.
Congressional Research Service
30
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Finally, the Planning, State/Local Implementation
and Replication Grants have funded four state
Multiple Education Pathways
juvenile justice agencies in the District of Columbia,
Blueprint
Maryland, Texas, and Washington to serve all youth
The Multiple Education Pathways Blueprint is a
returning from juvenile correctional facilities to one
one-time grant program funded under WIA’s pilot
county in the state; five counties to develop plans
and demonstration authority. In FY2007, DOL
provided $3.4 million to seven midsize cities “to
for serving all youth returning from correctional
‘blueprint’ and implement a system that can
facilities to the local area; and YouthBuild Newark
reconnect youth [who have dropped out of high
to develop YouthBuild programs serving juvenile
school] to a variety of high quality, innovative
offenders in four additional cities in New Jersey.
multiple education pathways.” Each city has built
a partnership among multiple stakeholders to
study the scope of the dropout problem, map the
Participants
service and resources in their community, and
assess efforts to reform high schools. Partners are
currently planning or pilot testing new approaches
Each of the initiatives targets select groups of at-risk
to education, including identifying youth at risk of
youth. However, the projects generally serve youth
dropping out, launching new supports during the
ages 14 and older (or 18 or older) who have been
summer or first semester of high school, offering
involved with or have a high risk of involvement in
Saturday school programs that get youth back on
track with their peers, and providing sector-based
gangs or the juvenile justice system, or attend
education and training programs.
“persistently dangerous” schools, as reported by
select states.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment
and Training Administration, Multiple Education
Pathways Initiative.
Allocations
Grants are competitively awarded to entities based on ranked scores and other factors, depending
on the project. Notably, only schools that meet the criteria of “persistently dangerous,” as
specified by the states and as permitted under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA), are eligible to apply for funds under the Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative.77
Allocations vary for each of the projects, but, generally, grantees have received grants of $1
million to $5 million for one or more years.
Performance
DOL has performance measures for each Youth Offender initiative. The standards vary for each
initiative depending on the focus of the grants and the population of youth served. However, the
program has uniform measures for the program overall: (1) percentage of youth ages 18 and older
entering employment or enrolling in post-secondary education, the military, or advanced
training/occupational skills training; (2) percentage of youth offenders ages 14 through 17 who
recidivate; and (3) percentage of youth offenders ages 18 and older who recidivate.78
77 ESEA requires each state receiving funds under the act to establish and implement a statewide policy requiring that a
student attending a persistently dangerous school, as determined by the state in consultation with a representative
sample of local education agencies (LEAs), or a student who becomes a victim of a violent criminal offense on school
grounds be allowed to attend a safe school within the LEA.
78 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Budget Justification of Appropriation
Estimates for Committees on Appropriations, FY2010, vol. I, p. TES-78.
Congressional Research Service
31
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Youth Opportunity Grants
Overview and Purpose
The Youth Opportunity Grants program was funded from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated
until 2005. As stated in WIA, the program was intended to provide employment, educational, and
youth development activities to increase the long-term employment of youth who live in
enterprise communities, empowerment zones, and high-poverty areas and who seek assistance.
By definition, enterprise communities and empowerment zones are in low-income areas. The
program enrolled 92,263 participants over the course of the grant period, of whom 52.7% were
female; 51.9% were in school and 48.1% were out of school; and 58.9% were black, 22.4%
Hispanic, and 11.2% American Indian or Native Alaskan. At enrollment, just over half of all
participants were attending school (54.3%). This is compared to 68.3% of youth in the
community overall who were attending school.
Program Structure
YOG funds were awarded to 36 communities, 24 in urban areas, six in rural areas, and six on
tribal lands.79 A local WIB was eligible to receive funding if it had been designated as an
empowerment zone or enterprise community; was in a state without such a zone or community
and was designated as a high-poverty area by the governor; or was one of two areas in a state
designated by the governor as areas for which a local board could apply for the grant and that met
certain poverty guidelines. Entities other than a local board were eligible to receive funding if
they were a recipient under WIA’s Native American programs (Section 136); served a community
that met certain poverty guidelines; and were located on an Indian reservation or served
Oklahoma Indians or Alaska Native villages or Native groups.
According to a December 2005 report by GAO about the YOG program, recipients of the funds
included states, local WIBs, counties, cities, and other entities. These entities either provided
services directly to youth, or entered into contracts with organizations. As required under WIA,
grantees were required to provide a broad range of education, employment, and other related
activities that are currently provided under WIA Youth Activities (see Table 2). In addition,
grantees were required to implement youth development activities that addressed leadership
development, citizenship and community service, and recreational activities.
