Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

Changes from May 5, 2015 to September 16, 2015

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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job
Training Programs
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara
Specialist in Social Policy
May 5, 2015

Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R40929

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Summary
In an increasingly global economy, and with retirement underway for the Baby Boomer
generation, Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young people have
the educational attainment and employment experience needed to become highly skilled workers,
contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the economy and
among certain youth populations, however, have heightened concern among policymakers that
some young people may not be prepared to fill these roles. The employment levels for youth
under age 25 have declined markedly in recent years, including in the wake of the 2007-2009
recession. Certain young people—such as high school dropouts, current and former foster youth,
and other at-risk populations—face challenges in completing school and entering the workforce.
While the United States has experienced a dramatic increase in secondary school attendance in
the past several decades, approximately 7% of youth ages 18 to 24 have not attained a high school
diploma or its equivalent.
Since the 1930s, federal job training and employment programs and policies have sought to
connect vulnerable youth to work and school. Generally, these young people have been defined as
being at-risk because they are economically disadvantaged and have a barrier to employment.
During the Great Depression, the focus was on employing young men who were idle through
public works and other projects. The employment programs from this era included an educational
component to encourage youth to obtain their high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the
federal government began funding programs for low-income youth that address their multiple
needs through job training, educational services, and supportive services.
Today’s primary federal youth employment and job training programs are carried out by the
Department of Labor’s (DOL’s) Employment and Training Administration (ETA). These
programs were authorized under the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA, P.L. 105-220)
through FY2003, and Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent
years. Although these programs have varying eligibility requirements and are carried out under
different funding arrangements, they generally have a common purpose—to provide vulnerable
youth with educational and employment opportunities and access to leadership development and
community service activities.
The Youth Activities program offers job training and other services through what are known as
local workforce development boards. The program is funded at $831.8 million in FY2015
(Program Year (PY) 2015; the program year extends from July 1 of one year through June 30 of
the next year). Job Corps provides training in a number of trades at centers where youth reside,
and received FY2015 (PY2015) appropriations of $1.7 billion. Another program, YouthBuild,
engages youth in educational services and job training that focus on the construction trades.
YouthBuild received FY2015 (PY2015) appropriations of $79.7 million. Separately, WIA’s pilot
and demonstration authority has been used to carry out the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
program (RExO), which includes job training and other services for juvenile and adult offenders.
The youth component of the program was funded at $42.5 million in FY2014 (final FY2015
funding for the youth component was not available at the time this report was published).
On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed into law the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity
Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128). WIOA made significant amendments to the youth programs,
particularly to the Youth Activities program and Job Corps program. The YouthBuild program
remains essentially the same. WIOA does not explicitly authorize the Reintegration of ExOffenders program; however, Congress appropriated funding for the program in FY2015 (P.L.
113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169

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authorizes evaluations and research. The amendments to the youth programs generally go into
effect on July 1, 2015.

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Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Context............................................................................................................................................. 2
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job Training Programs ................................................ 4
Depression Era........................................................................................................................... 4
War on Poverty Programs .......................................................................................................... 5
Expanding Youth Programs ....................................................................................................... 5
Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) and Youth Employment
and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA) ...................................................................... 6
Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)................................................................................... 7
School to Work Opportunity Act (STWOA) ....................................................................... 7
Workforce Investment Act (WIA) ....................................................................................... 8
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) ......................................................... 8
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under Title I of the WIA and WIOA ............................. 9
Coordination ............................................................................................................................ 16
Funding .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Funding for FY2000-FY2015.................................................................................................. 17
FY2015 Funding ............................................................................................................... 17
FY2014 Funding ............................................................................................................... 18
Job Corps Transfer Authority .................................................................................................. 19
Youth Activities Program............................................................................................................... 20
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 20
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 21
Youth Councils .................................................................................................................. 22
Allocations............................................................................................................................... 23
Elements of Local Programs ............................................................................................. 24
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 27
Performance............................................................................................................................. 29
Job Corps ....................................................................................................................................... 32
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 32
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 32
Services ............................................................................................................................. 33
Allocations............................................................................................................................... 35
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 35
Performance............................................................................................................................. 36
Performance Oversight...................................................................................................... 37
Financial Oversight ................................................................................................................. 38
YouthBuild ..................................................................................................................................... 38
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 38
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 39
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 41
Allocations............................................................................................................................... 41
Performance............................................................................................................................. 41
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders....................................................................................................... 42
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 42

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Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 42
Education........................................................................................................................... 43
Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and Expansion Grants ....................................... 44
Reentry .............................................................................................................................. 44
Community Service/Restorative Justice............................................................................ 45
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 45
Allocations............................................................................................................................... 46
Performance............................................................................................................................. 46

Tables
Table 1. Features of Youth Programs Authorized Under WIA and (as of July 1, 2015)
WIOA ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Table 2. Appropriations for DOL Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
PY2000-PY2015 and Under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA,
P.L. 111-5)................................................................................................................................... 18
Table 3. Elements of Youth Programs as Specified Under WIA and WIOA ................................. 25
Table 4. Youth Program Eligibility Under WIA and WIOA .......................................................... 27
Table 5. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs ........................................... 30
Table 6. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild as Specified Under WIOA ............................ 40
Table A-1. WIA Youth Activities State Allotments, PY2009-PY2014, Plus Funding Under
the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5) ......................................... 47

Appendixes
Appendix. Workforce Investment Act Funding for WIA Youth Program...................................... 47

Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 50

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Introduction

    Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
    September 16, 2015
            (R40929)
          Jump to Main Text of Report
    
  
    Introduction
    In an increasingly competitive economy, and with retirement starting for the Baby Boomer
 generation, Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’'s young people have
 the educational attainment and employment experience necessary to become highly skilled
 workers, contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the
 economy and among vulnerable youth populations, however, have heightened concern among
 policymakers that many young people may not be prepared to fill these roles.
 
    The employment levels for youth under age 25 have generally declined since 2000, though
 attachment to the workforce has improved for this population in the wake of the recession that
 extended from December 2007 through June 2009. Certain young people in particular—including
 those from low-income families, high school dropouts, foster youth, and other at-risk
 populations—face barriers to completing school and entering the workforce. Since the 1960s,
 federal job training programs and policies have sought to connect these youth to education and
 employment pathways. Contemporary federal youth employment programs with this same
purpose were authorized under the  purpose include the Youth Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 (P.L. 105-220)
through FY2003. Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent
years. These programs provide a range of services and supports to youth. They include the Youth
Activities (“Youth”) grant program; Job Corps; YouthBuild; and the Reintegration of ExOffenders program, which includes a youth componentActivities (Youth) program; Job Corps; YouthBuild; and the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which includes a youth component. These programs provide a range of services and supports to youth. Some of the programs concentrate on
 specific job trades and/or serve targeted at-risk populations. Based on funding, Job Corps is the
largest program.  largest program. The programs were authorized through FY2003 under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 (P.L. 105-220). Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent years. On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed into law the Workforce Innovation
 and Opportunity Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128). WIOA supersedessuperseded WIA and makes significant
 amendments to the youth programs, including new services that are to be provided under the
Youth Activities  Youth program and new accountability provisions for the Job Corps program. Changes
 made by WIOA will generally gowent into effect on July 1, 2015.1
1
    This report provides an overview of federal employment programs for vulnerable young people.
 It begins with a discussion of the current challenges in preparing all youth today for the
 workforce. The report then provides a chronology of job training and employment programs for
 at-risk youth that began in the 1930s and were expanded or modified from the 1960s through the
 1990s. It goes on to discuss the four youth programs authorized under WIAWIOA, and draws
comparisons between these programs. Following this section is a detailed discussion of each of
the programs. Where applicable, the report discusses how the programs will change under WIOA.

1

U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), Employment and Training Administration (ETA), Training and Employment
Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 19-14, “Vision for the Workforce System and Initial Implementation of the Workforce
Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014,” February 19, 2015; and DOL, ETA, TEGL No. 23-14, “Workforce
Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) Youth Program Transition.” See also, U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking,” PUT 80 Federal Register 20689–21150, April 16, 2015; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment
and Training Administration and U.S. Department of Education, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Joint
Rule for Unified and Combined State Plans, Performance Accountability, and the One-Stop System Joint Provisions;
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking,” PUT 80 Federal Register 20573—20687, April 16, 2015.

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Context
 comparisons between these programs. Following this section is a detailed discussion of each of the programs. 
    Context 
    During economic downturns, youth are particularly vulnerable to job loss. From 2000 through
 2012, the employment-to-population (E/P) ratio2ratio2 among teens ages 16 to 19 steadily declined, from 36.8% to
 26.1%, and increased slightly to 26.6% in 2013 and 27.3% in 2014. Over the summer, when teens
 are most likely to have jobs, the E/P ratio decreased steadily in the past several years. In July
 2000, about four out of ten (44.1%) teens were employed, compared to 27.1% in July 2014.3 The
July 2014 E/P ratio was among the lowest during the post-World War II period; however, it
increased from 25.2% in July 2011.falling to a low of 25.2% in July 2011. The July 2015 E/P ratio was 28.1%.3 According to the research literature, possible consequences of
 reduced work among teens are reduced employment earnings, labor productivity in the future,
 and output in the economy.44 Similarly, the E/P ratio of young adults ages 20 through 24 have
 declined steadily. In 2014, the average E/P ratio for 20- through 24-year-olds was 62.9%, which
 represents about a 15% decrease from 2000.5
5 
    Even in periods of relative economic stability, some youth do not complete school and/or make
 the transition to the workforce. While the majority of young people graduate from (public) high
 school by age 18 or shortly thereafter,66 just over 7% of youth ages 16 through 24 have dropped
 out and have not earned a high school diploma or its equivalent.77 This figure is higher among
 black and Hispanic youth.88 Further, recent estimates of youth who are not working or in school
(i.e., “disconnected” (i.e., "disconnected") for at least a year are approximately 2.4at least 2.0 million.99 Certain youth face
 barriers to remaining in school or securing employment, including poverty, their parents’' level of
 education, and whether the youth are pregnant or parenting, among other factors. For example,
 youth ages 16 through 24 who are parenting are far more likely to be disconnected than their
 counterparts who are not.10 Youth in or aging out of foster care, runaway and homeless youth, and

2

The employment-to-population (E/P) ratio is the proportion of individuals in the population as a whole who are
employed.
3
DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. (Hereinafter, DOL,
BLS, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.)
4
Andrew Sum, Joseph McLaughlin, and Sheila Palma, The Collapse of the Nation’s Male Teen and Young Adult Labor
Market, 2000-2009: The Lost Generation of Young Male Workers, Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern
University, prepared for C.S. Mott Foundation, July 2009, http://www.nyec.org/content/documents/
ThecollapseoftheNation'sMaleTeenandYoungAdult.pdf. See also, CRS Report R42519, Youth and the Labor Force:
Background and Trends, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
5
DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
6
The average freshman graduation rate (AFGR) is an estimate of the percentage of an entering public school freshman
class graduating in four years. For the most recent school years, the AFGR has been between 74% and 81%. Of the
approximately 20% to 25% of youth who do not graduate in four years, some continue in school because they have a
learning disability or for other reasons; however, many of these youth drop out, with some returning to school at a later
time. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2014,
“Averaged Freshman Graduation Rate (AFGR) for Public High School Students: School Years 1990-91 through 20112012,” Indicator 28, Figure 1, May 2014, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014083.pdf
7
Ibid, “Status Dropout Rates of 16- Through 24-year-olds, by Race/Ethnicity: 1990 through 2012,” Indicator 29,
Figure 2.
8
Ibid.
9
CRS Report R40535, Disconnected Youth: A Look at 16- to 24-Year Olds Who Are Not Working or In School, by
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara and Thomas Gabe.
10
Ibid.

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10 Youth in or aging out of foster care, runaway and homeless youth, and youth offenders, among other groups of youth, are particularly vulnerable to not completing high
 school, going on to college, or securing employment.11
11 
    As they leave high school, either through graduation or by dropping out, young people can pursue
 various options. Youth with a high school diploma may attend a two- or four-year college, enlist
 in the armed services, or secure part-time or full-time employment (sometimes paired with
 attending school). Youth without a high school diploma can do some of these same things, but
 their opportunities are more limited. They cannot enroll in a four-year college or, in most cases,
 enlist in the military. These youth will likely have difficulty supporting themselves if they do
 work.
 
    In fact, individuals who drop out are less likely to secure employment and are likely to have less
 earning power. As the level of education rises, the unemployment rate decreases and median
 weekly earnings increase for those who work.1212 In 2014, among workers with less than a high
 school degree, the unemployment rate was 9.0% and earnings averaged $488 per week. This is
 compared to an unemployment rate of 6.0% and $668 in weekly earnings for workers with a high
 school degree. Workers with a bachelor’'s degree had an unemployment rate of 3.5% and median
 weekly earnings of $1,101. With the shift to a knowledge-based economy, many new jobs will
 require some college education or better. According to theDOL's Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the
 fastest growing occupations between 2012 and 2022 will require some postsecondary education.13
13 Further, in all career clusters, a bachelor’'s degree or better offers accessibility to the most highpaying jobs.14high-paying jobs.14 Still, BLS predicts that the occupations with the largest numeric increases will not
 require workers to have postsecondary education15
education.15 
    The costs of dropping out extend beyond the individual’'s foregone job opportunities and lower
 wages. According to the research literature, costs can be incurred by society overall. These costs
 include possible lost payroll tax revenue and increased transfers for welfare payments,
imprisonment, and programs to re-enroll dropouts in school.16

11

For further information about the challenges certain groups of youth face while making the transition to adulthood,
see CRS Report RL33975, Vulnerable Youth: Background and Policies, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
12
DOL, BLS, “Employment projections: Earnings and Unemployment Rates by Educational Attainment,” April 2015,
http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm.
13
Emily Richards and David Terkanian, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2022,” Monthly Labor Review, pp.
9-10, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2013/article/pdf/occupational-employment-projections-to-2022.pdf. (Hereinafter
Emily Richards and David Terkanian, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2022.”) See also, Anthony P.
Carnevale, Nicole Smith, and Jeff Strohl, Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements through
2018, Georgetown University, Center on Education and the Workforce, June 2010, http://cew.georgetown.edu/
JOBS2018/.
14
Anthony P. Carnevale et al., Career Cluster: Forecasting Demand for High School Through College Jobs 20082018, November 2011, http://cew.georgetown.edu/clusters/.
15
Emily Richards and David Terkanian, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2022.”
16
Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, The Consequences of Dropping Out of High School:
Joblessness and Jailing of High School Dropouts and the High Cost for Taxpayers, October 1, 2009,
http://iris.lib.neu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=clms_pub; Paul E. Barton, One Third of a Nation:
Rising Dropout Rates and Declining Opportunities, Educational Testing Services, February 2009, http://www.ets.org/
Media/Education_Topics/pdf/onethird.pdf. Clive R. Belfield, Henry M. Levin, and Rachel Rosen, The Economic Value
of Opportunity Youth, prepared for the Corporation for National and Community Service and the White House Council
for Economic Solutions, January 2012, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED528650.pdf.

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 imprisonment, and programs to re-enroll dropouts in school.16 
    Federal youth employment and job training programs have long targeted services to young people
 who leave school before graduating or are in school and may be vulnerable to dropping out. The
 purpose of these programs, as they currently exist, is to provide job training, employment,
 educational services, and social services that can help youth become economically self-sufficient
 and achieve their career and academic goals. These contemporary programs also emphasize
 leadership development and community service. Note that while youth employment and job
 training programs are also enhanced with state workforce and other dollars, the extent to which
 this support is provided is unclear.

 
    History of Federal Youth Employment and Job
 Training Programs17
Programs17
    For more than 70 years, the federal government has played a role in helping young people secure
 employment and achieve academic success. Generally, these young people have been defined as
 being vulnerable in some way—either because they are economically disadvantaged and/or have
 a barrier to securing employment or completing their education. During the Great Depression, the
 focus was on employing idle young men in public works and other projects. The employment
 programs from this era included an educational component to encourage youth to obtain their
 high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government started funding programs
 for low-income youth, such as Job Corps, that address their multiple needs, including job training,
 educational services, housing, and supportive services. During the 1970s and 1980s, Job Corps
 was expanded and the federal government funded additional programs for both in-school and outofout-of-school youth. Funding was also appropriated to test the efficacy of some of these programs.
 The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 extended earlier programs and created new ones, with the
 intention of providing more seamless job training and education services for youth year-round.
 Generally, these programs are targeted to teenagers and young adults, usually not beyond age 24,
 who are at risk of dropping out or have already done so.

Depression Era
 
    Depression Era
    Prior to the 1930s, the federal government’'s involvement in youth employment was primarily
 limited to regulating child labor.1818 The Great Depression served as a catalyst for the creation of
 federal programs to employ and educate young people who were out of work or at risk of
 dropping out of school due to financial difficulties. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
 began in 1933 as an employment program for unemployed males ages 18 to 25 (and veterans,
 Indians, and residents of territories of any age) to participate in projects planned by the
 Departments of the Interior and Agriculture. These projects focused on creating and improving
 infrastructure, transportation, and recreational services, among other categories. The young men
 lived in camps and were provided with an allowance, food, and medical care. The CCC also
 included an educational component, which taught nearly 35,000 participants to read and write and

17

Unless otherwise noted, this section draws heavily on an archived report by the Congressional Research Service,
Youth Employment: A Summary History of Major Federal Programs, 1933-1976. Available upon request.
18
John H. Bremner, Tamara K. Hareven, and Robert M. Mennel, eds., Children & Youth in America, Vol. II: 18661932, Parts 1-6 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 687-749.

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 assisted a smaller number with attaining their high school and college degrees. Until the program
 ended in 1945, it served nearly 3 million men, of whom approximately 10% were veterans.
 
    Other Depression era programs—the Student Aid program, Works Project program, and Guidance
 and Placement program—were administered by the National Youth Administration, which was
 created as part of the now-defunct Works Progress Administration by an executive order in 1935.
 The programs provided funds for part-time employment of needy high school, college, and
 graduate students to assist them in completing school, as well as funds for part-time employment
 for unemployed out-of-school youth. These young people, all of whom were ages 16 through 25,
 were employed in a number of broad areas, including construction, clerical work, and research.
 These programs served hundreds of thousands of youth before they were discontinued in the early
 1940s.

 
    War on Poverty Programs

    The 1960s marked a period of federal efforts to assist poor and disadvantaged children,
 adolescents, and their families through job training and other programs. In response to concerns
 about high unemployment, the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 (P.L. 87-415)
 and subsequent amendments to it authorized funding for employment training. Specifically,
 amendments to the act in 1963 (P.L. 88-214) encouraged the Department of Labor to provide
 assistance to youth so that they might be able to successfully enter the labor force, and expanded
 the share of job training funds that could be used to train youth under age 22 from 5% to 25%.
 Further, federal funding was first authorized through the 1963 amendments to provide
 employment opportunities to youth from low-income families.
 
    President Lyndon B. Johnson’'s subsequent War on Poverty established new youth-targeted
 programs in job training and educational assistance under an initiative known as the
 Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC). The NYC was made up of work training programs, the Work
 Study program, and Job Corps. The work training programs provided work experience, job
 training, and supportive services to low-income unemployed youth ages 16 through 21 who were
 in school or out of school, including dropouts. The Work Study program was modeled on the
 Depression-era Student Aid program and provided money to high school and college students
 from low-income families who needed earnings to stay in school. The program continues today
 for college students. Job Corps, which also continues today, was established under the Economic
 Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452) to provide educational and job training opportunities to
 disadvantaged youth at residential and non-residential centers. (See “"Job Corps,”," below, for
 further information.)

 
    Expanding Youth Programs
 
    The 1973 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA, P.L. 93-203) was the first of
 four laws enacted during the 1970s and 1980s that focused greater federal attention on youth
 employment and training. The second law, the Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project
 Act (YEDPA, P.L. 95-93) was enacted in 1977 and established a variety of employment, training,
 and demonstration programs for youth. The 1982 Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA, P.L. 9730097-300) repealed CETA. JTPA was subsequently repealed by WIA. Separately, the School-to-Work
 Opportunities Act of 1994 (STWOA, P.L. 103-239) supported the development of programs that
 encouraged students to pursue learning opportunities and experiences that incorporated

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 occupational skills. Activities authorized under these acts were administered by DOL. STWOA
 was additionally carried out by the Department of Education (ED).


    Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) and Youth Employment
 and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA)

    As amended through 1978, CETA authorized a range of employment and training programs for
 adults and youth. Job Corps and the Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged Youth
 (SPEDY) were the primary youth programs authorized under CETA. SPEDY provided funding to
 employers to hire low-income youth ages 14 through 21 during the summer months. Youth served
 as assistants in hospitals, libraries, community service organizations, and schools, among other
 settings.
 
    The Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA), signed into law in 1977,
 amended CETA.1919 YEDPA increased authorization of appropriations for Job Corps and SPEDY
 and authorized three additional programs targeted to “"economically disadvantaged”" (defined
 under the act) youth ages 14 through 21: Youth Employment and Training Programs (YETP),
 Youth Community Conservation and Improvement Projects (YCCIP), and Youth Incentive
 Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP).2020 YEDPA was passed in response to high levels of
 unemployment among youth relative to adults, even during periods of economic expansion, and
 growing gaps in youth unemployment among whites and blacks, males and females, and inschoolin-school and out-of-school youth. The programs were carried out during the Carter Administration,
 from 1977 through 1981. Over this period, YEDPA served 6.1 million youth.
 
    YETP and YCCIP were intended to meet the immediate employment needs of youth, and funding
 for the programs was allocated primarily on a formula basis. YETP activities include work
 experience, pre-employment skills, and an emphasis on the transition from school to work.
 YCCIP was intended to assist unemployed, out-of-school youth obtain a high school degree,
 conditional on satisfactory performance in work and school. Further, it was aimed at improving
 coordination between the job training and educational systems as a means of addressing the
 dropout problem.2121 Finally, YIEPP funded evaluations to test the efficacy of demonstration
 programs; the other two programs included funding for demonstration programs. During the
 YEDPA years, more than 60 major demonstrations were funded in about 300 sites, operated by
DOL in cooperation with six other federal agencies and private nonprofit intermediaries.
19

Much of this section on YEDPA was drawn from Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R.
Papageorgiou, eds., Youth Employment and Training Programs: The YEDPA Years, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1985, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=
true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED265245&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED265245.
(Hereinafter, Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs.)
20
A fourth, the Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC), was operated by the Department of Agriculture and
Department of the Interior, in cooperation with DOL, and targeted unemployed youth ages 16 to 23 who were not
necessarily disadvantaged. This program operated year-round and was separate from a similarly named program, the
Youth Conservation Corps (YCC). YCC was permanently authorized by the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970
(P.L. 91-378) and continues to operate.
21
Other parts of YEDPA required close coordination with the school system. According to an assessment of the act’s
implementation, the schools maintained their focus on in-school youth and provided essentially the same set of
educational services as usual. The lack of influence of YEDPA on schools may be largely attributed to the schools’
resistance to allocating services according to income and the schools’ perception that their mission was exclusively to
educate students. Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs, pp. 84-87.

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 DOL in cooperation with six other federal agencies and private nonprofit intermediaries.
    Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)22
22
    CETA was repealed in 1982 by the Job Training Partnership Act. JTPA was distinct from its
 predecessor because it emphasized that states and localities, rather than the federal government,
 had the primary responsibility for administering job training and employment programs. Funding
 was appropriated under JTPA through FY1999. JTPA programs focused on the training needs of
“ "economically disadvantaged”" (defined under the act) youth and adults facing significant barriers
 to employment. These programs were frequently referred to as “"second chance”" programs
 because most of them were intended to train individuals who had not sufficiently benefitted from
 traditional secondary and post-secondary education. They included the Summer Youth
 Employment and Training program, the Youth Training Program, and Job Corps (discussed in the
 next section).
 
    The Summer Youth Employment and Training program provided employment and training
 activities during the summer months for low-income youth ages 14 through 21 to strengthen basic
 educational skills, encourage school completion, provide work exposure, and enhance citizenship
 skills. In the summer of 1997, an estimated 500,000 youth participated. The Youth Training
 Program was established by the Job Training Reform Amendments of 1992 (P.L. 102-367), which
 amended JTPA to address concerns that school dropouts were not being reached by the thenexistingthen-existing combined program for disadvantaged adults and youth, and that the program primarily
 served youth who were the easiest to place in jobs and required the fewest services.2323 The
 program was year-round and provided direct services, such as on-the-job training, tutoring and
 study skills training, and school-to-work transition services. It also provided training-related and
 supportive services, including job search assistance, drug and alcohol abuse counseling, and cash
 incentives based on attendance and performance in a program. Economically disadvantaged inschoolin-school and out-of-school youth ages 16 through 21 were eligible, but 50% of participants in
 service delivery areas (SDAs), comprised of the state or one or more units of local government,
 had to be out of school. Further, at least 65% of youth had to be hard to serve, meaning they were
 school dropouts (if out of school), pregnant or parenting, or offenders, among other
 qualifications. In program year 1997, an estimated 107,000 youth participated. As discussed
 below, JTPA was repealed by WIA, the current law that authorizes youth job training and
 employment programs.


    School to Work Opportunity Act (STWOA)

    The School to Work Opportunity Act of 1994 authorized the School-to-Work (STW) program
 administered jointly by DOL and the Department of Education through the National School-toWorkto-Work Office. The program was funded from FY1994 through FY2000.2424 The law supported the
 development of programs with three main elements: work-based learning to provide participating
 students with work experience and on-the-job training; school-based learning, involving
 upgrading and integrating the occupational skills participating students learn in school and the
 workplace; and program coordination to aid the planning, implementation, and operation of the
22

Unless otherwise noted, this section was drawn heavily from an archived report by the Congressional Research
Service, The Job Training Partnership Act: A Compendium of Programs. Available upon request.
23
Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Job Training Partnership Act: Legislation and Budget
Issues. Available upon request.
24
Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The School-to-Work Opportunities Act. Available upon
request.

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 program. STWOA grants were competitively awarded to states, local partnerships, programs for
 Indian youth, and U.S. territories to implement school-to-work systems. In addition, STWOA
 authorized national activities, such as research and demonstrations. Some school-to-work
 programs that received seed money from the federal program continue to operate today.


    Workforce Investment Act (WIA)

    The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 replaced JTPA. WIA includes titles that authorize
 programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult education and literacy (Title II),
 employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation (Title IV). Title I of WIA authorizes
authorized job training programs for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.25 The programs for youth are
discussed in further detail below.25 Funding was authorized for the program through FY2003, and
 Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent years.


    Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA)
Congress has taken
    Congress took steps toward reauthorizing WIA since the 108th Congressfrom the 108th to the 113th Congresses. For example,
 during the 111th111th Congress, the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP) Committee
 held a series of listening sessions in April 2009 to address the positive aspects of WIA and to
 increase understanding of the issues that can be addressed as part of any reauthorization
 legislation. The Senate HELP Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety subsequently
 conducted a hearing in July 2009 to discuss how WIA could be updated to help workers and
 employers meet the demands of a changing economy.2626 In October 2009, the House Education
 and Workforce Committee held a hearing on declining youth employment.2727 During the 112th
112th Congress, the House Education and Workforce Subcommittee on Higher Education and
 Workforce Training held hearings on removing inefficiencies in job training programs and
 modernizing WIA on May 11, 2011, and October 4, 2011, respectively. The full committee held a
 hearing on a reauthorization bill, the Workforce Investment Improvement Act of 2012 (H.R. 4297H.R.
4297), on April 17, 2012. The committee marked up and favorably reported the bill on June 7,
 2012. Also during the 112th112th Congress, the Senate HELP Committee released discussion drafts in
 June 2011 of legislation to amend and reauthorize WIA, but they did not receive further action in
 that Congress.

    In the 113th113th Congress, the House Committee on Education and the Workforce ordered reported
 H.R. 803—the Supporting Knowledge and Investing in Lifelong Skills Act (SKILLS Act). This
 bill was introduced on February 25, 2013, by Representative Virginia Foxx of North Carolina, the
, the chair of the Subcommittee on Higher Education and Workforce Training. A hearing on H.R. 803
 was held before the full Committee on Education and the Workforce on February 26, 2013. The
 committee ordered the bill reported by a vote of 23 to 0 on March 6, 2013. The House passed the
 bill on March 15, 2013, by a vote of 215 to 202. In the Senate, Senators Patty Murray, Lamar
25

For further information about the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs, see CRS Report RL33687, The Workforce
Investment Act (WIA): Program-by-Program Overview and Funding of Title I Training Programs, by David H.
Bradley.
26
U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP), Subcommittee on
Employment and Workplace Safety, Modernizing the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 to Help Workers and
Employers Meet the Changing Demands of a Global Market, 111th Cong., 1st sess., July 16, 2009.
27
U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Ensuring Economic Opportunities for Young Americans,
111th Cong., 1st sess., October 1, 2009.

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 Alexander, Tom Harkin, and Johnny Isakson introduced the Workforce Investment Act of 2013
( (S. 1356) on July 24, 2013. The Senate HELP Committee held a markup of S. 1356 on July 31,
 2013, and ordered the bill reported by a vote of 18 to 3. On May 21, 2014, House and Senate
 leaders announced an agreement that represented a compromise between H.R. 803 and S. 1356.28
.28 On June 25, 2014, the legislation was subsequently taken up, and passed, by the Senate as H.R. 803.
    H.R.
803.
On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed into law the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity
 Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128). As of July 1, 2015, the law will supersedesuperseded WIA. Like WIA, WIOA
 includes titles that authorize programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult
 education and literacy (Title II), employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation
 (Title IV). The major job training programs for youth and other workers are authorized in Title I.
The changes made by the bill generally go into effect on July 1, 2015.29

29 
    Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under
 Title I of the WIA and WIOA
WIAWIOA 
    WIOA authorizes, and Congress has funded, three job training and employment services for youth:
•

Youth ActivitiesYouth Workforce Investment Activities Program (hereinafter, Youth Program), a formula grant program for state and local workforce
 investment boards that includes employment and other services that are provided
 year-round;

•

 
    Job Corps, a program that provides job training and related services primarily at
 residential centers maintained by contractor organizations; and

•

YouthBuild
    YouthBuild, a competitive grant program that emphasizes job training and
education in construction.

Under WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority, DOL established the Reintegration of ExOffenders (ReXO) program, a demonstration program for juvenile and adult offenders that
provides job training and other services. All of the programs are carried out by DOL’s
Employment and Training Administration (ETA). As mentioned above education in the construction trades.As mentioned, Job Corps was enacted as
 part of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452), and was later incorporated into
CETA and JTPA CETA, JTPA, and WIA. YouthBuild was originally authorized under the Cranston-Gonzalez National
 Affordable Housing Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-550). The program was administered by the
 Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) until it was transferred to DOL in 2007
 under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281) and incorporated into WIA. Under WIA's pilot and demonstration authority, DOL established the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders (ReXO) program, a program for juvenile and adult offenders that provides job training and other services. WIOA does not explicitly authorize the program; however, Congress appropriated funding in FY2015 (P.L. 113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169 authorizes evaluations and research. 
    The four programs are carried out by DOL's Employment and Training Administration (ETA). ) and incorporated into WIA.

28

House Committee on Education and the Workforce and Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (HELP)
Committee, “Bipartisan, Bicameral Group Announces Deal to Improve American Workforce Development System,”
May 21, 2014.
29
Most workforce programs operate on a program year basis, which extends from July 1 of one year through June 30 of
the following year. WIOA specifies that most of the bill’s provisions go into effect at the beginning of the first full
program year (PY) following the law’s enactment, which is July 1, 2015. The Department of Labor (DOL),
Employment and Training Administration (ETA) has a website that includes guidance and other information about the
new law. See DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act,” http://www.doleta.gov/wioa/.

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All of the programs offer employment, job training, and educational services. For example, local
 areas must provide specific elements, including mentoring and follow-up, to youth who receive
 services under the Youth Activities formula grant program. YouthBuild program participants
 engage in employment and other activities primarily related to housing and other types of
 construction work. Job Corps is the only one of the programs that provides residential services;
 youth can live onsite and receive health care services, child care, and other supports. Further, the
 programs generally serve vulnerable youth, but some have more targeted eligibility criteria.
 Participants in the Youth Activities formula grant program, YouthBuild, and Job Corps must be
 low-income and have specific employment barriers, though youth in the Youth programYouth Activities who are not
 in school do not have to be low-income under WIOA. The youth component of the Reintegration
 of Ex-Offenders serves youth who have become involved in the juvenile justice or criminal
 justice system or youth at risk of becoming involved.
Finally, the The programs are funded somewhat differently. DOL allocates funding for Youth
Activitiesthe Youth program to states based on a formula, while Job Corps enters into agreements with nonprofit and
 for-profit organizations and other federal agenciesinto interagency agreements with the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest Service. The other programs competitively award
 grants to nonprofit and other organizations and local communities. Table 1 summarizes the major
features of the programsprograms' major features and how they will changechanged under WIOA.3030 These changes generally go
into effect on July 1, 2015. (States will receive their first allotment under WIOA for the Youth
Activities program in April 2015.) WIOA does not explicitly authorize the Reintegration of ExOffenders program; however, Congress appropriated funding for the Reintegration of ExOffenders program in FY2015 (P.L. 113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and
the Second Chance Act. Section 169 authorizes evaluations and research.

30
Another youth program, Youth Opportunity Grants program, was authorized under WIA. The program was funded
from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated until 2005. As stated in WIA, the program was intended to provide
employment, educational, and youth development activities to increase the long-term employment of youth who live in
enterprise communities, empowerment zones, and high-poverty areas and who seek assistance. By definition, enterprise
communities and empowerment zones are in low-income areas. WIOA did not reauthorize this program.

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went into effect on July 1, 2015.
    
    
      
        Table 1. Features of Youth Programs As Authorized Under Both WIA and (as of July 1, 2015) WIOA
Key
Feature
Purpose

Youth Activities Program

Job Corps

YouthBuild

Per WIA, to provide eligible youth
with assistance in achieving academic
and employment success through
activities that improve educational
and skill competencies and foster
effective connections to employers;
ensure ongoing adult mentoring
opportunities for eligible youth;
provide opportunities for training,
continued supportive services, and
participation in activities related to
leadership, citizenship, and
community service; and offer
incentives for recognition and
achievement to eligible youth.

Per WIA, to maintain a national Job
Corps program—carried out in
partnership with states and
communities—to assist eligible
youth who need and can benefit
from an intensive program,
operated in a group setting in
residential and nonresidential
centers to become more
responsible, employable, and
productive citizens. The other
purpose areas focus on program
operations.

Per WIA, to enable disadvantaged
youth to obtain the education and
employment skills necessary to
achieve self-sufficiency; foster
leadership skills; provide work and
service opportunities; and expand
the supply of permanent affordable
housing for the homeless.

WIOA does not specify purpose
areas for the program, known as the
Youth Workforce Investment
Activities program. However, the
purpose areas under WIA are
generally consistent with the
provisions of the program under
WIOA.

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WIOA maintains the language
about the partnership with states
and communities but specifies that
the purpose is to assist eligible
youth to connect to the labor
force by providing them with
intensive social, academic, career
and technical education, and
service learning opportunities, in
primarily residential centers, to (1)
obtain secondary school diplomas
or recognized postsecondary
credentials leading to successful
careers, in in-demand industry
sectors or occupations or the
Armed Forces or (2) enroll in
postsecondary education, including
apprenticeship programs; and to
provide responsible citizenship.
The other purpose areas focus on
program operations.

WIOA adds another purpose
area—to improve the quality and
energy efficiency of community and
other nonprofit and public facilities,
including those facilities that are
used to serve homeless and lowincome youth.

Youth Offenders
(Reintegration of ExOffenders)
Per WIA’s pilot and demonstration
authority, to support related
initiatives that seek to assist youth
offenders and youth at risk of
dropping out; to reduce violence
within persistently dangerous
schools; and provide supports for
youth at risk of involvement with
the justice system.
Congress appropriated funding for
the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders

      
      
        
          
            KeyFeature
          
          
            Youth Program
Job Corps
YouthBuild
Youth Offenders (Reintegration of Ex- Offenders)
Purpose
Per WIA, to provide eligible youth with assistance in achieving academic and employment success through activities that improve educational and skill competencies and foster effective connections to employers; ensure ongoing adult mentoring opportunities for eligible youth; provide opportunities for training, continued supportive services, and participation in activities related to leadership, citizenship, and community service; and offer incentives for recognition and achievement to eligible youth. 
WIOA does not specify purpose areas for the program, known as the Youth Workforce Investment Activities program. However, the purpose areas under WIA are generally consistent with the provisions of the program under WIOA. 
Per WIA, to maintain a national Job Corps program—carried out in partnership with states and communities—to assist eligible youth who need and can benefit from an intensive program, operated in a group setting in residential and nonresidential centers to become more responsible, employable, and productive citizens. The other purpose areas focus on program operations.
WIOA maintains the language about the partnership with states and communities but specifies that the purpose is to assist eligible youth to connect to the labor force by providing them with intensive social, academic, career and technical education, and service learning opportunities, in primarily residential centers, to (1) obtain secondary school diplomas or recognized postsecondary credentials leading to successful careers, in in-demand industry sectors or occupations or the Armed Forces or (2) enroll in postsecondary education, including apprenticeship programs; and to provide responsible citizenship. The other purpose areas focus on program operations.
Per WIA, to enable disadvantaged youth to obtain the education and employment skills necessary to achieve self-sufficiency; foster leadership skills; provide work and service opportunities; and expand the supply of permanent affordable housing for the homeless.
WIOA added another purpose area—to improve the quality and energy efficiency of community and other nonprofit and public facilities, including those facilities that are used to serve homeless and low-income youth. 
Per WIA's pilot and demonstration authority, to support related initiatives that seek to assist youth offenders and youth at risk of dropping out; to reduce violence within persistently dangerous schools; and provide supports for youth at risk of involvement with the justice system. 

            Congress appropriated funding for the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program in FY2015 (P.L. 113-235)
) under the authority of Section 169
 of WIOA and the Second Chance
 Act. Section 169 authorizes
 evaluations and research.

 .

Key
Feature
Target
Population

Youth Activities Program

Job Corps

YouthBuild

Target Population
Under WIA, youth ages 14 through
 21 who are low-income and are one
 or more of the following: (1)
 deficient in basic literacy skills; (2) a
 school dropout; (3) homeless, a
 runaway, or a foster child; (4)
 pregnant or parenting; (5) an
 offender; or (6) require additional
 assistance to complete an educational
 program or to secure and hold
 employment. At least 30% of funds
are to be used for out-of-school
youth.

Under WIA, youth ages 16 through
24 who are low-income and meet
one or more of the following
criteria: (1) basic skills deficient; (2)
homeless, a runaway, or a foster
child; (3) a parent; or (4) an
individual who requires additional
education, vocational training, or
intensive counseling and related
assistance in order to participate in
regular schoolwork or to secure
and maintain employment.

Under WIA, youth ages 16 through
24 who are (1) members of lowincome families, in foster care,
offenders, disabled, the children of
incarcerated parents, or migrants;
and (2) are school dropouts.

Under WIOA, “in-school youth” ages
14 to 21 and “out-of-school youth”
 are to be used for out-of-school youth.
            Under WIOA, "in-school youth" ages 14 to 21 and "out-of-school youth" ages 16 to 24 are eligible. “"In-school
youth” youth" includes those who are
 attending school, low-income, and
 meet the criteria specified above
 (except that one such barrier
 includes individuals who are English
 language learners or aged out of
 foster care, and does not include
 being a school dropout). “Out-ofschool”"Out-of-school" youth includes those who
 meet certain criteria such as being a
 high school dropout or being lowincomelow-income. For purposes of eligibility,
“ "low-income”" also means youth who
 are living in a high-poverty area. No
 less than 75% of funds (for statewide
 funding and funding for local areas)
 must be used for out-of-school
youth.

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WIOA maintains the eligibility
criteria but makes changes to two
of the categories. It specifies
individual youth who aged out of
foster care under the category for
homeless, runaway, and foster
youth. It also changes the last
category to include individuals who
require additional education,
career and technical education or
training, or workforce preparation
skills to be able to obtain and
retain employment that leads to
economic self-sufficiency.

WIOA maintains the eligibility
criteria and adds that it includes
individuals who aged out of foster
care or who were school dropouts
and subsequently reenrolled.

Youth Offenders
(Reintegration of ExOffenders)
Per WIA’s pilot and demonstration
authority, youth offenders, young
adult offenders, and students in
high-risk schools.
It appears that the program will
continue to serve the same
population under WIOA.

 .

Key
Feature
Funding
Mechanism

Youth Activities Program

Job Corps

YouthBuild

Under WIA, funds are allocated by
formula to state Workforce
Investment Boards (WIBs), based on
a formula that accounts for a state’s
relative share of unemployment and
economically disadvantaged youth. In
turn, state boards reallocate, by
formula, funding to local WIBs using
certain factors. Local WIBs
competitively contract with local
entities, such as nonprofit
organizations and community
colleges, to provide services.

Under WIA and WIOA, DOL
enters into an agreement with a
federal, state, or local agency; an
area vocational education school or
residential vocational school; or a
private organization to operate Job
Corps centers.

Under WIA and WIOA, grants are
competitively awarded to
community-based organizations,
faith-based organizations, entities
carrying out activities under Title I
(such as a local workforce board),
community action agencies, state
or local housing development
agencies, an Indian tribe or other
agency primarily serving Indians,
state or local youth service or
conservation corps, and other
organizations that provide
education or employment training
under a federal program other than
YouthBuild.

Per WIA’s pilot and demonstration
authority, grants are competitively
awarded to a variety of entities,
including community-based
organizations, school districts, and
state departments of corrections.