The programs were carried out at centers in each community. YOG communities had as few as
one or as many as 40 centers.80 Centers included at least a couple of the following amenities:
classrooms, recreational facilities, computer labs, career centers, health centers, and staff offices.
Some centers operated out of local high schools. At least one of the programs established a
charter school to provide alternative educational services to youth, while another had a recording
studio for youth to record music. Program staff included case managers to help identify youth’s
needs and connect them to services and activities, as well as employment specialists to help youth
look for, secure, and retain employment or help them transition to college. Program staff also
79 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Youth Opportunity Grants: Lessons Can Be Learned from Program, but
Labor Needs to Make Data Available, GAO-06-53, December 2005.
80 Ibid.
Congressional Research Service
32
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
followed up with youth. WIA required grantees to provide intensive placement services, as well
as follow-up services for not less than two years after the youth completed the program.
A key feature of YOG was the networks that the grantees created in each community. According
to the GAO report, the networks were often comprised of educational, occupational, and other
providers for youth services. The networks were facilitated by formal arrangements among the
partners and referrals to other organizations, such as those that provided GED preparation and
clothing for interviews. Some participants at some of the centers had the opportunity to enroll part
time at a community college to earn academic credit. Partners also provided referrals to the
grantees.
Participants
Unlike other youth programs authorized under WIA, youth could participate in the YOG program
as long as they lived in a community receiving funds. Therefore, youth did not have to show that
they met income and other eligibility criteria.
Allocations
Funds were awarded to communities for a one-year period, with renewals in each of the four
succeeding years. WIA required that grants were distributed equitably among local boards and
other entities serving urban and rural areas, taking into account the poverty rate in these areas.
Grant applicants were required to describe how the activities carried out at the YOG center(s)
would be linked to the activities under the WIA Youth Activities program and the type of
community support for the activities, among other requirements.
Performance Measures
As specified under Section 167(f) of WIA, DOL set performance measures for the Youth
Opportunity grants and negotiated with grantees on the levels expected to be achieved for each
measure. The performance measures included a completion rate, placement rate, retention rate,
participation rate, and enrollment rates for in-school and for out-of-school youth.
Congressional Research Service
33
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Appendix A. Workforce Investment Act Funding for
Youth Programs
Table A-1. WIA Youth Activities State Allotments
Includes allotments for outlying areas and Native Americans
PY2008
ARRA
PY2009
State
(P.L. 110-161)
(P.L. 111-5)
(P.L. 111-8)
Total $924,069,465
$1,188,000,000a $924,069,000
Alabama
10,066,414
11,647,403
9,059,768
Alaska
3,401,753
3,936,018
3,061,576
Arizona
15,410,351
17,830,637
13,869,309
Arkansas
10,427,807
12,065,555
9,385,022
California
131,478,160
186,622,034
145,161,310
Colorado
10,263,091
11,874,970
9,236,777
Connecticut
7,422,406
11,034,723
8,583,204
Delaware
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
District of Columbia
3,430,967
3,969,821
3,087,869
Florida
25,652,600
42,873,265
33,348,363
Georgia
20,223,508
31,361,665
24,394,229
Hawai
2,404,095
2,918,025
2,269,744
Idaho
2,290,478
2,918,025
2,269,744
Illinois 41,245,377
62,203,400
48,384,035
Indiana
20,463,638
23,677,573
18,417,265
Iowa
4,091,704
5,172,183
4,023,109
Kansas
6,155,030
7,121,714
5,539,524
Kentucky
14,567,756
17,709,821
13,775,333
Louisiana
17,295,855
20,012,271
15,566,262
Maine
3,280,785
4,293,710
3,339,802
Maryland
10,013,008
11,585,610
9,011,703
Massachusetts
21,466,585
24,838,038
19,319,917
Michigan
57,931,951
73,949,491
57,520,566
Minnesota
10,984,461
17,789,172
13,837,056
Mississippi
15,536,771
18,687,021
14,535,436
Missouri
19,654,610
25,400,077
19,757,091
Montana
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
Nebraska
2,544,921
2,944,616
2,290,428
Nevada
4,529,527
7,570,212
5,888,382
Congressional Research Service
34
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
PY2008
ARRA
PY2009
State
(P.L. 110-161)
(P.L. 111-5)
(P.L. 111-8)
New Hampshire
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
New Jersey
16,249,272
20,834,103
16,205,512
New Mexico
5,389,263
6,235,678
4,850,334
New York
54,654,801
71,526,360
55,635,768
North Carolina
19,061,803
25,070,698
19,500,888
North Dakota
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
Ohio
48,535,694
56,158,510
43,682,103
Oklahoma
7,526,029
8,708,036
6,773,423
Oregon
13,022,777
15,068,081
11,720,493
Pennsylvania
32,746,691
40,647,780
31,617,301
Puerto Rico
36,693,982
42,456,987
33,024,567
Rhode Island
3,357,319
5,611,097
4,364,513
South Carolina
21,357,908
24,712,293
19,222,108
South Dakota
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
Tennessee
19,653,705
25,099,116
19,522,993
Texas
70,870,137
82,000,708
63,783,091
Utah
4,379,351
5,067,154
3,941,414
Vermont
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
Virginia
9,462,211
12,982,612
10,098,341
Washington
20,263,008
23,445,432
18,236,698
West Virginia
4,618,029
5,343,318
4,156,224
Wisconsin
11,934,438
13,808,812
10,740,989
Wyoming
2,269,746
2,918,025
2,269,744
State Total
907,898,249
1,167,210,000
907,897,792
American Samoa
131,813
170,030
131,813
Guam
1,072,924
1,383,998
1,072,924
Northern Mariana
397,036
512,149
397,035
Islands
Palau
75,000
86,779
75,000
Virgin Islands
633,401
817,044
633,401
Outlying Areas Total
2,310,174
2,970,000
2,310,173
Native Americans
13,861,042
17,820,000
13,861,035
Source: Congressional Research Service presentation of U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, State Statutory Formula Funding, available at http://www.doleta.gov/budget/statfund.cfm.