Under WIA, grantees may carry
out a number of activities, including
education and employment
activities, supervision in
rehabilitating or constructing
housing and facilities; adult
mentoring; provision of wages or
other benefits; and follow-up
services.

Per WIA’s pilot and demonstration
authority, grantees provide a
variety of activities, depending on
the type of grant awarded. Such
activities can include pre-release,
mentoring, housing, case
management, employment services,
and violence prevention strategies.

WIOA changes the reference from
vocational school to career and
technical education school.

Under WIOA, the allocation of funds
is generally the same. WIOA changed
the language to refer to State
Workforce Development Boards and
Local Workforce Boards.
Types of
Activities for
Youth

Under WIA, each local WIB must
provide 10 elements that include
academic activities, summer
employment opportunities,
supportive services, follow-up
services, and other activities.
Under WIOA, each local board must
provide 14 elements that overlap or
expand on those elements under
current law, and add new elements
that pertain to financial literacy,
entrepreneurial skills training, and
preparation for the transition to
postsecondary education and
training.

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Youth Offenders
(Reintegration of ExOffenders)

Per WIA and WIOA, youth
generally live at the Job Corps
centers, which provide youth with
a program of education, career and
technical training, work experience,
recreational activities, physical
rehabilitation and development,
and counseling.

WIOA adds that grantees may
provide training and supports in
additional in-demand industries, if
approved by the DOL Secretary.

It appears that the program will
continue to award funds under
WIOA in the same way.

It appears that the program will
continue to support the same types
of activities under WIOA.

 .

Key
Feature

Youth Activities Program

Job Corps

YouthBuild

Youth Offenders
(Reintegration of ExOffenders)

Youth Served in
the Program

102,971 youth exited the program
(April 1, 2013-March 31, 2014)

53,862 (July 1, 2013-June 30, 2014)a

28,836 were enrolled (cumulative
from October 1, 2007-June 30,
2013)

6,758 (July 1, 2013-June 30, 2014)

Authorized
Funding

Under WIA, such sums as necessary
for FY1999-FY2003.

Under WIA, such sums as
necessary for FY1999-FY2003.

Under WIA, such sums as
necessary for FY2008-FY2012.b

Under WIOA, specified funding
levels that increase over FY2015FY2020 from $820 million to $964
million.

Under WIOA, specified funding
levels that increase over FY2015FY2020 from $1.69 billion to $1.98
billion.

Under WIOA, specified funding
levels that increase over FY2015FY2020 from $76 million to $91
million.

Under WIA pilot and
demonstration authority, such
sums as necessary
for FY1999-FY2003.

FY2014 Funding
(dollars in
thousands)

$820,430

$1,688,155

$77,534

Under WIOA, funding authority
for Section 169 (evaluations and
research) increases over FY2015FY2020 from $91 million to $106.9
million.
$44,134
(FY2013 funding)
$43,500
(FY2014 funding estimate)

Sources: Congressional Research Service (CRS), based on correspondence with DOL, ETA, March youth.
          
          
            Under WIA, youth ages 16 through 24 who are low-income and meet one or more of the following criteria: (1) basic skills deficient; (2) homeless, a runaway, or a foster child; (3) a parent; or (4) an individual who requires additional education, vocational training, or intensive counseling and related assistance in order to participate in regular schoolwork or to secure and maintain employment.
WIOA maintains the eligibility criteria but makes changes to two of the categories. It specifies individual youth who aged out of foster care under the category for homeless, runaway, and foster youth. It also changed the last category to include individuals who require additional education, career and technical education or training, or workforce preparation skills to be able to obtain and retain employment that leads to economic self-sufficiency. Another law (P.L. 114-22) added that a victim of a severe form of trafficking in persons is eligible for the program.
Under WIA, youth ages 16 through 24 who are (1) members of low-income families, in foster care, offenders, disabled, the children of incarcerated parents, or migrants; and (2) are school dropouts.
WIOA maintains the eligibility criteria and adds that it includes individuals who aged out of foster care or who were school dropouts and subsequently reenrolled.
Per WIA's pilot and demonstration authority, youth offenders, young adult offenders, and students in high-risk schools.
The program continues to serve the same population under WIOA. 
Funding Mechanism
Under WIA, funds were allocated by formula to state workforce investment boards (WIBs), based on a formula that accounted for a state's relative share of unemployment and economically disadvantaged youth. In turn, state boards reallocated, by formula, funding to local WIBs using certain factors. Local WIBs competitively contracted with local entities, such as nonprofit organizations and community colleges, to provide services. 
Under WIOA, the allocation of funds is generally the same. WIOA changed the language to refer to state workforce development boards and local workforce development boards.
As with WIA, DOL enters into an agreement under WIOA with a federal, state, or local agency; an area vocational education school or residential vocational school; or a private organization to operate Job Corps centers. 
WIOA changes the reference from vocational school to career and technical education school.
As with WIA, grants are competitively awarded under WIOA to community-based organizations, faith-based organizations, entities carrying out activities under Title I (such as a local workforce board), community action agencies, state or local housing development agencies, an Indian tribe or other agency primarily serving Indians, state or local youth service or conservation corps, and other organizations that provide education or employment training under a federal program other than YouthBuild. 
Per WIA's pilot and demonstration authority, grants were competitively awarded to a variety of entities, including community-based organizations, school districts, and state departments of corrections.
The program continues to award funds under WIOA in the same way.
Types of Activities for Youth
Under WIA, each local WIB had to provide 10 elements that include academic activities, summer employment opportunities, supportive services, follow-up services, and other activities. 
Under WIOA, each local board must provide 14 elements that overlap or expand on those elements under current law, and add new elements that pertain to financial literacy, entrepreneurial skills training, and preparation for the transition to postsecondary education and training.
Per WIA and WIOA, youth generally live at the Job Corps centers, which provide youth with a program of education, career and technical training, work experience, recreational activities, physical rehabilitation and development, and counseling. 
Under WIA, grantees could carry out a number of activities, including education and employment activities, supervision in rehabilitating or constructing housing and facilities; adult mentoring; provision of wages or other benefits; and follow-up services.
WIOA maintained this language and added that grantees may provide training and supports in additional in-demand industries, if approved by the DOL Secretary.
Per WIA's pilot and demonstration authority, grantees provided a variety of activities, depending on the type of grant awarded. Such activities included pre-release, mentoring, housing, case management, employment services, and violence prevention strategies.
The program continues to support the same types of activities under WIOA.
Youth Served in the Program (July 1, 2013-June 30, 2014)
197,045

          
          
            109,627a7,604
6,884
Authorized Funding
Under WIA, such sums as necessary for FY1999-FY2003.
Under WIOA, specified funding levels that increase over FY2015-FY2020 from $820 million to $964 million.
Under WIA, such sums as necessary for FY1999-FY2003.
Under WIOA, specified funding levels that increase over FY2015-FY2020 from $1.69 billion to $1.98 billion.

          
          
            Under WIA, such sums as necessary for FY2008-FY2012.bUnder WIOA, specified funding levels that increase over FY2015-FY2020 from $76 million to $91 million.

          
          
            Under WIA pilot and demonstration authority, such sums as necessary for FY1999-FY2003. Under WIOA, funding authority for Section 169 (evaluations and research) increases over FY2015-FY2020 from $91 million to $106.9 million. 
          
        
        
          
            FY2015 Funding (dollars in thousands)
$831,842
$1,688,155
$79,689
$44,053
Sources: Congressional Research Service (CRS), based on correspondence with DOL, ETA, March 2015 and September 2015; Workforce Investment Act (P.L. 105-220), as amended;
 Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128); DOL, ETA, “"Workforce Investment Act; Final Rules,”" 65 Federal Register, August 11, 2000; DOL, ETA,
Workforce System Results for the Quarter Ending March 30, 2013 and  Workforce System Results for the Quarter Ending June 30, 2013, 2014, http://www.doleta.gov/performance/
results/#etaqr, and Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235).
        Notes: Like WIA, WIOA requires, and DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, “Student Outcomes/Who Job Corps Serves,” http://www.jobcorps.gov/AboutJobCorps/performance_planning.aspx;
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data Book,” Table IV-1, March 6, 2015, http://www.doleta.gov/performance/results/pdf/
PY_2013_WIASRD_Data_Book.pdf; and U.S. Congress, House Committee on Rules, 113th Cong., 2nd sess., Committee Print 113-32 to the Senate Amendment to the
Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547), which was enacted as P.L. 113-76.
Notes: Both WIA and WIOA require that funds appropriated for a program or activity carried out under Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis
 of a program year (PY). The program year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends June 30 of the following year. Generally, the
 appropriations for a given fiscal year (e.g., FY2015) are used to fund the program in the same program year (e.g., PY2015).

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a.

 
        a.

    This number includes students who are enrolled in the program during this period, graduates who separated prior to AprilJuly 1, 2013, and were receiving placement
 services; and former enrollees who separated prior to AprilJuly 1, 2013, and were receiving placement services.

b.

 
        b.

    The YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281) was enacted in 2006. It codified the authorizing statute for the YouthBuild program under WIA and transferred the
 program from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to the Department of Labor. The program was reauthorized under WIA from FY2008 through
 FY2012. P.L. 109-281 retained the core parts of the program; however, it made several notable changes. For a detailed discussion of these changes, see U.S.

CRS-14

 .

 Department of Labor, “"YouthBuild Transfer Act: Synopsis and Section-by-Section Analysis”" and “"YouthBuild Transfer Act: Side-by-Side Comparison,”
" http://www.doleta.gov/reports/youthbuild_program.cfm.
      
    
    
    
    Coordination 
    The WIOAyouthbuild_program.cfm.

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Coordination
Under WIA, the WIA Youth program and other youth programs make up a job training and
 workforce system for youth. In some communities, this may be formalized while in others,
 coordination between the programs may be less structured. WIAWIOA includes provisions that
encourage or require the programs to coordinate with one another. For example, in submitting
their state workforce investment plans to DOL, states must specify how they will coordinate
Youth Activities programming with services provided by Job Corps centers in places where they
exist. In addition, local workforce investment boards must include youth councils, which are
made up of stakeholders with an interest in the employment and other needs of youth and must
include representatives from Job Corps, where applicable. Further, Youth Activities, Job Corps,
and YouthBuild are required partners at one-stop centers. One-stop centers include approximately
20 federal programs that coordinate employment and other services in a community for all youth
and adults.
WIOA strikes some of these provisions and adds new related provisions. The youth programs
authorized under the act will continue to be required partners at one-stop centers.31 Previously,
WIA did not specifically address whether state workforce boards include representatives of youth
organizations. These boards are responsible for carrying out WIA programs at the state level and
allocating funds to local workforce investment boards. Under WIOA, the state workforce board
may include representatives of organizations that have demonstrated experience and expertise in
addressing the employment, training, or education needs of eligible youth, including
representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school youth.32 Further, under the state
workforce plan (“unified state plan”), states will be required to submit a description of the state’s
 encourage or require the programs to coordinate with one another. The state workforce board may include representatives of organizations that have demonstrated experience and expertise in addressing the employment, training, or education needs of eligible youth, including representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school youth.31 These boards are responsible for carrying out WIOA programs at the state level and allocating funds to local workforce development boards.
    Further, under the state workforce plan ("unified state plan"), states are required to submit a description of the state's strategic vision and goals for preparing an educated and skilled workforce—including preparing
 youth and individuals with barriers to employment—and for meeting the skilled workforce needs
 of employers, among other requirements.3332 In addition, local workforce development boards, which receive
 funds to carry out the Youth Workforce Investment program (and the Adult and Dislocated
Investment Worker programs) willare now be required, as part of their local plans, to describe and assess the
 type and availability of youth workforce investment activities in the local area, including
 activities for youth who are individuals with disabilities. The plan must identify successful
 models of such youth workforce investment activities.3433 Unlike WIA, WIOA does not require local workforce
 boards to have youth councils; however, they may choose to establish a standing committee to
 provide information and assist with planning to provide services to youth.35

Funding
34 Further, the Youth program, Job Corps, and YouthBuild are required partners at one-stop centers. One-stop centers include federal programs that coordinate employment and other services in a community for all youth and adults.35 
    Funding
    Funding authorization for the youth programs under WIA expired in FY2003; however, funding
 was authorized through FY2012 for YouthBuild under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109281109-281), which amended WIA. Although funding authorization expired, Congress continued to
31

Section 121(b)(1)(B).
Section 101(b)(1)(II) of WIOA.
33
Section 102(b)(1)(D) of WIOA.
34
Section 108(b)(9) of WIOA.
35
Section 107(b)(4)(ii) of WIOA.
32

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 appropriate funds for most programs authorized under the law. WIOA generally provides funding
 authorization from FY2015 through FY2019.
Both WIA and WIOA require
    Like WIA, WIOA requires that funds appropriated for a program or activity carried out under
 Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis of a program year.3636 The program
 year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends June 30 of
 the following year. Funds for the Youth programYouth Activities may first become available for a new program year
 in the preceding April under both WIA and WIOA. In addition, Congress has tended to specify
 that funds appropriated for YouthBuild and the youth component of the Reintegration of ExOffendersEx-Offenders program are available for obligation beginning in the April preceding a given program
 year.37 Congress has generally required that obligated funds for Job Corps are made available for
 one program year, although funding for certain purposes can be obligated through later dates.

    Funds obligated for any program year for a program or activity carried out under Title I of WIA
or WIOA may be expended by each state receiving such funds during that program year and the
 two succeeding program years. Local areas may expend funds received from the state during the
 program year and the succeeding program year.38

Funding for FY2000-FY2015
Table 2 37 
    Funding for FY2000-FY2015
    Table 2 includes the level of funds appropriated to each of the youth job training and employment
 programs for FY2000 through FY2015. Appropriations for these years correspond to the same
 program year, and are reported as such in the table (i.e., PY2000 through PY2015). Congress
 appropriated a total of $2.42 billion to $2.81 billion annually for these programs in most years
 over this period.  Table A-1 in the AppendixAppendix presents Youth Activitiesprogram funding allocated to the
 states and outlying areas for PY2009 through PY2014PY2015 (the most recent data available), including
 under the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5), the law that provided
 additional funding to create and preserve jobs, among other purposes.

    Job Corps has generally received the largest appropriation each year,  followed by the Youth
Activities program, YouthBuild, and the youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
 (although in two years, YouthBuild received less funding than the ReXO youth component).

FY2015 Funding
 
    FY2015 Funding
    After passing a continuing resolution for FY2015 (PY2015), Congress enacted the Consolidated
 and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235) to fund DOL programs through FY2015.
 Funding for the youth programs totaled $2.6 billion. Funding increased from FY2014 by over $11 million for the Youth Activities program and over
$7 million for the YouthBuild program; Job Corps funding remained level. DOL has not yet
determined the amount of funding for youth ex-offenders from the FY2015 appropriation for the
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which is funded at $82.1 million in FY2015. Notably,
36
Section 189(g)(1)(A) of both WIA and WIOA. Section 173(h)(2), which pertains to authorization for YouthBuild,
states that notwithstanding Section 189(g), appropriations for any fiscal year for programs and activities carried out
under this section are to be available for obligation only on the basis of a fiscal year.
37
For information about the timing of funding under the three WIA formula grant programs—Adult, Dislocated
Workers, and Youth—see Congressional Distribution Memorandum, Issues Related to Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
Funding, by David H. Bradley. Available upon request.
38
Section 189(g)(2) of WIA and WIOA.

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Congress specified that of the amount appropriated to the program, $20 million is to be for
competitive grants to national and regional intermediaries for activities that prepare young exoffenders and school dropouts for employment, with a priority for projects serving high-crime,
high-poverty areas.

FY2014 Funding
program; over $7 million for the YouthBuild program; and nearly $2 million for the youth component of the Reintegration of the Ex-Offenders program; Job Corps funding remained level. 
    FY2014 Funding
    FY2014 (PY2014) appropriations were not enacted prior to the beginning of the fiscal year
 (October 1), resulting in a 16-day shutdown of the federal government. On October 16, 2013, the
 Senate and House agreed to a bill (H.R. 2775) to provide temporary government-wide FY2014
 funding through January 15, 2014 (or until full-year funding was appropriated). This bill was
 signed by the President on October 17, 2013 (P.L. 113-46). A second short-term continuing
 resolution (P.L. 113-73) extended appropriations through January 18, 2014. On January 17, 2014,
 the President signed into law the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (P.L. 113-76) to fund
 appropriations through September 30, 2014. In total, $2.6 billion was appropriated for youth job
 training and employment programs.

    
      
        Table 2. Appropriations for DOL Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
 PY2000-PY2015 and Under the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5)
)
        Dollars in thousands; the fiscal year generally corresponds to the program year for each program

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Youth
Offenders
(Reintegration
of ExOffenders)b

Total
Funding, All
Programs

Program
Year

Youth
Activities

2000

$1,000,965

$1,357,776

$43,000

$13,907

$2,415,648

2001

1,127,965

1,399,148

60,000

55,000

2,642,113

2002

1,127,965

1,458,732

65,000

55,000

2,706,697

2003

994,459

1,509,094

59,610

54,643

2,617,806

2004

995,059

1,541,151

65,000

49,705

2,650,915

2005

986,288

1,551,861

62,000

69,440

2,669,589

2006

940,500

1,564,180

62,000

49,104

2,615,784

2007

940,500

1,566,178

49,500

49,104

2,605,282

2008

924,069

1,610,506

58,952

55,000

2,648,527

2009

924,069

1,683,938

70,000

88,500

2,766,507

ARRA

1,200,000

250,000

50,000

0

1,500,000

2010

924,069

1,708,205

102,500

73,493

2,808,267

2011c

825,914

1,706,171d

79,840

50,000

2,661,925

2012e

824,353

1,702,947

79,689

60,000

2,666,989

2013f

781,375

1,613,872

75,534

43,910

2,514,691

2014

820,430

1,688,155

77,534

42,500

2,628,619

2015

831,842

1,688,155

79,689

Congressional Research Service

Job Corps

YouthBuilda

Not available

Not available

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.

Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from DOL budget justifications; Department of
Housing and Urban Development (HUD) budget justifications; DOL Employment and Training Administration
Program Year
Youth Program
Job Corps

          
          
            YouthBuilda
          
          
            Youth Offenders (Reintegration of Ex-Offenders)bTotal Funding, All Programs
2000
$1,000,965
$1,357,776
$43,000
$13,907
$2,415,648
2001
1,127,965
1,399,148
60,000
55,000
2,642,113
2002
1,127,965
1,458,732
65,000
55,000
2,706,697
2003
994,459
1,509,094
59,610
54,643
2,617,806
2004
995,059
1,541,151
65,000
49,705
2,650,915
2005
986,288
1,551,861
62,000
69,440
2,669,589
2006
940,500
1,564,180
62,000
49,104
2,615,784
2007
940,500
1,566,178
49,500
49,104
2,605,282
2008
924,069
1,610,506
58,952
55,000
2,648,527
2009
924,069
1,683,938
70,000
88,500
2,766,507
ARRA
1,200,000
250,000
50,000
0
1,500,000
2010
924,069
1,708,205
102,500
73,493
2,808,267

          
        
        
          
            2011c825,914

          
          
            1,706,171d79,840
50,000
2,661,925

          
        
        
          
            2012e824,353
1,702,947
79,689
60,000
2,666,989

          
        
        
          
            2013f781,375
1,613,872
75,534
43,910
2,514,691
2014
820,430
1,688,155
77,534
42,500
2,628,619
2015
831,842
1,688,155
79,689
          44,054
2,643,740
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from DOL budget justifications; Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) budget justifications; DOL Employment and Training Administration budget information at http://www.doleta.gov/budgetbudget; correspondence with DOL; DOL, All Purpose Table FY2011
 Full-Year Continuing Resolution, , http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2012/PDF/2011OperatingPlanTable.pdf; ; U.S.
 Congress, Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 2055, Military Construction and Veterans Affairs and Related
 Agencies Appropriations Act, 2012 Division F, 112th112th Cong., 1st1st sess., December 15, 2011, H.Rept. 112-331; DOL,
 FY2013 Operating Plan, , http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2014/PDF/2013OperatingPlanTable.pdf; U.S. Congress,
 House Committee on Rules, 113th113th Cong., 2nd2nd sess., Committee Print 113-32 to the Senate Amendment to the
 Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547), which was enacted as P.L. 113-76; and the Consolidated and
 Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235).
        a.

    ).
a.

YouthBuild was transferred from HUD to DOL in 2007 pursuant to the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281). 
        b.

    P.L. 109281).

b.

Prior to FY2008, the Reintegration of Youthful Offenders program was a stand-alone program. It is now
 part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which includes funding for juvenile and adult activities.
 Funding for the program iswas authorized under Section 171 (Demonstration and pilot projects) of WIA and
 Section 112 (Responsible reintegration of offenders) of the recently enacted Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-199). WIOA does not explicitly authorize the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program; however, Congress appropriated funding for the program in FY2015 (P.L. 113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169 authorizes evaluations and research. 
        c.

    P.L. 110199). Section 112 authorizes DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of providing
mentoring, job training and job placement services, and other comprehensive transitional services to assist
eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining employment.

c.

The Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (P.L. 112-10) includes a
 0.2% across-the-board rescission.

d.

 
        d.

    Job Corps includes three accounts—administration, operations, and construction. The FY2011
 appropriations law was based on funding for FY2010, and included an across-the-board rescission of 0.2%
 for all programs and an additional rescission of $75.0 million. The 0.2% across-the-board rescission applied
 only to current year, and not advance, appropriations. Advance appropriations are those funds enacted in
 one fiscal year but not available for obligation until a subsequent fiscal year or years. Two of Job Corps’
' three accounts, operations and construction, include advance funds. Therefore, the across-the-board
 reduction only applied to current year funding (or $983.0 million for operations and $5.0 million for
 construction). According to the Department of Labor, $75.0 million was subtracted from existing balances,
 and therefore the FY2011 funding was not affected by this decrease. Congressional Research Service
 correspondence with the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, May 2010.

e.

 
        e.

    FY2012 funding information was included in the conference report (H.Rept. 112-331) for the Consolidated
 Appropriations Act, FY2012 (P.L. 112-74). This law was the final in a series of continuing resolutions to
 provide funding for the Department of Labor and select other departments. The figures presented in this
 table incorporate an across-the-board rescission of 0.189%.

f.

 
        f.

    Funding for FY2013 was provided through a series of continuing resolutions. The final continuing resolution
 was the Consolidated and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013 (P.L. 113-6). The FY2013 funding levels
 provided were based on the operating plan provided by DOL to Congress. This funding included a 0.2%
 rescission, per P.L. 113-6, and a sequestered amount of 5.0%, per the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 11225112-25), as amended by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-240). 
      
    
    Job Corps Transfer Authority38
    ).

Job Corps Transfer Authority39
Congress appropriates funding for Job Corps under three accounts—administration; operations;
 and construction, rehabilitation, and acquisition (CRA).4039 The final FY2013 appropriations law (P.L. 113-6) authorized DOL to transfer up to $30 million of unobligated funds—from previous appropriations laws or P.L. 113-6, as of March 26, 2013 (the date of the law's enactment)—to the operations account from other Employment and Administration (ETA) accounts.40 Notably, these  final FY2013 appropriations law
39

For further information, see CRS Report R43611, Recent Developments in the Job Corps Program: Frequently
Asked Questions, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
40
Appropriations law generally specifies that funds appropriated for the administration account are available for the
fiscal year in which they are appropriated; funds appropriated for the operations account are available for the
accompanying program year (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 support the program in PY2013); and funds
appropriated for the CRA account are available for the accompanying program year and the two succeeding program
years (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 are available through June 30, 2017).

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(P.L. 113-6) authorized DOL to transfer up to $30 million of unobligated funds—from previous
appropriations laws or P.L. 113-6, as of March 26, 2013 (the date of the law’s enactment)—to the
operations account from other Employment and Administration (ETA) accounts.41 Notably, these
funds could be used to fund operations in program year (PY) 2012 (which ended June 30, 2013)
 and possibly PY2013 (which ended June 30, 2014). Ultimately, $10 million was transferred from
 the ETA Training and Employment Services (TES) account to the Job Corps operations account.

    The FY2013 transfer authority was in response to a shortfall in the operations account for
 PY2012, which had been preceded by a shortfall for PY2011. In May 2013, the DOL Office of
 Inspector General (OIG) released a performance audit report that discussed the cause of the
 PY2011 shortfall and addressed whether DOL management had implemented internal controls
 over Job Corps funds and expenditures during the first five months of PY2012. The report found
 that the PY2011 shortfall was due to (1) untimely communication about projected costs that
 exceeded appropriations for the program; (2) initial planning for costs that did not account for
 increased expenditures for three new centers; (3) inaccurately accounting for costs in cost
 projection models; and (4) lack of consistent monitoring of costs throughout the program year.
 The OIG audit also documented concerns with internal controls to manage Job Corps funding
 during the first five months of PY2012. Such concerns included deficiencies in the areas of
 budget execution, data that supported spending projections, and monitoring of projected to actual
 costs; and lack of policies concerning communication of financial and program risks and certain
 Job Corps activities pertaining to monitoring contracts.42
41 
    The next section of the report provides further discussion about the youth programs authorized
 under Title I of WIAWIOA, and, where applicable, WIOA.

Youth Activities Program43
WIA.
    WIOA Youth Program42
    Overview and Purpose

    The Youth Activities program is one of three formula grant programs that was initially authorized
 by WIA, and is now authorized under WIOA as the Youth Workforce Investment Activities
program (hereinafter Youth program when in reference to WIA or WIOA) program. The other two
 WIA/WIOA programs target adults (Adult Activities) and dislocated workers (Dislocated Worker
Activities), although youth ages 18 or older are eligible for services provided through the Adult
 Activities program. These programs provide core funding for a coordinated system of
 employment and training services overseen by a state workforce investment board (WIB)board and the
governor, and composed of representatives of businesses and other partners. The Youth program
is arguably the centerpiece of the federal youth job training and employment system.

41

The FY2014 appropriations law (P.L. 113-76) and FY2015 appropriations law (P.L. 113-235) authorize DOL to
transfer up to 15% of CRA funds to the operations account or administration account.
42
DOL, Office of Inspector General, Office of Audit, The U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training
Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds, Report No. 22-13-015-03-370, May 31, 2013,
http://www.oig.dol.gov/public/reports/oa/2013/22-13-015-03-370.pdf. (Hereinafter, U.S. DOL, Office of Inspector
General, The U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over
Job Corps Funds.)
43
Title I, Chapter 4 of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 664.

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 governor, and composed of representatives of businesses and other partners. 
    WIA specified several purpose areas for the Youth program: to provide assistance in achieving
 academic and employment success through activities that improve educational and skill
 competencies and foster effective connections to employers; to ensure ongoing adult mentoring
 opportunities for eligible youth; to provide opportunities for training, continued supportive
 services, and participation in activities related to leadership, citizenship, and community service;
 and to offer incentives for recognition and achievement to youth.4443 WIOA does not include
 purpose areas for the Youth program; however, it retains many of the same elements specified
 under WIA, such as providing assistance to youth in achieving academic and employment
success.

Program Structure
 success.
    Program Structure
    With assistance from the state WIBworkforce board, the governor develops a plan that is submitted to DOL. The
 plan is to address several items related to employment and training needs, performance
 accountability, and employment and training activities. Under WIA, the plan (“"state plan”") was
 submitted every five years and pertained generally to the statewide workforce investment system.
 It had to address items specific to youth, including a description of the factors used to distribute
 Youth funds to local areas; the state’'s strategy for providing comprehensive services to eligible
 youth, particularly those who have significant barriers to employment; the criteria used by local
 workforce boards in awarding and assessing providers for youth services; and a description of how the state
 would coordinate the Youth program with services provided by Job Corps, where applicable.
 Under WIOA, the plan (“"unified state plan”") is to be submitted every four years for the three
 programs (Youth, Adult, and Dislocated).4544 The unified state plan is to address youth primarily in
 two places. It must outline the state’'s strategic vision and goals for preparing an educated and
 skilled workforce, include preparing youth with barriers to employment. It must also outline the
 criteria to be used by local boards in awarding contracts for youth services and describing how
 local boards will take into consideration the ability of providers to meet performance measures
 that are based on primary indicators of performance for the Youth program (these indicators are
 discussed in a subsequent section).
 
    As specified under WIOA, a local workforce area is overseen by the local workforce board (under
 WIA, this was called the local workforce investment board). Membership of the local board
 includes representatives of businesses, local education entities, labor organizations, communitybasedcommunity-based organizations, and economic development agencies, among others.4645 Local boards
 competitively award funds to local organizations and other entities to provide employment and
 job training services to youth. The local board develops a local plan that discusses items similar
 to those in the state plan, except that the plan describes the local area’'s one-stop delivery system.
 The local board is made up of partners that collaborate to provide coordinated employment and
 training services in the community.4746 Further, one-stop systems may have specialized centers to
 address special needs. WIOA specifies that this may include the needs of youth. The youth
Youth program is a required partner in the one-stop system under WIOA. The proposed WIOA
 regulations issued in April 2015 specify that local boards must either collocate youth program
 staff at one-stop centers and/or ensure one-stop centers and staff are equipped to advise youth in
44

Section 129(a) of WIA.
Section 102 and Section 103 of WIOA (and Section 112(b)(12) of WIA).
46
Section 107(b) of WIOA (Section 117(b) of WIA).
47
Section 121 of WIOA (Section 134(b) of WIA).
45

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 order to increase youth access to services and connect youth to the program that best aligns with
 their needs.48

Youth Councils
47
    Youth Councils
    WIA required each local workforce board to establish a local youth council.4948 Together, the
 workforce investment board and the youth council would overseewere responsible for overseeing a local program funded by the
 Youth program. The purpose of the youth council was to provide expertise in youth policy and to
 assist the local board in developing portions of the local plan relating to eligible youth. As
 specified in the law, the councils were required to coordinate youth activities in a local area,
 develop portions of the local plan related to eligible youth, recommend eligible providers of
 youth activities to be competitively awarded grants or contracts, oversee the activities of the
 providers, and carry out other duties specified by the local board.50
49 
    WIOA does not direct local workforce boards to have youth councils; however, local boards may
 include representatives of organizations that have demonstrated experience and expertise in
 addressing the employment, training, or education needs of eligible youth, including
 representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school youth.5150 In addition, the local board may
 establish a standing committee to provide information and to assist with planning, operational,
 and other issues relating to providing services to youth, including community-based organizations
 with a demonstrated record of success in serving eligible youth.5251 As with WIA, the local board
 must ensure that parents and other stakeholders are involved in designing and implementing the
 Youth program.5352 The April 2015 proposed rule for WIOA discusses the potential role of a
 standing youth council, including to recommend —policy direction to the local board for the design
 and development of programs to benefit all youth; recommend the design of a comprehensive
 community workforce development system to ensure a full range of services and responsibilities
 for all youth, including disconnected youth; and recommend ways to leverage resources and
 coordinate services among schools, public programs, and community-based organizations serving
youth, among other possible responsibilities.54

48

DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.700).
49
Section 117(h) of WIA.
50
Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIA. WIA specified that the youth council include members of the local board with special
interest or expertise in youth policy; representatives of youth service, juvenile justice, and local law enforcement
agencies; representatives of local public housing authorities; and parents of eligible youth seeking assistance through
the Adult Activities or Dislocated Worker programs, among others. Further, the local board had to ensure that parents,
participants, and other members of the community with experience relating to programs for youth were involved in the
design and implementation of the Youth program.
51
Section 107(2)(iv) of WIOA.
52
Section 107(b)(4)(A)(ii) of WIOA.
53
Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIOA.
54
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.100).

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Allocations
 youth, among other possible responsibilities.53 
    Allocations
    Funding for the Youth program is allocated from DOL to states, including Washington, DC, and
 the outlying areas.5554 As with WIA, WIOA requires that not more than 0.25% is reserved for
 outlying areas and not more than 1.5% is reserved for youth activities in the Native American
 programs.56 55 WIOA specifies that the allotments for the outlying areas are based on a competitive grant process.56
    The remainder of the funds are allocated to states by a formula based one-third on the
 relative number of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial unemployment (an
 average unemployment rate of at least 6.5% for the most recent 12 months), one-third on the
 relative “excess”"excess" number of unemployed individuals (an unemployment rate of at least 4.5%),
 and one-third on the relative number of disadvantaged youth (individuals 16 through 21 who
 receive an income that, in relation to family size, does not exceed the higher of the poverty line or
 70% of the lower living standard income level).5757 Like WIA, WIOA specifies that states are to
 receive, at minimum, the higher of 90% of their relative share of the prior year’'s funding or, at
 maximum, 130% of their relative share of the prior year’s funding.58 Further, WIOA specifies that
funds for the territories are allocated on a competitive basis;59 however, in practice DOL has
allocated WIA funds to the eligible territories by formula.60
's funding.58 
    Under WIA and WIOA, of the funds allocated to states for the Youth program (as well as for the
 Adult and Dislocated Worker programs), not more than 15% can be reserved for statewide
 activities (only 5% of reserved funds may be used for administrative activities, per WIOA).61
59 States must use these funds for certain specified activities, and may use the funds for other
 specified activities. The two laws have an overlapping, but not identical, set of specified
 activities. For example, WIOA now requires states to use the statewide funds to carry out
 monitoring and oversight activities of the Youth program (and Adult and Dislocated Worker
 programs), which may include a review comparing the services provided to male and female
 youth.6260 WIOA also allows new discretionary activities, such as supporting financial literacy.

    The balance of funding that goes to states is allocated to local areas on the same basis that Youth
 funds are allocated to states, to take into account the relative numbers of unemployed individuals
and low-income youth in the area compared to other local areas of the state. In addition, the law
55

The outlying areas comprise the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau.
WIOA specifies that the Republic of Palau may not apply for funding during any period during which DOL and the
Department of Education (ED) determine that a Compact of Free Association (COFA) is in effect and contains
provisions for training and education assistance that prohibit the assistance provided under WIOA. COFA defines the
relationship that Palau has entered into as an associated state agreement with the United States.
56
Section 127(1) of WIOA (Section 127(1) of WIA).
57
The word “relative” means the number of individuals in a state compared to the total number in all states.
58
As with WIA, WIOA provides small state minimums such that no state receives less than—the total of three-tenths
of 1% of $1 billion that is allocated to states, or two-thirds of 1% of the excess if the allocation exceeds $1 billion.
Under WIA, in years where appropriations exceed $1 billion, the minimum allotments were the higher of (1) 90% of a
state’s relative share of the previous year’s funding, (2) the amount the state received in 1998, or (3) 0.3% of the first
$1 billion plus 0.4% of the amount over $1 billion.
59
Section 127(1)(B)(ii) of WIOA (and Section 127(1)(B)(ii) of WIA).
60
See, for example, DOL, ETA, “Employment and Training Administration Program Year (PY) 2014 Workforce
Investment Act (WIA) Allotments; PY 2014 Wagner-Peyser Act Final Allotments and PY 2014 Workforce Information
Grants,” 79 Federal Register 20235-20243, April 11, 2014.
61
Section 128(a) of WIOA (Section 128(a) of WIA).
62
Section129(b) of WIOA (Section129(b) of WIA).

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 and low-income youth in the area compared to other local areas of the state. In addition, the law includes provisions for minimum (90% of the average allocation for the preceding two years) and
 maximum (130% of the average allocation for the preceding two years) funding that goes to local
 areas.6361 Local areas may reserve no more than 10% of funds allotted under the program for
 administrative costs. WIA and WIOA specify different processes for local boards to competitively
 award funds. Under WIA, the local boards competitively awarded grants or contracts to youth
 providers based on the recommendations of the youth council and criteria specified in the state
 plan. Under WIOA, local boards are to award grants or contracts on a competitive basis to youth
 providers based on criteria in the state plan, and by taking into consideration the ability of the
 providers to meet performance accountability measures that are based on primary indicators of
 performance for the Youth program. Further, a local board may award funding on a sole-source
 basis if the board determines there is an insufficient number of eligible providers of youth
 workforce investment activities in the local area to participate on a competitive basis. Local
 boards may terminate “"for cause”" the eligibility of these providers.6462 The proposed regulation on
 WIOA issued by DOL in April 2015, specifies that if a local board establishes a standing
 youth committee, it may assign it the responsibility of selecting youth providers.65

63
    Elements of Local Programs
Local 
    Youth programs, carried out locally by local workforce boards, are responsible for providing direct
 services to youth participants. The programs must be designed to include an objective assessment
 of the youth’'s skills, and they must develop service strategies for these youth that are linked to
 employment goals.66 Under WIOA specifically, these64 These service strategies must be directly linked to
 one or more of the indicators of performance for the program and they must identify career
 pathways that both include both education and employment goals. Each local Youth program must also
 provide specific services, or elements. Table 3 shows the 10 elements that were required under
 WIA and the 14 elements required under WIOA. Some of these elements are the same. WIOA
 amended some of these elements and added some new ones. The table is organized based on
 whether the elements are targeted for educational achievement, linkages between educational
 achievement and employment services, employment services, leadership development activities,
 additional support for youth services, and other activities.67
Under both laws, local65 
    Local boards must provide to each youth information on the full array of
 applicable or appropriate services available through the local board, other eligible providers, or
 one-stop partners, and they must also refer youth to appropriate training and educational
 programs, among other activities.68 Under WIOA specifically66 In addition, at least 20% of the funds allocated
 to the local area must be used to provide youth (whether in-school or out-of-school) with paid and
 unpaid work experiences that have academic and occupational education as a component.

63

Section 128(b) of WIOA (Section 128(b) of WIA).
Section 107(d)(10(B) and Section 123 of WIOA. “For cause” is not defined under WIOA. (Section 117(d)(2)(B) and
Section 123 of WIA.)
65
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.400).
66
Section 129(c) of WIOA (Section 129(c) of WIA).
67
These elements are classified under these categories (for purposes of WIA) in the Workforce Investment Act
Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data Book.
68
Section 129(c)(3) of WIOA (Section 129(c)(3) of WIA).
64

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    In guidance on WIA, DOL said that although local boards musthad to make all program elements
 available to youth, each individual youth doesdid not need to participate in all elements. Further,
 local programs that receivereceived Youth funding were not required to provide all program elements if
 certain services arewere already accessible for all eligible youth in the area; however, these other
 services had to be closely coordinated with the local programs.6967 WIOA states much of the same,
 noting that each of the elements need not be offered by each provider of youth services. In the
 April 2015 proposed rule for WIOA, DOL notes that the local program must have an agreement
 in place if it partners with another organization to ensure that a program element will be offered
 by that organization. In practice, this means that youth program case managers must contact and
 monitor the other provider to ensure the activity is of high quality and beneficial to the youth
 participant.70
68
    
      
        Table 3. Elements of Youth Programs as Specified Under WIA and WIOA
WIA

WIOA
Educational achievement

•

WIA
WIOA
Educational achievement
Tutoring, study skills training, and instruction leading
 to completion of secondary school, including
 dropout prevention strategies.

•


          Tutoring, study skills training, instruction, and
 evidence-based dropout prevention strategies that
 lead to completion of the requirements for a
 secondary school diploma or its recognized
 equivalent (including a recognized certificate of
 attendance) or for a recognized postsecondary
 credential.

•


        
        
          Alternative secondary school services, as
 appropriate.

•


          Alternative secondary school services or dropout
 recovery services, as appropriate.

•


        
        
          Not applicable.

•


          Activities that help youth prepare for and transition
 to postsecondary education and training.

Employment services
•

Employment services
As appropriate, paid and unpaid work experiences,
 including internships and job shadowing.

•

Summer employment opportunities that are directly
linked to academic and occupational learning.

•

Occupational skill training, as appropriate.

•


          Paid and unpaid work experiences that have as a
 component academic and occupational education,
 which may include (1) summer employment
 opportunities and other employment opportunities
 throughout the school year; (2) pre-apprenticeship
 programs;00 (3) internships and job shadowing; and
 (4) on the job skills training.

•


        
        
          Summer employment opportunities that are directly linked to academic and occupational learning.

           
        
        
          Occupational skill training, as appropriate.

          Occupational skills training, which may include
 priority consideration for training programs that
 lead to recognized postsecondary credentials that
 are aligned with in-demand industry sectors or
 occupations in the local area involved, if the local
 board determines that the programs meet the
quality criteria for eligible youth providers.

69
DOL, ETA, TEGL No. 9-00 (“Workforce Investment Act of 1998, Section 129—Competitive and Non-competitive
Procedures for Providing Youth Activities Under Title I”), January 31, 2001, and U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-00, April 23,
2001. Local boards are advised to establish ongoing relationships with non-WIA funded activities that provide services
for WIA-eligible youth.
70
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.470).

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•

•

Not applicable.

 quality criteria for eligible youth providers.
        
        
          Not applicable.

          Services that provide labor market and employment
 information about in-demand industry sectors or
 occupations available in the local area, such as
 career awareness, career counseling, and career
 exploration services.


        
        
          
            Linkages between educational achievement and employment services
•

•


          
        
        
          Not applicable.


          Education offered concurrently within and in the
 same context as workforce preparation activities
 and training for a specific occupation or
 occupational cluster.

Leadership development activities
•

 
        
        
          Leadership development activities

        
        
          Leadership development opportunities, which may
 include, but are not limited to, community service
 and peer-centered activities encouraging
 responsibility and other positive social behaviors
 during non-school hours, as appropriate; community
 and service learning projects; organizational and
 teamwork training, including team leadership
 training; and citizenship training, including life skills
 training such as parenting, work behavior training,
 and budgeting of resources, among other activities.

•


          Leadership development opportunities, which may
 include community service and peer-centered
 activities concerning responsibility and other
 positive social and civic behaviors, as appropriate.

Additional support for youth services
•

Supportive services.

•

Same.

•

Additional support for youth services
Supportive services.
Same. 
Adult mentoring for the period of participation and
 a subsequent period, for a total of not less than 12
months.

•

Same.