Note: The program year for Youth Activities is July 1 through June 30, although funds may be made available on
April 1, pursuant to Section 189(g)(1)(B) of the Workforce Investment Act. Funds for the program are available
for two program years, including funds appropriated under ARRA. ARRA funds are available for two program
years—PY2009 and PY2010, which extends through June 30, 2011. For purposes of the summer youth
Congressional Research Service
35
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
component, youth may participate in summer activities from May 1 through September 30, though it would
appear that youth could participate only through the end of June in 2011.
a. ARRA appropriated $1.2 billion for the Youth Activities program. Section 801 of ARRA permits DOL to
use 1% ($12 million) of funds for administration, management, and oversight of the program.
Congressional Research Service
36
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Appendix B. Definitions of Terms Used in WIA
Youth Programs
• Advanced training refers to an occupational skills employment/training program,
not funded under Title I of WIA, that does not duplicate training received under
Title I. It includes only training outside of the one-stop, WIA, and partner system
(i.e., training following exit). This measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth
measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B,
February 17, 2006.)
• Advanced training/occupational skills training refers to an organized program of
study that provides specific vocational skills that lead to proficiency in
performing actual tasks and technical functions required by certain occupational
fields at entry, intermediate, or advanced levels. Such training should (1) be
outcome-oriented and focused on a long-term goal as specified in the Individual
Service Strategy, (2) be long-term in nature and commence upon program exit
rather than being short-term training that is part of services received while
enrolled in ETA-funded youth programs, and (3) result in attainment of a
certificate (defined below). This measure is used as part of WIA youth common
measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B,
February 17, 2006.)
• Basic skills goal refers to a measurable increase in basic education skills,
including reading comprehension, math computation, writing, speaking,
listening, problem solving, reasoning, and the capacity to use those skills. This
measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth measures. (Training and
Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
• Certificate refers to a document awarded in recognition of an individual’s
attainment of measureable technical or occupational skills necessary to gain
employment or advance within an occupation. These technical or occupational
skills are based on standards developed or endorsed by employers. Certificates
awarded by workforce investment boards are not included in this definition.
Work readiness certificates are also not included in this definition. A certificate is
awarded in recognition of an individual’s attainment or technical or occupational
skills by specified entities, such as a professional, industry, or employment
organization, Job Corps Centers, etc. This measure is used as part of WIA youth
Common Measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05,
Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
• Credential refers to a nationally recognized degree or certificate or state/locally
recognized credential. Credentials include, but are not limited to, a high school
diploma, GED, or other recognized equivalents, post-secondary
degrees/certificates, recognized skill standards, and licensure or industry-
recognized certificates. States should include all state education agency-
recognized credentials. In addition, states should work with local workforce
investment boards to recognize successful completion of the training services
listed above that are designed to equip individuals to enter or re-enter
employment, retain employment, or advance into better employment. This
Congressional Research Service
37
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
measure is used as part of WIA youth statutory measures. (Training and
Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
• Deficient in basic literacy skills may be defined at the state or local level. The
definition must include criteria to determine that an individual (1) computes or
solves problems, reads, writes, or speaks English at or below the 8th grade level
on a generally accepted standardized test or would receive a comparable score on
a criterion-referenced test, or (2) is unable to compute or solve problems, read,
write, or speak English at a level necessary to function on the job, in the
individual’s family, or in society. If the definition is established at the state level,
the policy must be included in the state plan. (20 C.F.R. 664.205).