•

 months.
          Same.

        
        
          Comprehensive guidance and counseling, which may
 include drug and alcohol abuse counseling and
 referral, as appropriate.

•

Same.

Other
•

Same.
Other
Follow-up services for not less than 12 months after
 the completion of participation, as appropriate;
 follow-up services for youth include regular contact
 with a youth participant’'s employer, including
 assistance in addressing work-related problems that
 arise; assistance in securing better jobs, career
 development, and further education; work-related
 peer groups; adult mentoring; and tracking the
 progress of youth in employment after training.

•


          Follow-up services for not less than 12 months after
 the completion of participation, as appropriate.

•

 
        
        
          Not applicable.

•


          Financial literacy education.

•


        
        
          Not applicable.

•


          Entrepreneurial skills training.

 
        
      
      
        Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS), based on Section 129(c)(2) of the Workforce Investment Act
 (WIA; P.L. 105-220) and the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128) and Department
 of Labor, WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B.
 
        Notes: The proposed rule issued by the Department of Labor on April 16, 2015, defines the following terms:
“ "pre apprenticeship program,” “" "adult mentoring,” “" "financial literacy education,” “" "comprehensive guidance and
 counseling,” “" "leadership development opportunities,” “" "positive civic and social behaviors,” and “occupational
" and "occupational skills training.”" DOL, ETA, “"Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking;
 Proposed Rules,”" 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.480 through 20 C.F.R.
681.540).

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Participants
 681.540).
      
    
    Participants
    WIA and WIOA have different eligibility requirements for youth participants. Some of these
 distinctions are described in Table 4. Notably, WIA enabled local areas to serve youth up to the
 age of 21, compared to age 24 for out-of-school youth under WIOA. In addition, WIOA requires
 local areas (and states) to use no less than 75% of funds for serving out-of-school youth. This is
 compared to no less than 30% of funds for this population under WIA. Also under WIOA, not
 more than 5% of the in-school youth in a local area may be eligible because they are an offender.
 Both laws address whether a state (and local area for WIOA) may adjust the share of out-ofschoolof-school youth served (down to 50% under WIOA; percentage not specified under WIA) if the state
 determines it will be unable to use a certain share of funding to serve these youth.69 WIA required
 all youth to be low-income, except that up to 5% of participants in a local area did not have to
 meet the income criteria if they meet certain other criteria such as being a high school dropout.
 WIOA requires in-school youth generally and two groups of out-of-school youth to be lowincomelow-income, and enables up to 5% of these youth to not meet the income criteria.7170 Under WIA, youth
 ages 18 through 21 could enroll in the Youth Activities formula grant program or Adult program,
 or may co-enroll in both programs.7271 The same is true under WIOA for youth ages 18 through
24.73
Table 4. 24.72 
    
      
        Table 4. Youth Program Eligibility Under WIA and WIOA
WIA

WIOA
Age

WIA
WIOA
Age
A youth is eligible for the Youth Activities
 program if he or she is age 14 through 21.


          
          
            A youth is eligible for the Youth Workforce program if he or she is
 age 14 through 24. Eligibility by age varies depending on whether the
 youth is in school or out-of-school.
Other Criteria

Other criteria
The youth must be low-income and one or
 more of the following:
•

 deficient in basic literacy skills;

•

 
            a school dropout;

•

 
            homeless, a runaway, or a foster child;

•

 
            pregnant or parenting;

•

 
            an offender; or

•


            an individual who requires additional
 assistance to complete an educational
 program or to secure and hold
 employment.

Of these youth, an “"out-of-school youth” is

“In school youth” is a youth
attending school (as defined by
state law) who is age 14
through 21 (or older age if the
individual has a disability and is
attending school per state law);
low-income; and one or more
of the following:
•

basic skills deficienta;

•

a homeless individual, a
homeless child or youth, a
runaway, in foster care or
has aged out of the foster
care system, a current or
former foster child eligible

“Out-of-school youth” is a youth
not attending any school (as
defined by state law), age 16
through 24, and one or more of
the following:
•

a school dropout;

•

within the age of compulsory
school attendance, but has
not attended school for at
least the most recent
completed school year
calendar quarter;

•

a homeless individual, a
homeless child or youth, a
runaway, in foster care or has

71

Section 129(a)(4) of WIOA (Section 129(c)(4) of WIA). See Appendix for the definition of “low-income” under
both laws.
72
Less than 1% of youth tend to enroll in both programs as implemented under WIA. See Social Policy Research
Associates, WIASRD Data Book, Table II-14.
73
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.430).

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WIA

WIOA

an eligible youth who is a school dropout or
an eligible youth who has received a
secondary school diploma but is basic skills
deficient, unemployed, or underemployed.

for independent living
services or in an out-ofhome placement;

aged out of the foster care
system, a current or former
foster child eligible for
independent living services or
in an out-of-home placement;

•

pregnant or parenting;

•

an offender;

•

pregnant or parenting;

•

an English language
learner;

•

•

an individual with a
disability; or

an individual who is subject to
the juvenile or adult justice
system;

•

an individual with a disability;

•

who requires additional
assistance to enter or
complete an educational
program or to secure or
hold employment.

•

a low-income recipient of a
secondary school diploma or
its recognized equivalent, and
who is basic skills deficient or
an English language learner; or

•

a low-income individual who
requires additional assistance
to enter or complete an
educational program or to
secure or hold employment.

Exceptions based on income
Up to 5% of participants in a local area can
participate if they are not low-income but
meet one of the following criteria:

As noted above, most of the eligibility categories do not specify a
certain level of income.
Up to 5% of in-school youth can participate if they are not lowincome. In addition, up to 5% of out-of-school youth participants can
participate if they are not low-income and qualify under one of these
two categories: (1) recipients of a secondary school diploma or its
recognized equivalent and who are basic skills deficient, or English
language learners, or (2) individuals who require additional assistance
to enter or complete an educational program or to secure or hold
employment.

•

deficient in basic literacy skills;

•

a school dropout;

•

homeless or a runaway;

•

an offender;

•

one or more grade levels below the
grade level appropriate to the
individual’s age;

•

pregnant or parenting;

•

possesses one or more disabilities,
including learning disabilities; or

•

faces serious barriers to employment as
identified by the local board.
Restrictions on share of funds

No less than 30% of the Youth program
funds for local areas must be used to provide
youth activities to out-of-school youth.

No less than 75% of the Youth program funds for statewide activities
and local activities must be used to provide youth workforce
investment activities for out-of-school youth.

Source: Section 101(13), Section 101(33), and Section 129(c)(4) of WIA and Section 129(a) of WIOA.
Notes: For purposes of eligibility, “low-income” means youth living in a high-poverty area or the youth receives
or is eligible to receive a free or reduced price lunch under the Richard R. Russell National School Lunch Act
(Section 3(36) of WIOA). Eligibility for an individual with a disability is based on his or her own income rather
than his or her family’s income, so long as the personal income meets the definition of low-income (Section
3(36)(A)(vi) of WIOA). The proposed rule issued by the Department of Labor in April 2015 specifies that a highpoverty area is a Census tract, set of contiguous Census tracts, Indian reservation, tribal land, or Native Alaskan

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Village or county that has a poverty rate of at least 30% as set every five years in the American Community
Survey 5-Year data. DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking;
Proposed Rules,” 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.260).
a.

“Basic skills deficient” means the individual (1) has English reading, writing, or computing skills at or below
the 8th grade level on a generally accepted standardized test or (2) is unable to compute or solve problems,
or read, write, or speak English at a level necessary to function on the job, in the individual’s family, or in
society (Section 3(5) of WIOA).

Performance
WIA established state and local performance measures as part of the accountability system for the
Youth program.74 (This accountability system is in effect until FY2016.) The measures, or “core
indicators,” for youth ages 14-18 were different than the indicators for youth ages 19-21, as
shown in Table 5. The measures for younger youth focused on skill attainment and educational
attainment. The older youth outcomes focused on employment. For each of the core indicators,
the states negotiate with DOL to establish a level of performance. That is, the “measures” are
identified in WIA, but the “levels” are determined by negotiation between states and DOL. The
adjustments made for each state take into account specified factors, such as how the levels
compare with the levels of performance established for other states given the differences in
economic conditions, characteristics of program participants, and the services to be provided.
Measures are reported as part of the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data
(WIASRD), which also collects demographic and other information about youth, adults, and
dislocated workers who exit the program. Similarly, local workforce areas negotiate with the
governor on the local levels of performance based on the state adjusted levels of performance.
Separately, ETA implemented a “Common Measures” policy for several workforce programs and
revised the reporting requirements for WIA Title I programs.75 Specifically, ETA introduced three
" is an eligible youth who is a school dropout or an eligible youth who has received a secondary school diploma but is basic skills deficient, unemployed, or underemployed.
          
          
            "In school youth" is a youth attending school (as defined by state law) who is age 14 through 21 (or older age if the individual has a disability and is attending school per state law); low-income; and one or more of the following:
basic skills deficienta; 
            a homeless individual, a homeless child or youth, a runaway, in foster care or has aged out of the foster care system, a current or former foster child eligible for independent living services or in an out-of-home placement;
            pregnant or parenting;
an offender;
an English language learner;
an individual with a disability; or
who requires additional assistance to enter or complete an educational program or to secure or hold employment. 
"Out-of-school youth" is a youth not attending any school (as defined by state law), age 16 through 24, and one or more of the following:
a school dropout;
within the age of compulsory school attendance, but has not attended school for at least the most recent completed school year calendar quarter;
a homeless individual, a homeless child or youth, a runaway, in foster care or has aged out of the foster care system, a current or former foster child eligible for independent living services or in an out-of-home placement; 
pregnant or parenting; 
an individual who is subject to the juvenile or adult justice system;
an individual with a disability; 
a low-income recipient of a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent, and who is basic skills deficient or an English language learner; or
a low-income individual who requires additional assistance to enter or complete an educational program or to secure or hold employment. 
Exceptions based on income
Up to 5% of participants in a local area can participate if they are not low-income but meet one of the following criteria:
deficient in basic literacy skills; 
a school dropout;
homeless or a runaway; 
an offender; 
one or more grade levels below the grade level appropriate to the individual's age; 
pregnant or parenting; 
possesses one or more disabilities, including learning disabilities; or
faces serious barriers to employment as identified by the local board.
As noted above, most of the eligibility categories do not specify a certain level of income.
Up to 5% of in-school youth can participate if they are not low-income. In addition, up to 5% of out-of-school youth participants can participate if they are not low-income and qualify under one of these two categories: (1) recipients of a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent and who are basic skills deficient, or English language learners, or (2) individuals who require additional assistance to enter or complete an educational program or to secure or hold employment. 
Restrictions on share of funds
No less than 30% of the Youth program funds for local areas must be used to provide youth activities to out-of-school youth. 
No less than 75% of the Youth program funds for statewide activities and local activities must be used to provide youth workforce investment activities for out-of-school youth.
Source: Section 101(13), Section 101(33), and Section 129(c)(4) of WIA and Section 129(a) of WIOA.
Notes: For purposes of eligibility, "low-income" means youth living in a high-poverty area or the youth receives or is eligible to receive a free or reduced price lunch under the Richard R. Russell National School Lunch Act (Section 3(36) of WIOA). Eligibility for an individual with a disability is based on his or her own income rather than his or her family's income, so long as the personal income meets the definition of low-income (Section 3(36)(A)(vi) of WIOA). The proposed rule issued by the Department of Labor in April 2015 specifies that a high-poverty area is a Census tract, set of contiguous Census tracts, Indian reservation, tribal land, or Native Alaskan Village or county that has a poverty rate of at least 30% as set every five years in the American Community Survey 5-Year data. DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.260). 
        a.

    "Basic skills deficient" means the individual (1) has English reading, writing, or computing skills at or below the 8th grade level on a generally accepted standardized test or (2) is unable to compute or solve problems, or read, write, or speak English at a level necessary to function on the job, in the individual's family, or in society (Section 3(5) of WIOA).
      
    
    Performance 
    WIA established state and local performance measures as part of the accountability system for the Youth program.73 This accountability system is in effect until PY2016. The measures, or "core indicators," for youth ages 14-18 were different than the indicators for youth ages 19-21, as shown in Table 5. The measures for younger youth focused on skill attainment and educational attainment. The older youth outcomes focused on employment. For each of the core indicators, the states negotiate with DOL to establish a level of performance. That is, the "measures" are identified in WIA, but the "levels" are determined by negotiation between states and DOL. The adjustments made for each state take into account specified factors, such as how the levels compare with the levels of performance established for other states given the differences in economic conditions, characteristics of program participants, and the services to be provided. Measures are reported as part of the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD), which also collects demographic and other information about youth, adults, and dislocated workers who exit the program. Similarly, local workforce areas negotiate with the governor on the local levels of performance based on the state adjusted levels of performance. Separately, ETA implemented a "Common Measures" policy for several workforce programs and revised the reporting requirements for WIA Title I programs.74 Specifically, ETA introduced three youth measures, as listed in Table 5. It is important to note, however, that ETA specifically
 indicated that the Common Measures were not to supersede the existing statutory performance
 reporting requirements for WIA. Despite this, DOL has granted waivers to multiple states to
 permit implementation of and reporting on only the Common Measures rather than on the current,
 fuller array of measures in WIA for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.7675 These states only
negotiate performance levels for the Common Measures.

74

Section 136 of WIA.
DOL, ETA, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-04 (“Announcing the Soon-to-be Proposed
Revisions to Existing Performance Reporting Requirements... ”), February 28, 2005.
76
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “WIA Waiver Authority: Increased Flexibility
75

and Improved Programmatic Outcomes, Summary of WIA Waivers,” http://www.doleta.gov/waivers/.

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Table 5. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs
WIA Statutory Measures
Youth
(ages 14 through 18)

Youth
(ages 19 through 21)

Common Measures

•

Attainment of Basic Skills, and As
Appropriate, Work Readiness or
 negotiate performance levels for the Common Measures. 
    
      
        Table 5. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs
      
      
        
           
          
          
            WIA Statutory Measures 
Common Measures

          
        
        
          
            Youth (ages 14 through 18)
          
          Attainment of Basic Skills, and As Appropriate, Work Readiness or Occupational Skills: (Number of basic
 skills goals attained + Number of
 work readiness skills goals attained +
 Number of occupational skills goals
 attained)/ (Number of basic skills
 goals set + Number of work
 readiness skills goals set + Number
of occupational skills goals set).

•

Placement in Employment and
Education: Number of youth in
employment (including the
military) or enrolled in postsecondary education and/or
advanced training or
occupational skills training in the
first quarter after the exit
quarter / Number of youth
exiters during the exit quarter.

•

Attainment of Diploma or Equivalent
Attainment: Number of younger youth
attaining secondary school diploma
or equivalent by end of 1st quarter
after exit / Number of younger youth
exiters during exit quarter.

•

•

Placement and Retention: Number of
youth in postsecondary education,
advanced training, employment, or
apprenticeships / Number of younger
youth exiters during exit quarter.

Attainment of a Degree or
 of occupational skills goals set).
            Attainment of Diploma or Equivalent Attainment: Number of younger youth attaining secondary school diploma or equivalent by end of 1st quarter after exit / Number of younger youth exiters during exit quarter.
Placement and Retention: Number of youth in postsecondary education, advanced training, employment, or apprenticeships / Number of younger youth exiters during exit quarter. 
Placement in Employment and Education: Number of youth in employment (including the military) or enrolled in post-secondary education and/or advanced training or occupational skills training in the first quarter after the exit quarter / Number of youth exiters during the exit quarter.

            Attainment of a Degree or Certificate: Number of youth
 participants who attain a
 diploma, GED, or certificate by
 the end of the third quarter
 after the exit quarter / Number
 of youth exiters during the exit
 quarter.

•


            Literacy or Numeracy Gains:
 Number of youth participants
 who increase one or more
 educational functional levels /
 Number of youth participants
 who have completed a year in
 the program (i.e., one year from
 the date of first youth program
 service) + the number of youth
 participants who exit before
 completing a year in the
 program.

•


        
        
          
            Youth (ages 19 through 21)
          
          Entered Unsubsidized Employment:
 Number of older youth employed in
1st 1st quarter after exit quarter /
 Number of older youth exiters
 during the exit quarter.

•


            Employment Retention at Six Months:
 Number of older youth employed in
3rd 3rd quarter after exit / Number of
 older youth exiters during the exit
 quarter.

•


            Earnings Change in Six Months:
 Earnings in 2nd and 3rd2nd and 3rd quarter after
 exit minus earnings in 2nd and 3rd
2nd and 3rd quarter prior to participation /
 Number of older youth exiters
 during the exit quarter.

•


            Credential/Certificate Number of older
 youth employed, in postsecondary
 education, or in advanced training
 after 1st1st quarter of exit and received
 credential by end of 3rd3rd quarter /
 Number of older youth exiters
 during the exit quarter.


           
          
        
      
      
        Source: Congressional Research Service, based on the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-220), ETA
 Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 7-99 (“, "Core and Customer Satisfaction Performance
 Measures for the Workforce Investment System “),," March 3, 2000, and ETA TEGL No. 17-05 (“WIA Title IB
 Performance Measures and Related Clarifications,”" Attachment D), February 17, 2006.

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, February 17, 2006.
      
    
    WIOA creates six primary indicators of performance for the Youth program that will supersede
 the existing performance measures that are outlined in WIA. These six primary indicators will
 apply to all youth, regardless of age, and will go into effect in FY2016:77
•

PY2016:76percentage of program participants who are in education or training activities, or
 in unsubsidized employment, during the second quarter after exit from the
 program;

•


    percentage of program participants who are in education or training activities, or
 in unsubsidized employment, during the fourth quarter after exit from the
 program;

•

 
    median earnings of program participants who are in unsubsidized employment
 during the second quarter after exit from the program;

•


    percentage of program participants who obtain a recognized postsecondary
 credential, or a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent,7877 during
 participation in or within one year after exit from the program;

•


    percentage of program participants who, during a program year, are in an
 education or training program that leads to a recognized postsecondary credential
 or employment and who are achieving measurable skill gains toward such a
 credential or employment; and

•


    indicators of effectiveness in serving employers.79

78As with WIA, states will be required to reach an agreement with DOL, in conjunction with the
 Department of Education (ED), about the levels of performance for each state. These levels of
 performance are to be based on specified factors, including how the levels compare with other
states’ states' adjusted levels of performance. Further, states are to ensure the levels are adjusted using an
 objective statistical model established by DOL.80
79 
    The following sections of the report discuss, in less detail, additional programs for youth that are
authorized under WIA.

77

Section 116(A) of WIOA.
Program participants who obtain a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent are to be included in the
percentage counted if, in addition to obtaining such diploma or its recognized equivalent, they have obtained or
retained employment or are in an education or training program leading to a recognized postsecondary credential within
one year after exit from the program.
79
The law specifies that DOL and the Department of Education are to jointly develop and establish one or more
indicators of performance that indicate the effectiveness of the Youth program (and Adult and Dislocated Worker
programs) in serving employers.
80
Section 116(b(3)(v) of WIOA.
78

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Job Corps81
 authorized under WIA. 
    Job Corps80
    Overview and Purpose

    The Job Corps program is carried out by the Office of Job Corps within the Employment and
 Training Administration, and consists of residential centers throughout the country. The purpose
 of the program is to provide disadvantaged youth with the skills needed to obtain secondary
 school diplomas or recognized postsecondary credentials leading to successful careers in indemandin-demand industry sectors or occupations or the Armed Forces, thatwhich will result in economic selfsufficiencyself-sufficiency and opportunity for advancement; or enrollment in postsecondary education,
 including apprenticeship programs.82

Program Structure
Currently, 12581 
    Program Structure
    As of the date of this report, 126 Job Corps centers operate throughout the country.83 Of these 125126 centers, 2827 are
 known as Civilian Conservation Corps Centers, which are operated by the U.S. Forest Service, an
agency within the Department of AgricultureDepartment of Agriculture's Forest Service, through an interagency agreement with DOL.84
82 Programs at these sites focus on conserving, developing, or managing public natural resources or
 public recreational areas. Most Job Corps centers are located on property that is owned or leased
 long-term by the federal government.
As specified under WIOA (and  Job Corps campuses include dormitories, classrooms, workshops for various trades, wellness (or health) centers, a cafeteria, a career services building, and administrative buildings. Centers follow detailed guidelines about all aspects of the program as they are outlined in the program's policy guidance, known as the Policy and Requirements Handbook.83
    As specified under WIOA (and previously under WIA), Job Corps centers may be operated by a federal, state, or
 local agency; an area career and technical education school, or residential vocational school; or a
 private organization. Authorization and funding for new Job Corps centers are contained in
 appropriations law. DOL initiates a competitive process seeking applicants that are selected based
 on their ability to coordinate activities in the workforce system for youth, their ability to offer
 vocational training opportunities that reflect local employment opportunities, and past
 performance. Additionally, under WIOA, an entity applying to operate a center must submit to
 DOL certain information, such as a description of the entity’'s strong fiscal controls in place. WIA
 did not specify the length of time DOL and the center operator may enter into an agreement;
 however, in practice the contract period is two years, with three one-year-option renewals. WIOA
 specifies the contract may be for up to a two-year period with up to three one-year renewal
periods.85

81

Title I, Subtitle J of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 670.
Section 141 of WIA and WIOA. These are the purposes under WIOA. The purposes specified under WIA are
similar.
83
For the most recent list of centers, see the U.S. Department of Labor, Budget Justifications of Appropriation
Estimates for Committee on Appropriations, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/. The FY2016 budget justification specifies
that DOL is in the process of closing the Treasure Lake center and opening centers in New Hampshire and Wyoming.
84
Under WIA, the DOL Secretary may select an entity to operate a CCC on a competitive basis if the center fails to
meet national performance standards (as with DOL-operated centers). WIOA specifies that DOL must select another
entity to operate a CCC if it fails to meet the expected levels of performance relating to the primary indicators of
performance or fails to improve performance after three program years. WIOA also adds that enrollees in CCCs may
provide assistance in addressing disasters, consistent with current child labor laws.
85
Section 147(a) of WIOA (Section 147(a) of WIA).
82

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WIA periods.84 
    WIA also did not include provisions for high-performing centers; however, WIOA designates centers
 as high-performing based on their ranking and performance under the primary indicators of
 performance for eligible youth (see following discussion on indicators). It also enables the
 operator of a high-performing center to compete in any competitive selection process carried out
for an award to operate such center. (The FY2015 appropriation law, P.L. 113-235, also specifies
that entities operating the top 5% of Job Corps centers for PY2013 are eligible to compete in any
such process from October 1, 2014, through June 30, 2015.)
 for an award to operate such center. 
    WIOA further provides that DOL may not renew the agreement with an operator if the center is
 ranked in the lowest 10% of centers, and fails to achieve an average of 50% or higher in the
 expected levels of performance under each of the primary indicators of performance for eligible
 youth in the program.8685 The law allows DOL to renew an agreement with these centers under
 certain circumstances (i.e., performance is due to circumstances beyond the operator’'s control,
 etc.), and specifies standards that all centers must meet for agreements to be renewed (i.e.,
satisfactory record of integrity and business ethics, etc.).
Job Corps campuses include dormitories, classrooms, workshops for various trades, wellness (or
health) centers, a cafeteria, a career services building, and administrative buildings. WIA
prohibited an individual from being denied a position in the Job Corps program solely on the
basis of his or her contact with the criminal justice system. Under WIOA, an individual can be
denied a position if he or she has been convicted of a felony consisting of murder (as described in
Title 18 of the U.S. Code), child abuse, or a crime involving rape or sexual assault.87 Each Job
Corps center must develop standards for student conduct and implement a zero tolerance policy
for violence and drug and alcohol use. Students are dismissed from the program if they violate
this policy. Centers also follow detailed guidelines about all aspects of the program as they are
outlined in the program’s policy guidance known as the Policy and Requirements Handbook.88

Services
 satisfactory record of integrity and business ethics, etc.).
    Services
    While at a Job Corps center, students receive the following services:
•

education program, including English language acquisition programs;

•


    career and technical education, work experience, and work-based learning; and

•


     recreational activities, physical rehabilitation and development, driver’s
's education, and counseling, which may include information about financial
 literacy.

 Youth also receive personal allowances and transition allowances as they are leaving the program.
 WIOA specifies that these transition allowances are now to be incentive-based to reflect the
graduate’ graduate's completion of academic, career and technical education or training, and attainment of
 recognized postsecondary credentials.8986 It also strikesstruck the provision in WIA pertaining to
allowances for former enrollees.
86

Section 147(g) of WIOA.
Section 145(b) of WIOA Section (145(b) of WIA).
88
DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook, http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/
prh.sflb. (Hereinafter, DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook.)
89
Section 150 of WIOA (Section 150 of WIA).
87

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 allowances for former enrollees.
    Students tend to experience the program in four stages.9087 In the first phase, students learn about
 the program and center through orientation sessions and other outreach efforts conducted by the
 center and its contractor for outreach and admissions. Students who decide they want to pursue
 the program and are selected participate in the second phase, which emphasizes career
 preparation, in the first few weeks of the program. Students learn about life at the center and
 focus on personal responsibility, social skills, and career explanation. Students also receive
 assessments of their abilities in math and reading, and they work with staff to develop and
 commit to what is known as a Personal Career Development Plan (PCDP). This plan includes the
students’ students' personal, academic, and career goals, which are evaluated as they progress through the
 program.

    The third phase focuses on career development and is the stage at which most youth spend the
 majority of their time in the program. During this period, students learn and demonstrate career
 technical, academic, and employability skills. Training focuses on academic subject matters and
 how they are applied to specific trades or occupations. Students who did not graduate from high
 school can pursue a high school diploma or GED. Most Job Corps centers have developed a high
 school diploma program for their students through partnerships with public, private, and/or
 charter schools. Students who have already graduated focus on developing their technical skills at
 the center and on work sites under the direction of Job Corps’' employer partners. Job Corps
 centers offer several technical training clusters, such as construction, health care, business and
 finance, hospitality, and advanced manufacturing.91 During this period, students also begin to
 look for a job and learn how to identify and access the support services that are needed to live
 independently.
 
    Finally, in the fourth phase, students participate in a period of career transition, in which they
 receive placement services that focus on placing them in full-time jobs that are related to their
 vocational training and pay wages that allow them to be self-sufficient, or placing them in higher
 education or advanced training programs, including apprenticeship programs. For one year after
 exiting the program, Job Corps must provide graduates with services that include transition
 support and workplace counseling. Some graduates may go on to participate in advanced training.
 These students continue to remain in the program for another year while obtaining additional
 training and education, such as an Associate’'s Degree.
 
    Job Corps centers provide services both on-site and off-site, and contract some of these services.
 Centers rely on outreach and admissions (OA) contractors to recruit students to the program. These
 contractors may include a one-stop center, community action organizations, private for-profit and
 nonprofit businesses, labor organizations, or other entities that have contact with youth.
 Contractors seek out potential applicants, conduct interviews with applicants to identify their
 needs and eligibility status, and identify youth who are interested and likely Job Corps
 participants. Similarly, centers rely on placement agenciescareer transition services (CTS) providers—organizations that enter into a
 contract or other agreement with Job Corps—to provide placement services for graduates and, to
 the extent possible, former students. Services such as vocationalcareer and technical training are sometimes provided
by outside organizations.

90

DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook.
DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Job Corps Annual Report: Program Year 2008, July 1, 2008—June 30, 2009, p. 29,
http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/py06report.sflb.
91

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 by outside organizations. 
    In addition, each Job Corps center director must establish relationships with employers,
 applicable one-stop centers and local boards, and other stakeholders.9288 Each center must also
 establish a Workforce Councilworkforce council, made up of employers who must have substantial management
 and other responsibilities and represent businesses with employment opportunities for youth in
 the program; representatives of labor organizations, where present, and employees; and Job Corps
 students and graduates. A majority of the members must be employers. The council must work
 with local workforce boards and review local market information to provide recommendations to
 the center director about the center’'s education and training offerings, including emerging
 occupations that would suitable for training. WIOA also requires the council to determine indemandin-demand industries in the state for graduates to seek employment.93
89
    Finally, each center must establish a Community Relations Councilcommunity relations council to serve as a liaison between
 the center and the surrounding communities.9490 The councils are to be comprised of representatives
 of business, civic, and educational organizations; elected officials; representatives from law
 enforcement agencies; other service providers; students; and staff. Centers must provide
 opportunities for students and staff to participate in community service activities on a regular
basis.

Allocations
 basis.
    Allocations
    DOL enters into contracts with nonprofit and for-profit organizations and the Department of
Agriculture to operate the centers. Contracts are competitively awarded to organizations based on
 ranked scores, in conjunction with other factors. The contract period is two years, with three oneyearone-year-option renewals.

Participants
 DOL transfers funding for Civilian Conservation Centers to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) under an interagency agreement. 
    Participants
    Job Corps participants must be ages 16 through 24,9591 low-income, and be one or more of the
 following: (1) basic skills deficient; (2) a school dropout; (3) homeless, a runaway, or a foster
 child (including an individual who was in foster care and has aged out of foster care, per WIOA);
; (4) a parent; or (5) in need of additional education, vocational training, or intensive counseling
 and related assistance in order to participate in regular schoolwork or to secure and maintain
employment. Pursuant to WIOA, a employment; or (6) victims of a severe form of trafficking, as defined by the Trafficking Victims Protection Act. A veteran is eligible if he or she meets the eligibility criteria,
except that; however, the income requirement woulddoes not apply if the veteran's income earned fromin the military (within the
 six-month period prior to applying for the program would exceed) exceeds the income limit.96
92 
    Job Corps centers take additional factors into consideration when selecting participants, such as
 whether the program can best meet their educational and vocational needs and whether the youth
 can engage successfully in group situations and settings. The applicant must also pass a
background check that demonstrates he or she is not on probation or parole, or subject to similar
92

Section 154 of WIOA (Section 154 of WIA). WIA specified that a business and community liaison designated by the
director is responsible for these activities.
93
Section 154 of WIOA (Section 154 of WIA). WIA referred to this body as the Industry Advisory Council.
94
Ibid.
95
No more than 20% of participants may be ages 22 through 24 on the date of enrollment. The age limit may be waived
by DOL, in accordance with DOL regulations, for individuals with a disability.
96
Section 145 of WIOA (Section 145 of WIA).

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findings.  background check that is conducted in accordance with applicable state and local laws.93 WIA prohibited an individual from being denied a position in the Job Corps program solely on the basis of his or her contact with the criminal justice system. Under WIOA, an individual can be denied a position if he or she has been convicted of a felony consisting of murder (as described in Title 18 of the U.S. Code), child abuse, or a crime involving rape or sexual assault.94 Each Job Corps center must develop standards for student conduct and implement a zero tolerance policy for violence and drug and alcohol use. Students are dismissed from the program if they violate this policy. 
    WIA specified that when selected for the program, students are usually placed at the site
 closest to their home; however, DOL could waive this requirement if the enrollee meets certain
 other criteria. WIOA changeschanged this requirement such that the enrollee is to be assigned to the
 center that offers the type of career and technical education and training that he or she selects
 (unless the parent or the guardian of an enrollee under 18 objects). Among the centers that offer
 such education and training, the enrollee is to be assigned to the one closest to his or her home.97
95 No more than 20% of participants may live off the grounds of the Job Corps center. Priority in
 non-residential placements is to be given to participants who are single parents.98
96
    WIA specified that no individual may be enrolled in Job Corps for more than two years, except in
 certain cases. WIOA makes additional exceptions for enrolling for more than two years: (1) an
 individual with a disability who would reasonably be expected to graduate, if allowed to
 participate for up to an additional year; and (2) in the case of an individual who participates in
 national service (as authorized by the Civilian Conservation Center program) who may extend
 enrollment to equal the period of service.99

Performance
97
    Performance 
    WIA requires DOL to establish multiple performance metrics for Job Corps. (ThesePursuant to WIOA, these are generally
 in effect through PY2016.)until PY2016 (July 1, 2016). Specifically, DOL had to establish indicators of performance for centers
 and the program that are consistent year to year, and that include certain specified measures
 relating to graduation, unsubsidized employment, average wage, postsecondary education or
 advance training programs. WIA also directed the Secretary to establish indicators of performance
 for local and national Job Corps recruitment service providers (known as Outreach and
 Admissions, or OA, staff) that relate to the number of enrollees retained in the program for 30
 days and for 60 days after they are placed. The law did not specify performance indicators for
 career transition services (CTS) providers who assist youth as they transition from the center to
 the workplace. It additionally directed DOL to collect and submit as part of an annual report to
 Congress information on the expected and actual performance of each center, the program, and
recruiters. The report must also include information on several recruiters along with other items, such as the number of enrollees
serviced served, number of enrollees and graduates who enter postsecondary education, and average
 learning gains.100
98 
    DOL reports on performance through four report cards that include information about various
 aspects of the program’'s performance: Outreach and Admissions (OA) Report Card, which
 pertains to the recruiters; Center Report Card, which pertains to each individual center and all
 centers combined; Career Technical Training Reporting and Improvement System, which pertains
 to the students completing career technical training programs at centers; and Career Transitions
 Services (CTS) Report Card, which pertains to CTS providers.10199 The report cards include the
 measurements specified in statute, as well as additional performance metrics. These additional
 measures were developed from DOL policy and the Government Performance and Results Act
 (GPRA), which established requirements in statute for most agencies to set performance goals,
97

Section 145(d) of WIOA (Section 145(d) of WIA).
Section 147(b) of WIOA (Section 147(b) of WIA).
99
Section 146 of WIOA (Section 146 of WIA).
100
Section 159(c) and Section 159(d) of WIA.
101
For further information, see DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, “Performance Management System Overview Guide.”
98

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 measure performance, and report the information to Congress for potential use.102100 The program
 also collects information to assess performance through the Common Measures. As explained
 previously, DOL introduced the Common Measures for WIA Title I programs in 2005. The
 Common Measures for Youth are placement in employment and education, attainment of a degree
 or certificate, and literacy and numeracy gains. Together, these various measures are used by the
 Office of Job Corps to evaluate student performance and how well students are served at each of
 the centers.
 
    Beginning with PY2016 (July 1, 2016), WIOA directs DOL to establish expected levels of
 performance for the program and individual centers that relate to each of the six primary
 indicators of performance for the Youth Workforce Activities program. Specifically, these
 indicators pertain to (1) entry into education, training, or unsubsidized employment (during both
 the (a) second quarter and (b) fourth quarter after exiting the program); (2) median earnings; (3)
 obtaining a recognized postsecondary credential or secondary school diploma or its equivalent;
 (4) participation in an education or training program that leads to a credential or employment; and
 (5) program effectiveness in serving employers. WIOA further specifies performance measures
 for the OA staff and CTS providers. The OA performance measures pertain to recruitment,
 including whether the youth are from the state or region where their center is located, and the cost
 per graduate. The CTS performance measures include the performance measures for the Youth
 Workforce Investment Activities program, among others. WIOA further requires DOL to report to
 Congress certain specified information about enrollees and graduates. The report must include
 some of the same information under current law, as well as information on the performance of
 each center, program, and recruiter based on their specified performance measures. It adds other
 items to the report such as demographic information on enrollees; the number of graduates who
 entered apprenticeships; the total cost per enrollee and graduate; information about the state of
 Job Corps buildings and facilities; and national and community service activities of enrollees,
 particularly those at CCCs.

Performance Oversight
 
    Performance Oversight
    WIA specified that a Job Corps center failing to meet expected performance levels (as specified
 in the law) can be placed under a performance improvement plan (PIP). PIPs are documented
 plans that outline deficiencies in program performance, corrective actions, and targets for
 improvement. Under WIA, the plan had to encompass certain actions taken by DOL, including
 providing technical assistance to the centers; changing the vocational training offered at the
 center; changing the management staff of the center; replacing the operator of the center;
 reducing the capacity of the center; relocating the center; or closing the center. WIA also enabled
 DOL to establish a PIP when a Job Corps center failed to meet additional criteria established by
 the Secretary. These discretionary PIPs had to include the actions described above. WIOA adds
maintained these same requirements, and adds that a PIP established when a center fails to meet expected performance levels must require the
 specified actions (i.e., providing technical assistance to the centers, etc.) to be undertaken within a
 one-year period.103
101
    Prior to the closure of any Job Corps center, DOL must ensure (1) that the proposed decision to
 close the center is announced in advance to the general public through publication in the Federal
102
103

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RegisterFederal Register or other appropriate means; (2) that a reasonable comment period, not to exceed 30 days,
 is established for interested individuals to submit written comments to the Secretary; and (3) that
 the Member of Congress who represents the district in which a center is located is notified within
 a reasonable period of time in advance of any final decision to close the center. WIOA required
by December 1, 2014, that DOL submit to Congress written criteria to determine when a center is
to be closed and how to carry out such closure.104 Finally, WIOA directs DOL to provide for a
 third-party evaluation of the program every five years, and to submit the results to Congress. The
 evaluation must address the general effectiveness of the program in relation to its costs; the
 effectiveness of the performance measures for the program; the effectiveness of the structure and
 mechanisms for delivering services; the impact of the program on the community, businesses, and
 participants involved; the extent to which the program and activities meet the needs of various
 demographic groups, and other such factors that may be appropriate.105

Financial Oversight
WIA does102 
    Financial Oversight
    WIA did not require reporting on financial oversight measures specifically for Job Corps;
 however, WIOA requires DOL to prepare and submit reports to Congress that include information
 about implementing financial oversight measures suggested in the 2013 DOL IG report about
 oversight of Job Corps funding,106103 a description of any budgetary shortfalls in the period covered
 by the report, and an explanation for approving contract expenditures that are in excess of the
 amount specified under a contract. The reports are to be provided every six months for an initial
 three-year period, then annually for another two years. WIOA further requires DOL to submit an
 additional report to Congress if the program has a budget shortfall, including an explanation of
 how the shortfall will be addressed. The report must be submitted within 90 days after the
 shortfall is identified.107

YouthBuild108
104
    YouthBuild105
    Overview and Purpose

    In 2007, YouthBuild was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to
 DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281). The program was authorized under WIA,
 and the WIOA provisions for the program are effective as of July 1, 2015. As stated in the law,
 the purpose of YouthBuild is to (1) enable disadvantaged youth to obtain the education and
 employment skills necessary to achieve economic self-sufficiency in occupations in demand and
 post-secondary education and training opportunities; (2) provide disadvantaged youth with
 opportunities for meaningful work and service to communities; (3) foster the development of
 employment and leadership skills and commitment to community development among youth in
 low-income communities; and (4) expand the supply of permanent affordable housing for
104

Section 159(j) and Section 161(c) of WIOA (Section 159(g) of WIA).
Section 161(b) of WIOA.
106
DOL, Office of Inspector General, The U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration Needs
to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds.
107
Section 161(a) of WIOA.
108
Title I, Subtitle D, Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
105

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 homeless individuals and low-income families by utilizing the energy of disadvantaged youth.
 WIOA adds an additional purpose area: (5) to improve the quality and energy efficiency of
 community and other nonprofit and public facilities, including those facilities that are used to
 serve homeless and low-income families.109106 WIOA makes few other changes to YouthBuild.

Program Structure

    Program Structure
    DOL competitively awards YouthBuild funds to organizations, which carry out the program in
 cooperation with subgrantees or contractors or through arrangements made with local education
 agencies and certain other entities. Entities that are eligible to apply for funding include a public
 or private nonprofit agency or organization, including a consortium of such agencies or
 organizations. Specifically, such entities may include community-based or faith-based
 organizations; entities that carry out activities authorized under certain other parts of WIA (and
WIOA)WIOA, such as a local workforce board; community action agencies; state or local housing
 development agencies; an Indian tribe or agencies primarily serving Indians; state or local youth
 service or conservation corps; or any other entity eligible to provide education or employment
 training under a federal program.110
107
    While in the program, youth participate in a range of education and workforce investment
 activities, as listed in  Table 6. These activities include instruction, skill building, alternative
 education, mentoring, and training in rehabilitation or construction of housing. Notably, any
 housing unit that is rehabilitated or reconstructed may be available only for rental by, or sale to,
 homeless individuals or low-income families; or for use as transitional or permanent housing to
 assist homeless individuals achieve independent living. All educational programs, including
 programs that award academic credit, and activities supported with YouthBuild funds must be
 consistent with applicable state and local educational standards.
As specified in both WIA and WIOA, at
    At least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain
 work and skill development activities (these activities are denoted by footnote “a”"a" in Table 6). At ). At
least an additional 50% of the time, participants must be engaged in education and related
 services and activities designed to meet their educational needs (these activities are denoted by
 footnote “b”"b" in Table 6). WIOA made a change to some of these activities to enable them to
 include, if approved by the DOL Secretary, training and supports in additional in-demand industry
 sectors or occupations. This is consistent with a 2012 regulation for the program that enables
 grantees to expand their occupational skills training beyond construction skills training; however,
 all programs must still provide training in the construction trades.111

109

Section 171(a) of WIOA (Section 173A(a) of WIA).
Section 173(b) of WIOA (Section 173A(b) of WIA).
111
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “YouthBuild Program Final Rule,” 77
Federal Register 9112, February 15, 2012.
110

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Table 6. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild as Specified Under WIOA
Education and Workforce Investment Activities
•

108
    
      
        Table 6. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild as Specified Under WIOA
      
      
        
          
            Education and Workforce Investment Activities
Work experience and skills training, coordinated, to the maximum extent feasible, with pre-apprenticeship and
 registered apprenticeship programs (in the rehabilitation and construction activities described under
“ "Supervision and Training,”" below) and if approved by the Secretary, in additional in-demand industry sectors or
 occupations in the region in which the program operates.a

•

Occupational skills training.a

•

a
        
        
          Occupational skills training.a
        
        
          Other paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.a

•

a
        
        
          Services and activities designed to meet the educational needs of participants, including—(1) basic skills
 instruction and remedial education, (2) language instruction educational programs for participants who are
 English language learners, (3) secondary education services and activities designed to lead to the attainment of a
 high school diploma or its equivalent; (4) counseling and assistance in obtaining postsecondary education and
 required financial aid, and (5) alternative secondary school services.b

•

b
        
        
          Counseling services and related activities, such as comprehensive guidance and counseling on drug and alcohol
 abuse and referral.b

•

b
        
        
          Activities designed to develop employment and leadership skills, including community service and peer-centered
 activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors, and activities related to youth policy
 committees that participate in decision-making related to the program.b

•

b
        
        
          Supportive services and provision of need-based stipends to enable individuals to participate in the program, and
 supportive services to assist individuals, for a period not to exceed 12 months after the completion of training, in
 obtaining or retaining employment, or applying for and transitioning to postsecondary education.b

•

Job search assistance.a
Supervision and Training

•

b
        
        
          Job search assistance.aSupervision and Training
Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of housing, including residential
 housing for homeless individuals or low-income families, or transitional housing for homeless individuals. If
 approved by the Secretary, this may also include supervision and training in additional in-demand industry sectors
 or occupations in the region in which the program operates.