• Ever in foster care refers to a person who is in foster care or has been in the
foster care system (as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
• Individual with a disability refers to an individual with any disability as defined
in section 3 of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The act defines
“disability” with respect to an individual as (1) a physical or mental impairment
that substantially limits one or more major life activities of such individual; (2)
having a record of such an impairment; or (3) being regarded as having such an
impairment. “Being regarded as having such an impairment” refers to whether
the individual establishes that he or she has been subjected to an action
prohibited under the Americans with Disabilities Act because of an actual or
perceived physical or mental impairment, whether or not the impairment limits or
is perceived to limit a major life activity.
• Low-income individual means an individual who:
(1) receives, or is a member of a family that receives, cash payments through a
federal, state, or local income-based public assistance program;
(2) received an income, or is a member of a family that received a total family
income (excluding unemployment compensation and certain other payments), for
the six-month period prior to applying for youth employment and training
activities, that, in relation to family size, did not exceed the higher of the poverty
line, for an equivalent period, or 70% of the lower living standard income level,
for an equivalent period;
(3) is a member of a household that receives food stamps81 (or has been
determined to be eligible for food stamps within the six-month period prior to
applying for youth employment and training activities);
(4) qualifies as a homeless individual, as defined by the McKinney-Vento
Homeless Assistance Act; or
(5) is a foster child on behalf of whom state or local government payments are
made.
In cases permitted by DOL in regulations, an individual with a disability, whose
own income meets the standards specified in the first two criteria but who is a
member of a family whose income does not meet such requirements, may qualify
(WIA Section (101)(25)).
81 The Food Stamp program was recently renamed the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP).
Congressional Research Service
38
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
• Occupational skills goal refers to a measurable increase in primary occupational
skills encompassing the proficiency to perform actual tasks and technical
functions required by certain occupational fields at entry, intermediate, or
advanced levels. Secondary occupational skills entail familiarity with and use of
set-up procedures, safety measures, work-related terminology, record keeping
and paperwork formats, tools, equipment and materials, and breakdown and
clean-up routines. This measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth measures.
(Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17,
2006.)
• Out-of-school youth means a youth eligible for services under Youth Activities
who is a school dropout; or an eligible youth who has received a secondary
school diploma or its equivalent but is basic skills deficient, unemployed, or
underemployed (WIA Section (101)(33) and 20 C.F.R. 664.300).
• Offender means any adult or juvenile who (1) is or has been subject to any stage
of the criminal justice process, for whom services under this act may be
beneficial; or (2) requires assistance in overcoming artificial barriers to
employment resulting from a record of arrest or conviction (WIA Section
(101)(27)).
• Pregnant or parenting youth is an individual who is under 22 years of age and
pregnant, or a youth (male or female) who is providing custodial care for one or
more dependents under age 18 (as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
• Requires additional assistance refers to an individual who needs help in
completing an educational program or securing and holding employment. The
term may be defined at the state or local level. If the definition is established at
the state level, the policy must be included in the state plan (20 C.F.R. 664.210).
• School dropout refers to an individual who is no longer attending any school and
has not received a high school diploma or its equivalent. A youth’s dropout status
is determined at the time he or she registers for youth activities. An individual
who is not in school at the time of registration and is subsequently placed in an
alternative school may be considered an out-of-school youth.
• Supportive services means services such as transportation, child care, dependent
care, housing, and needs-related payments that are necessary to enable an
individual to participate in services provided by the Youth Activities program and
other programs authorized under Title I of WIA. In addition, supportive services
for youth also includes linkages to community services, referrals to medical
services, and assistance with uniforms or other appropriate work attire and work-
related tools, including such items as eyeglasses and protective eye gear (Section
101(46) of WIA, and as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
• Work readiness skills goal refers to a measurable increase in work readiness
skills, including world-of-work awareness, labor market knowledge, occupational
information, values clarification and personal understanding, career planning and
decision making, and job search techniques (resumes, interviews, applications,
and follow-up letters). They also encompass survival/daily living skills such as
using the phone, telling time, shopping, renting an apartment, opening a bank
account, and using public transportation; and include positive work habits,
attitudes, and behaviors such as punctuality, regular attendance, presenting a neat
Congressional Research Service
39
.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
appearance, getting along and working well with others, exhibiting good conduct,
following instructions and completing tasks, accepting criticism from supervisors
and co-workers, showing initiative and reliability, and assuming the
responsibilities involved in maintaining a job. This category also entails
developing motivation and adaptability, obtaining effective coping and problem-
solving skills, and acquiring an improved self image. This measure is used as part
of WIA statutory youth measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter
17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
Author Contact Information
Adrienne L. Fernandes
Specialist in Social Policy
afernandes@crs.loc.gov, 7-9005
Congressional Research Service
40