•


        
        
          Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of community and other public
 facilities, except that not more than 15% of funds appropriated may be used for such supervision and training. If
 approved by the Secretary, this may also include supervision and training in additional in-demand industry sectors
 or occupations in the region in which the program operates.
Other

•

Other
Payment of administrative costs of the applicant, except that not more than 10% of the amount of assistance
 provided to the grant recipient may be used for such costs.

•

Adult mentoring.

•


        
        
          Adult mentoring. 

        
        
          Provision of wages, stipends, or benefits to participants in the program.

•

 
        
        
          Ongoing training and technical assistance that are related to developing and carrying out the program.

•

Follow-up services.

        
        
          Follow-up services.

        
      
      
        Source: Section 173A of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128). 
        ).
Notes: WIOA made a change to some of these activities to enable them to include, if approved by the
 Secretary, training and supports in additional in-demand industry sectors or occupations. In addition, WIOA
 changed the percentage of funds used for supervising and training participants in the rehabilitation or
 construction of community and other public facilities from 10% to 15%. The law also changed the percentage of
 funds used for payment of administrative costs of the applicant, from 15% to 10%.
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    This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain
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b.

 
        b.

    This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 50% of the time, youth must participate in
 education and related services and activities.

Participants

      
    
    Participants
    Youth are eligible for the program if they are (1) ages 16 through 24; (2) a member of a lowincomelow-income family, a youth in foster care, a youth offender, an individual with a disability, a child of
 incarcerated parents, oror a migrant youth; andand (3) a school dropout. However, up to 25% of youth
 in the program are not required to meet the income or dropout criteria, so long as they are basic
 skills deficient despite having earned a high school diploma, GED, or the equivalent; oror have
 been referred by a high school for the purpose of obtaining a high school diploma.

Allocations
 
    Allocations
    Grants are competitively awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with
 other factors, such as the applicant’'s potential for developing a successful YouthBuild program;
 the need for the program in the community; the applicant’'s commitment to providing skills
 training, leadership development, and education to participants; regional distribution of grantees;
 and the applicant’'s coordination of activities to be carried out with certain other stakeholders,
 including employers, one-stop partners, and national service and other systems; among other
 criteria.

    DOL makes awards for three years (two years of program operations with a one-year period of
 follow-up). Applicants must provide cash or in-kind resources equivalent to at least 25% of the
 grant award amount as matching funds. Prior investments and federal resources do not count
 toward the match.

Performance

    Performance 
    WIA requires grantees to use common indicators of performance for youth and lifelong learning,
 as identified by the Secretary. Accordingly, DOL directs YouthBuild grantees to report the
 Common Measures and two additional performance measures for all youth in the program. The
 two other measures are retention in employment or education and recidivism.  Retention in
 employment and education tracks the share of young people who are employed or in an
 educational placement for each of the three quarters after exiting. The recidivism measure tracks
 the share of youth arrested and convicted of a new crime or parole violation within one year of
 enrollment.112
As of 109 
    As of PY2016 (July 1, 2016), WIOA will require grantees to meet the primary indicators of performance for
 eligible youth described in the Youth Workforce Activities program. Specifically, these indicators
 pertain to entry into education, training, or unsubsidized employment (both two and four quarters
 after exiting the program); median earnings; obtaining a recognized postsecondary credential or

112

U.S. DOL., ETA, “ETA Quarterly Workforce System Results, YouthBuild,” http://www.doleta.gov/performance/
results/#etaqr.

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 secondary school diploma or its equivalent; participation in an education or training program that
 leads to a credential or employment; and program effectiveness in serving employers.113

110
    Reintegration of Ex-Offenders114
Offenders111
    Overview and Purpose

    Section 171 of WIA authorizes DOL to conduct pilot and demonstration programs. The purpose
 of these programs is to develop and evaluate innovative approaches to providing employment and
 training services. In recent years, two programs have been specified in appropriations language
 and funded under the authority of Section 171. One of the programs—Reintegration of ExOffendersEx-Offenders—is targeted, in part, to youth. The youth component is comprised of related initiatives
 that seek to assist youth offenders and youth at risk of dropping out (or who have dropped out)
 with pre-release, mentoring, housing, case management, and employment services; to reduce
 violence within persistently dangerous schools through a combination of mentoring, educational,
 employment, case management, and violence prevention strategies; and to provide alternative
 education and related services for youth at risk of involvement with the justice system.115
112
    Grants for youth offenders have been funded under WIA since FY2000.116113 The program was a
 stand-alone program until FY2008, when it was made a part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
 program, which also supports the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI) for adults. Funding for the
 program was authorized under both WIA and Section 112 (Responsible Reintegration of
 Offenders) of the Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-199), enacted on April 9, 2008. The Second
 Chance Act authorizes DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of
 providing mentoring, job training and job placement services, and other comprehensive
 transitional services to assist eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining
 employment.
 
    Congress appropriated funding for the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program in FY2015 (P.L.
 113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169
 authorizes evaluations and research.

Program Structure
 
    Program Structure
    The earliest initiatives for youth offenders, from FY1999 through FY2004, operated under what
 is known as the Youth Offender Demonstration Project (YODP).117 The pilot funded 52 grantees

113

Section 171(c) of WIOA (and Section 173(c) of WIA).
Title I, Subtitle D, Section 171 of the Workforce Investment Act.
115
This is based on a review of initiatives funded by the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program. DOL, ETA, Youth
Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/Youth_services/Discretionary.cfm.
116
This program was known as the Youth Offender Pilot Program, and funded 14 communities that provided
educational, employment, re-entry, and other services to youth.
117
The earliest funding for the program was authorized under Title IV of the Job Training Partnership Act. See U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Notice Inviting Proposals for Youth Offender
Demonstration Projects, August 28, 1998, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/sga/01-101sga.cfm.
114

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114 The pilot funded 52 grantees to assist youth at risk of court or gang involvement, youth offenders, and gang members ages 14
 to 24 in finding long-term employment.
 
    The more contemporary grant programs for youth offenders have funded multiple projects in
 recent years that have a focus similar to the earlier projects under YODP. Recent projects have
 included (1) education-related grants for the School District Youth Offender Initiative and
 Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative; (2) apprenticeship and related grants under grants
 collectively called Categorical Grants (Youth Offender Registered Apprenticeship, Alternative
 Education, and Project Expansion Grants); (3) grants that focus on reentry, including BeneficiaryChoiceBeneficiary-Choice Demonstration, High Growth Youth Offender Initiative, Planning, State/Local
 Implementation, and Replication Grants; and (4) grants that focus on community service,
 including Civic Justice Grants and Serving Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training and
 Service Learning. Grantees include local and state governments, nonprofit organizations,
 including faith-based organizations; school districts; and community colleges.118
115 
    Each of these projects has been funded in at least one year since PY2006.119116 The projects are
 grouped below based on their focus. While the projects each have a distinct purpose, their overall
 aim is to provide employment and other assistance to youth who are involved in the justice
 system, or are at risk of becoming involved.

Education

    Education
    The School District Youth Offender Initiative, also known as the School District Gang Reduction
 grants, was funded with FY2006 appropriations and focused on developing strategies for
 reducing youth involvement in gangs using a workforce development approach. The initiative
 was aimed at helping five public school districts—Baltimore; Chicago; Milwaukee; Orange
 County, FL; and Philadelphia—reduce the involvement of youth in gangs and violent crimes.
 Grant funds could be used for a range of education and employment interventions for youth who
 are involved, have been involved, or have a high risk of being involved in gangs or the juvenile
 justice system. Youth were eligible if they were in school and in grades 8-12, or were high school
 dropouts under the age of 21. School districts were required to partner with the local juvenile
 justice system, the mayor’'s office, the local WIB, the police department, and the U.S. Attorney’s
's office in carrying out the program.

    The Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative used FY2007 and FY2008 appropriations to
 provide funding to three school districts—Berkshire Union Free School District in Canaan, NY;
 Baltimore; and Philadelphia—to improve outcomes of students in nine high schools that have
 been identified as persistently dangerous by the states’' department of education, pursuant to the
 Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The grants funded a combination of new initiatives at
 each school, including reduced class size in core 9th and 11th9th and 11th grade English and math, which have
 a history of high rates of failure; a mentoring program using adult and peer mentors; career
118
For a list of grantees and grant funding amounts, see DOL, ETA, Youth Services Discretionary Grants,
http://www.doleta.gov/grants/.
119
Between PY2000 and PY2006, DOL used Youthful Offender funding to support the Serious and Violent Reentry
Initiative at the Department of Justice; to award competitive grants to serve youthful offenders in 29 communities; to
award non-competitive grants to several nonprofit organizations to serve young offenders and youth at risk of
becoming offenders; and to award grants to eight states to improve the academic and workforce preparation programs
in one juvenile correctional facility in each state.

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 academies with particular themes; and a summer bridge program with remediation in English and
 math.


    Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and  Expansion Grants

    The Categorical Grants project funded programs with FY2006 appropriations that provided
 apprenticeship opportunities and alternative education to youth who had been adjudicated (i.e.,
 cases have been judicially determined) or were at risk of involvement in the justice system. The
 grantees with programs on apprenticeship opportunities were intended to prepare young adult
 offenders for in-demand careers in fields such as construction, welding, masonry, and advanced
 manufacturing. Programs with an alternative education focus were focused on creating or
 enhancing schools to help young offenders earn diplomas and continue on to postsecondary
 education or jobs. Some grantees received funding to expand their programs to additional sites
 because of their records of successfully providing assistance to juvenile offenders. Grantees
 included state departments of corrections, school boards, and nonprofit organizations.

Reentry120

    Reentry117
    Multiple grant programs have focused on assisting young adults as they transition from the
 juvenile justice system. Two of the grants are currently funded while others received funding in
 the recent past.

    Face Forward-Serving Juvenile Offenders grants (funded with FY2012, FY2013, FY2014 and FY2015  and FY2013
appropriations) seek to help improve long-term labor market outcomes for juvenile justice
-involved youth. The grants are supporting community-based organizations to provide juvenile
 offenders with support services, training, and skills development. Eligible youth are ages 16 to 24
 and meet certain criteria related to their involvement in the juvenile justice system. Another grant,
 Strategies Targeted to Characteristics Common to Female Ex-Offenders (funded with FY2011,
 FY2012, and FY2013 appropriations), focuses on providing employment and support services for
 previously incarcerated female youth and adults as they transition back to their communities.
 
    The Serving Juvenile Offenders in High-Poverty, High Crime Communities (funded with
 FY2009, FY2010, FY2011, and FY2013 appropriations) has sought to improve the long-term
 labor market prospects of juvenile offenders ages 16 to 24 in high-poverty, high-crime areas. The
 grants funded efforts at multiple sites to provide a combination of workforce development,
 education and training, case management, mentoring, restorative justice (to provide community
 service or other activities as a way to repair damage to the community), and activities to reduce
 community-wide violence. For example, the grant funded the Latino Coalition for Faith &
 Community Leadership and Public/Private Ventures to support training opportunities for high
 school dropouts and young adult offenders ages 18 through 24 throughout the country.
 
    The Beneficiary Choice Demonstration provided funding (in FY2006 and FY2008) to grantees to
 assist ex-offenders ages 18 through 29 transition from prison to the workplace. Participants could
 choose service providers from pools of faith-based and community groups. The grantees included
 the Arizona Women’'s Education and Employment, Inc., of Phoenix; the Colorado Department of
120

Youth ages 18 and older may also be eligible to participate in the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI), which seeks to
reduce recidivism by helping former inmates find work when they return to their communities.

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 Labor and Employment; the City of Chicago; the Indianapolis Private Industry Council, Inc.; and
 the Director’'s Council of Des Moines, IA. For example, Colorado’'s project focused on delivering
 individualized, comprehensive offender reentry strategies through partners such as the
 Department of Corrections, Salvation Army, Grant Valley Catholic Outreach, one-stop centers,
 and Goodwill, among other entities. The project offered mentoring, counseling, housing,
 education, and training and employment opportunities in industries with high growth.

    The High Growth Youth Offender Initiative funded efforts (in each of FY2004 through FY2008)
 to help former offenders gain the skills necessary to enter industries with high growth. Projects
 focused on addressing the workforce needs of growing industries that provide employment
 opportunities and potential for advancement. Among the grantees were nonprofit organizations
 and workforce boards.

    Finally, the Planning, State/Local Implementation and Replication Grants funded (with FY2008
 appropriations) four state juvenile justice agencies in the District of Columbia, Maryland, Texas,
 and Washington to serve all youth returning from juvenile correctional facilities to one county in
 the state; five counties to develop plans for serving all youth returning from correctional facilities
 to the local area; and YouthBuild Newark to develop YouthBuild programs serving juvenile
 offenders in four additional cities in New Jersey.


    Community Service/Restorative Justice

    Some grants funded under the youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program
 focus on community service and restorative justice projects to repair the harm former offenders
 may have caused and to help rebuild the community. These grants are known as Civic Justice
 Corps Grants Serving Juvenile Offenders (funded with FY2010 appropriations) and Serving
 Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training and Service Learning (funded with FY2011
 appropriations).
 
    These grants sought to provide community service opportunities to juvenile offenders ages 18 to
 24 involved with the juvenile justice system within the past year. Programs funded under these
 grants were to provide the following: (1) meaningful community service projects and service
 learning opportunities; (2) educational interventions that lead to a credential and increase
 placement in post-secondary education and/or vocational training; (3) community connections
 that result in opportunities for offenders to rebuild trust; (4) high staff-to-participant ratios,
 including close adult supervision on community service projects; (5) career development
 components that seek to place each participant in a job, apprenticeship, or educational setting that
 leads to an industry-recognized credential; and (6) post-program support and follow-up.

Participants
Each of the initiatives targets select groups of at-risk youth. However, the projects generally serve
youth ages 14 and older (or 18 or older) who have been involved with or have a high risk of
involvement in gangs or the juvenile justice system or criminal justice system, or attend
“persistently dangerous” schools, as reported by select states.

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Allocations
Grants are competitively awarded to entities such as community-based organizations and state
and local juvenile justice agencies, based on ranked scores and other factors, depending on the
project. Notably, only schools that meet the criteria of “persistently dangerous,” as specified by
the states and as permitted under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), are
eligible to apply for funds under the Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative.121 Allocations vary
for each of the projects, but, generally, grantees have received grants of $1 million to $5 million
for one or more years.

Performance
DOL has performance measures for each Youth Offender initiative. The standards vary for each
initiative depending on the focus of the grants and the population of youth served. However, the
program has uniform measures for the program overall: (1) percentage of youth ages 18 and older
who are out of school entering employment or enrolling in post-secondary education, or
occupational training; (2) percentage of youth offenders ages 14 through 17 who recidivate; and
(3) percentage of youth offenders ages 18 and older who recidivate.122

121

ESEA requires each state receiving funds under the act to establish and implement a statewide policy requiring that
a student attending a persistently dangerous school, as determined by the state in consultation with a representative
sample of local education agencies (LEAs), or a student who becomes a victim of a violent criminal offense on school
grounds be allowed to attend a safe school within the LEA.
122
DOL, ETA, Budget Justification of Appropriation Estimates for Committees on Appropriations, FY2016, vol. I, p.
TES-83.

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Appendix. Workforce Investment Act Funding for WIA Youth Program
Table A-1. WIA Youth Activities 
    Military and Vocational Training
    For FY2015, DOL has awarded funding to three Youth ChalleNGe sites to expand their programs with vocational education including work-based learning, job-shadowing, and other opportunities to prepare youth for the labor market. The Youth ChalleNGe Program is a quasi-military training program administered by the Army National Guard to improve outcomes for youth who have dropped out of school or have been expelled. Youth are eligible for the program if they are ages 16 to 18 and enroll prior to their 19th birthday; have dropped out of school or been expelled; are unemployed; are not currently on parole or probation for anything other than juvenile status offenses and not serving time or awaiting sentencing; and are drug free.118 In recent years, nearly 9,000 cadets (students) have graduated annually. The program consists of three phases: a two-week pre-program residential phase where applicants are assessed to determine their potential for completing the program; a 20-week residential phase; and a 12-month post-residential phase. During the residential phase, youth—known as cadets—work toward their high school diploma or GED and develop life-coping, job, and leadership skills.

    Participants
    Each of the initiatives targets select groups of at-risk youth. However, the projects generally serve youth ages 14 and older (or 18 or older) who have been involved with or have a high risk of involvement in gangs or the juvenile justice system or criminal justice system, or attend "persistently dangerous" schools, as reported by select states. 

    Allocations
    Grants are competitively awarded to entities such as community-based organizations and state and local juvenile justice agencies, based on ranked scores and other factors, depending on the project. Notably, only schools that meet the criteria of "persistently dangerous," as specified by the states and as permitted under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), are eligible to apply for funds under the Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative.119 Allocations vary for each of the projects, but, generally, grantees have received grants of $1 million to $5 million for one or more years. 

    Performance 
    DOL has performance measures for each Youth Offender initiative. The standards vary for each initiative depending on the focus of the grants and the population of youth served. However, the program has uniform measures for the program overall: (1) percentage of youth ages 18 and older who are out of school entering employment or enrolling in post-secondary education, or occupational training; (2) percentage of youth offenders ages 14 through 17 who recidivate; and (3) percentage of youth offenders ages 18 and older who recidivate.120

    
    
    Funding for the WIOA Youth Program
    
      
        Table A-1. WIOA Youth State Allotments, PY2009-PY2014, Plus Funding Under the American Recovery and
 Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5)
Includes allotments for outlying areas and Native Americans
State
Total

PY2009
(P.L. 111-8)

PY2010
(P.L. 110-351)

PY2011
(P.L. 112-5)

PY2012
(P.L. 112-74)

PY2013
(P.L. 113-6)

PY2014
(P.L. 113-76)

$1,188,000,000

$924,069,000

$924,069,000

$825,913,862

$824,353,022

$781,375,289

$818,169,000

11,647,403

9,059,768

11,777,698

12,455,574

11,711,479

10,504,766

10,363,134

Alaska

3,936,018

3,061,576

2,755,418

2,216,462

2,024,817

1,919,253

2,009,628

Arizona

17,830,637

13,869,309

15,982,731

15,326,190

16,510,641

15,938,449

16,873,353

Arkansas

12,065,555

9,385,022

8,446,520

6,794,393

6,431,994

6,367,716

6,814,031

California

186,622,034

145,161,310

136,875,948

117,952,080

123,857,750

118,211,133

119,122,833

Colorado

11,874,970

9,236,777

11,132,070

9,788,025

11,882,561

11,600,883

12,414,406

Connecticut

11,034,723

8,583,204

8,869,254

8,060,872

8,794,724

8,152,502

9,398,657

Delaware

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,269,744

2,028,651

2,024,817

1,919,253

2,009,628

District of Columbia

3,969,821

3,087,869

2,779,082

2,402,872

2,323,591

2,074,840

2,216,117

Florida

42,873,265

33,348,363

43,352,872

50,372,277

53,892,125

47,791,321

45,067,004

Georgia

31,361,665

24,394,229

28,251,785

24,305,197

25,482,266

25,123,453

27,467,948

Hawaii

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,690,193

2,272,811

2,243,958

2,174,842

2,049,527

Idaho

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,950,667

3,428,419

4,027,145

3,623,538

3,414,748

Illinois

62,203,400

48,384,035

43,545,632

36,086,031

32,767,678

33,775,763

38,093,547

Indiana

23,677,573

18,417,265

19,697,136

16,043,006

15,457,182

15,696,820

17,756,443

Iowa

5,172,183

4,023,109

4,750,212

5,519,334

4,962,142

4,671,103

4,739,579

Kansas

7,121,714

5,539,524

5,930,458

5,248,975

5,511,824

5,304,061

5,398,508

17,709,821

13,775,333

14,303,105

12,514,937

12,676,374

11,299,654

12,118,913

Alabama

Kentucky

c11173008

ARRA
(P.L. 111-5)

CRS-47

 .

State
Louisiana

PY2009
(P.L. 111-8)

PY2010
(P.L. 110-351)

PY2011
(P.L. 112-5)

PY2012
(P.L. 112-74)

PY2013
(P.L. 113-6)

PY2014
(P.L. 113-76)

20,012,271

15,566,262

14,009,636

11,269,372

11,409,318

9,733,043

9,327,194

4,293,710

3,339,802

3,476,520

2,887,584

2,831,274

2,888,765

3,244,888

Maryland

11,585,610

9,011,703

11,311,383

10,073,999

10,354,690

10,289,216

11,989,592

Massachusetts

24,838,038

19,319,917

17,387,925

15,988,686

15,009,154

12,803,985

14,507,221

Michigan

73,949,491

57,520,566

51,768,509

41,642,666

37,407,571

31,911,591

30,072,831

Minnesota

17,789,172

13,837,056

14,264,509

11,474,392

10,523,152

9,841,004

9,947,978

Mississippi

18,687,021

14,535,436

13,081,892

10,523,093

9,452,885

8,556,357

9,200,818

Missouri

25,400,077

19,757,091

17,781,382

14,549,044

15,108,428

13,072,955

12,877,148

Montana

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,344,418

2,174,750

2,405,630

2,105,266

2,152,132

Nebraska

2,944,616

2,290,428

2,518,508

2,288,141

2,207,155

2,157,402

2,394,620

Nevada

7,570,212

5,888,382

7,654,897

8,303,837

9,104,832

9,407,590

8,865,521

New Hampshire

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,269,744

2,253,475

2,024,817

1,919,253

2,200,035

New Jersey

20,834,103

16,205,512

20,938,294

20,362,826

20,322,861

21,422,496

25,513,414

New Mexico

6,235,678

4,850,334

4,365,301

4,775,669

4,918,291

4,195,688

4,625,925

New York

71,526,360

55,635,768

51,835,670

46,253,787

45,892,839

46,093,646

52,011,703

North Carolina

25,070,698

19,500,888

25,351,154

24,598,968

23,736,834

26,575,543

28,871,997

North Dakota

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,269,744

2,028,651

2,024,817

1,919,253

2,009,628

56,158,510

43,682,103

39,313,893

31,915,350

29,136,945

25,942,472

26,270,342

8,708,036

6,773,423

6,970,582

6,877,913

6,676,111

5,982,158

6,258,954

Oregon

15,068,081

11,720,493

13,707,810

11,026,583

10,760,018

9,901,654

10,543,691

Pennsylvania

40,647,780

31,617,301

31,871,328

29,506,561

28,346,353

27,854,861

33,509,103

Puerto Rico

42,456,987

33,024,567

29,722,110

23,908,509

21,476,993

18,321,559

17,265,863

Rhode Island

5,611,097

4,364,513

4,531,698

3,767,218

3,687,520

3,676,868

3,743,023

24,712,293

19,222,108

17,299,897

13,916,063

12,754,206

12,151,961

12,574,365

Maine

Ohio
Oklahoma

South Carolina

c11173008

ARRA
(P.L. 111-5)

CRS-48

 .

State
South Dakota

ARRA
(P.L. 111-5)

PY2009
(P.L. 111-8)

PY2010
(P.L. 110-351)

PY2011
(P.L. 112-5)

PY2012
(P.L. 112-74)

PY2013
(P.L. 113-6)

PY2014
(P.L. 113-76)

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,269,744

2,028,651

2,024,817

1,919,253

2,009,628

Tennessee

25,099,116

19,522,993

18,716,506

16,288,215

15,784,120

15,045,025

16,496,140

Texas

82,000,708

63,783,091

57,404,782

52,833,195

55,664,646

52,525,623

52,492,802

Utah

5,067,154

3,941,414

3,547,273

4,121,624

5,347,985

4,562,251

4,304,671

Vermont

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,269,744

2,028,651

2,024,817

1,919,253

2,009,628

Virginia

12,982,612

10,098,341

13,127,843

13,540,444

13,020,339

12,509,940

13,392,465

Washington

23,445,432

18,236,698

17,997,280

15,992,583

16,959,549

16,388,794

16,309,501

5,343,318

4,156,224

3,924,261

4,315,932

4,577,244

3,904,748

3,957,765

Wisconsin

13,808,812

10,740,989

13,963,286

13,099,180

12,342,748

12,133,146

13,562,824

Wyoming

2,918,025

2,269,744

2,269,744

2,028,651

2,024,817

1,919,253

2,009,628

1,167,210,000

907,897,792

907,897,792

811,460,369

809,926,844

767,701,222

803,851,042

2,970,000

2,310,173

2,310,173

2,064,785

2,060,883

1,953,438

2,045,423

17,820,000

13,861,035

13,861,035

12,388,708

12,365,295

11,720,629

12,272,535

West Virginia

State Total
Outlying Areas Total
Native Americans

Source:)
        Includes allotments for outlying areas and Native Americans
State

          
          
            ARRA(P.L. 111-5)
          
          
            PY2009(P.L. 111-8)
          
          
            PY2010(P.L. 110-351)
          
          
            PY2011 (P.L. 112-5)
          
          
            PY2012 (P.L. 112-74)
          
          
            PY2013(P.L. 113-6)
          
          
            PY2014(P.L. 113-76)
          
          
            PY2015(P.L. 113-235)
          
        
        
          
            Total
$1,188,000,000 
$924,069,000 
$924,069,000 
$825,913,862 
$824,353,022 
$781,375,289 
$818,169,000 
$829,547,000 
Alabama
11,647,403
9,059,768
11,777,698
12,455,574
11,711,479
10,504,766
10,363,134
10,973,635 
Alaska
3,936,018
3,061,576
2,755,418
2,216,462
2,024,817
1,919,253
2,009,628
2,037,653 
Arizona
17,830,637
13,869,309
15,982,731
15,326,190
16,510,641
15,938,449
16,873,353
18,380,399 
Arkansas
12,065,555
9,385,022
8,446,520
6,794,393
6,431,994
6,367,716
6,814,031
7,694,400 
California
186,622,034
145,161,310
136,875,948
117,952,080
123,857,750
118,211,133
119,122,833
120,707,084 
Colorado
11,874,970
9,236,777
11,132,070
9,788,025
11,882,561
11,600,883
12,414,406
11,835,030 
Connecticut
11,034,723
8,583,204
8,869,254
8,060,872
8,794,724
8,152,502
9,398,657
9,634,681 
Delaware
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
2,009,628
2,037,653 
District of Columbia
3,969,821
3,087,869
2,779,082
2,402,872
2,323,591
2,074,840
2,216,117
2,329,955 
Florida
42,873,265
33,348,363
43,352,872
50,372,277
53,892,125
47,791,321
45,067,004
42,774,978 
Georgia
31,361,665
24,394,229
28,251,785
24,305,197
25,482,266
25,123,453
27,467,948
27,630,735 
Hawaii
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,690,193
2,272,811
2,243,958
2,174,842
2,049,527
2,037,653 
Idaho
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,950,667
3,428,419
4,027,145
3,623,538
3,414,748
3,116,131 
Illinois
62,203,400
48,384,035
43,545,632
36,086,031
32,767,678
33,775,763
38,093,547
42,336,174 
Indiana
23,677,573
18,417,265
19,697,136
16,043,006
15,457,182
15,696,820
17,756,443
16,203,657 
Iowa
5,172,183
4,023,109
4,750,212
5,519,334
4,962,142
4,671,103
4,739,579
4,781,261 
Kansas
7,121,714
5,539,524
5,930,458
5,248,975
5,511,824
5,304,061
5,398,508
5,370,179 
Kentucky
17,709,821
13,775,333
14,303,105
12,514,937
12,676,374
11,299,654
12,118,913
13,717,594 
Louisiana
20,012,271
15,566,262
14,009,636
11,269,372
11,409,318
9,733,043
9,327,194
9,194,017 
Maine
4,293,710
3,339,802
3,476,520
2,887,584
2,831,274
2,888,765
3,244,888
3,214,985 
Maryland
11,585,610
9,011,703
11,311,383
10,073,999
10,354,690
10,289,216
11,989,592
12,364,002 
Massachusetts
24,838,038
19,319,917
17,387,925
15,988,686
15,009,154
12,803,985
14,507,221
16,504,685 
Michigan
73,949,491
57,520,566
51,768,509
41,642,666
37,407,571
31,911,591
30,072,831
31,250,104 
Minnesota
17,789,172
13,837,056
14,264,509
11,474,392
10,523,152
9,841,004
9,947,978
9,078,036 
Mississippi
18,687,021
14,535,436
13,081,892
10,523,093
9,452,885
8,556,357
9,200,818
9,151,084 
Missouri
25,400,077
19,757,091
17,781,382
14,549,044
15,108,428
13,072,955
12,877,148
14,228,439 
Montana
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,344,418
2,174,750
2,405,630
2,105,266
2,152,132
2,152,782 
Nebraska
2,944,616
2,290,428
2,518,508
2,288,141
2,207,155
2,157,402
2,394,620
2,425,096 
Nevada
7,570,212
5,888,382
7,654,897
8,303,837
9,104,832
9,407,590
8,865,521
9,034,617 
New Hampshire
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,253,475
2,024,817
1,919,253
2,200,035
2,037,653 
New Jersey
20,834,103
16,205,512
20,938,294
20,362,826
20,322,861
21,422,496
25,513,414
23,282,287 
New Mexico
6,235,678
4,850,334
4,365,301
4,775,669
4,918,291
4,195,688
4,625,925
5,249,778 
New York
71,526,360
55,635,768
51,835,670
46,253,787
45,892,839
46,093,646
52,011,703
52,128,262 
North Carolina
25,070,698
19,500,888
25,351,154
24,598,968
23,736,834
26,575,543
28,871,997
26,347,165 
North Dakota
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
2,009,628
2,037,653 
Ohio
56,158,510
43,682,103
39,313,893
31,915,350
29,136,945
25,942,472
26,270,342
28,593,170 
Oklahoma
8,708,036
6,773,423
6,970,582
6,877,913
6,676,111
5,982,158
6,258,954
6,941,080 
Oregon
15,068,081
11,720,493
13,707,810
11,026,583
10,760,018
9,901,654
10,543,691
10,431,168 
Pennsylvania
40,647,780
31,617,301
31,871,328
29,506,561
28,346,353
27,854,861
33,509,103
30,984,178 
Puerto Rico
42,456,987
33,024,567
29,722,110
23,908,509
21,476,993
18,321,559
17,265,863
19,489,676 
Rhode Island
5,611,097
4,364,513
4,531,698
3,767,218
3,687,520
3,676,868
3,743,023
4,106,989 
South Carolina
24,712,293
19,222,108
17,299,897
13,916,063
12,754,206
12,151,961
12,574,365
11,474,747 
South Dakota
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
2,009,628
2,037,653 
Tennessee
25,099,116
19,522,993
18,716,506
16,288,215
15,784,120
15,045,025
16,496,140
17,503,627 
Texas
82,000,708
63,783,091
57,404,782
52,833,195
55,664,646
52,525,623
52,492,802
54,914,867 
Utah
5,067,154
3,941,414
3,547,273
4,121,624
5,347,985
4,562,251
4,304,671
3,928,231 
Vermont
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
2,009,628
2,037,653 
Virginia
12,982,612
10,098,341
13,127,843
13,540,444
13,020,339
12,509,940
13,392,465
13,325,559 
Washington
23,445,432
18,236,698
17,997,280
15,992,583
16,959,549
16,388,794
16,309,501
15,945,865 
West Virginia
5,343,318
4,156,224
3,924,261
4,315,932
4,577,244
3,904,748
3,957,765
3,987,564 
Wisconsin
13,808,812
10,740,989
13,963,286
13,099,180
12,342,748
12,133,146
13,562,824
14,041,859 
Wyoming
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
2,009,628
2,037,653 
State Total
1,167,210,000
907,897,792
907,897,792
811,460,369
809,926,844
767,701,222
803,851,042
815,061,036
Outlying Areas Total
2,970,000
2,310,173
2,310,173
2,064,785
2,060,883
1,953,438
2,045,423
2,042,759
Native Americans
17,820,000
13,861,035
13,861,035
12,388,708
12,365,295
11,720,629
12,272,535
12,443,205
Source: Congressional Research Service presentation of DOL, ETA, State Statutory Formula Funding, , http://www.doleta.gov/budget/statfund.cfm.
.
        Note: Funds appropriated for a given fiscal year correspond to funding for a program year. The program year is July 1 through June 30, although funds may be made
 available on April 1, pursuant to Section 189(g)(1)(B) of the Workforce Investment Act. Funds for the program are available for two program years, including funds
 appropriated under ARRA. ARRA funds were available for two program years—PY2009 and PY2010, which extended through June 30, 2011. For purposes of the
 summer youth component, youth may participate in summer activities from May 1 through September 30, though it would appear that youth could participate only
 through the end of June in 2011.
a.

c11173008

CRS-49

 
        a.

    ARRA appropriated $1.2 billion for the Youth Activities program. Section 801 of ARRA permitted DOL to use 1% ($12 million) of funds for administration,
 management, and oversight of the program.

 Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs

.

Author Contact Information
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara
Specialist in Social Policy
afernandes@crs.loc.gov, 7-9005

c11173008

Congressional Research Service

50

 Author Contact Information
[author name scrubbed], Specialist in Social Policy
        ([email address scrubbed], [phone number scrubbed])
      
Footnotes1.
            
        
           U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), Employment and Training Administration (ETA), Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 19-14, "Vision for the Workforce System and Initial Implementation of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014," February 19, 2015; and DOL, ETA, TEGL No. 23-14, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) Youth Program Transition." See also, U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking," PUT 80 Federal Register 20689–21150, April 16, 2015; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration and U.S. Department of Education, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Joint Rule for Unified and Combined State Plans, Performance Accountability, and the One-Stop System Joint Provisions; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking," PUT 80 Federal Register 20573—20687, April 16, 2015.
2.
            
        
           The employment-to-population (E/P) ratio is the proportion of individuals in the population as a whole who are employed.
3.
            
        
           DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. (Hereinafter, DOL, BLS, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.)
4.
            
        
           Andrew Sum, Joseph McLaughlin, and Sheila Palma, The Collapse of the Nation's Male Teen and Young Adult Labor Market, 2000-2009: The Lost Generation of Young Male Workers, Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern University, prepared for C.S. Mott Foundation, July 2009, http://www.nyec.org/content/documents/ThecollapseoftheNation'sMaleTeenandYoungAdult.pdf. See also, CRS Report R42519, Youth and the Labor Force: Background and Trends, by [author name scrubbed].
5.
            
        
           DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
6.
            
        
           The average freshman graduation rate (AFGR) is an estimate of the percentage of an entering public school freshman class graduating in four years. For the most recent school years, the AFGR has been between 74% and 81%. Of the approximately 20% to 25% of youth who do not graduate in four years, some continue in school because they have a learning disability or for other reasons; however, many of these youth drop out, with some returning to school at a later time. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2015, "Averaged Freshman Graduation Rate (AFGR) for Public High School Students: School Years 1990-91 through 2011-2012," Indicator 28, Figure 1, May 2015, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015144.pdf.
7.
            
        
           Ibid, "Status Dropout Rates of 16- Through 24-year-olds, by Race/Ethnicity: 1990 through 2013," Indicator 29, Figure 2. 
8.
            
        
           Ibid.
9.
            
        
           CRS Report R40535, Disconnected Youth: A Look at 16- to 24-Year Olds Who Are Not Working or In School, by [author name scrubbed] and [author name scrubbed].
10.
            
        
           Ibid.
11.
            
        
           For further information about the challenges certain groups of youth face while making the transition to adulthood, see CRS Report RL33975, Vulnerable Youth: Background and Policies, by [author name scrubbed].
12.
            
        
           DOL, BLS, "Employment projections: Earnings and Unemployment Rates by Educational Attainment," April 2015, http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm.
13.
            
        
           Emily Richards and David Terkanian, "Occupational Employment Projections to 2022," Monthly Labor Review, December 2013, pp. 9-10, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2013/article/pdf/occupational-employment-projections-to-2022.pdf. (Hereinafter Emily Richards and David Terkanian, "Occupational Employment Projections to 2022.") See also, Anthony P. Carnevale, Nicole Smith, and Jeff Strohl, Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements through 2018, Georgetown University, Center on Education and the Workforce, June 2010, http://cew.georgetown.edu/JOBS2018/.
        
      
      
        14.
            
        
           Anthony P. Carnevale et al., Career Cluster: Forecasting Demand for High School Through College Jobs 2008-2018, November 2011, http://cew.georgetown.edu/clusters/.
        
      
      
        15.
            
        
           Emily Richards and David Terkanian, "Occupational Employment Projections to 2022."
16.
            
        
           Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, The Consequences of Dropping Out of High School: Joblessness and Jailing of High School Dropouts and the High Cost for Taxpayers, October 1, 2009, http://iris.lib.neu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=clms_pub; Paul E. Barton, One Third of a Nation: Rising Dropout Rates and Declining Opportunities, Educational Testing Services, February 2009, http://www.ets.org/Media/Education_Topics/pdf/onethird.pdf; and Clive R. Belfield, Henry M. Levin, and Rachel Rosen, The Economic Value of Opportunity Youth, prepared for the Corporation for National and Community Service and the White House Council for Economic Solutions, January 2012, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED528650.pdf.
17.
            
        
           Unless otherwise noted, this section draws heavily on an archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Youth Employment: A Summary History of Major Federal Programs, 1933-1976. Available upon request.
18.
            
        
           John H. Bremner, Tamara K. Hareven, and Robert M. Mennel, eds., Children & Youth in America, Vol. II: 1866-1932, Parts 1-6 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 687-749.
19.
            
        
           Much of this section on YEDPA was drawn from Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R. Papageorgiou, eds., Youth Employment and Training Programs: The YEDPA Years, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1985, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED265245&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED265245. (Hereinafter, Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs.)
20.
            
        
           A fourth, the Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC), was operated by the Department of Agriculture and Department of the Interior, in cooperation with DOL, and targeted unemployed youth ages 16 to 23 who were not necessarily disadvantaged. This program operated year-round and was separate from a similarly named program, the Youth Conservation Corps (YCC). YCC was permanently authorized by the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970 (P.L. 91-378) and continues to operate. 
21.
            
        
           Other parts of YEDPA required close coordination with the school system. According to an assessment of the act's implementation, the schools maintained their focus on in-school youth and provided essentially the same set of educational services as usual. The lack of influence of YEDPA on schools may be largely attributed to the schools' resistance to allocating services according to income and the schools' perception that their mission was exclusively to educate students. Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs, pp. 84-87. 
22.
            
        
           Unless otherwise noted, this section was drawn heavily from an archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The Job Training Partnership Act: A Compendium of Programs. Available upon request. 
23.
            
        
           Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Job Training Partnership Act: Legislation and Budget Issues. Available upon request.
24.
            
        
           Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The School-to-Work Opportunities Act. Available upon request.
25.
            
        
           For further information about the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs, see CRS Report RL33687, The Workforce Investment Act (WIA): Program-by-Program Overview and Funding of Title I Training Programs, by [author name scrubbed].
26.
            
        
           U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP), Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety, Modernizing the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 to Help Workers and Employers Meet the Changing Demands of a Global Market, 111th Cong., 1st sess., July 16, 2009. 
27.
            
        
           U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Ensuring Economic Opportunities for Young Americans, 111th Cong., 1st sess., October 1, 2009.
28.
            
        
           House Committee on Education and the Workforce and Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (HELP) Committee, "Bipartisan, Bicameral Group Announces Deal to Improve American Workforce Development System," May 21, 2014.
29.
            
        
           Most workforce programs operate on a program year basis, which extends from July 1 of one year through June 30 of the following year. WIOA specifies that most of the bill's provisions go into effect at the beginning of the first full program year following the law's enactment, which is July 1, 2015. DOL, ETA has a website that includes guidance and other information about the new law. See DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act," http://www.doleta.gov/wioa/.
        
      
      
        30.
            
        
           Another youth program, Youth Opportunity Grants program, was authorized under WIA. The program was funded from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated until 2005. As stated in WIA, the program was intended to provide employment, educational, and youth development activities to increase the long-term employment of youth who live in enterprise communities, empowerment zones, and high-poverty areas and who seek assistance. By definition, enterprise communities and empowerment zones are in low-income areas. WIOA did not reauthorize this program.
31.
            
        
           Section 101(b)(1)(II) of WIOA.
32.
            
        
           Section 102(b)(1)(D) of WIOA. 
33.
            
        
           Section 108(b)(9) of WIOA. 
34.
            
        
           Section 107(b)(4)(ii) of WIOA.
35.
            
        
           Section 121(b)(1)(B) of WIOA. 
36.
            
        
           Section 189(g)(1)(A) of WIOA. Section 173(h)(2), which pertains to authorization for YouthBuild, states that notwithstanding Section 189(g), appropriations for any fiscal year for programs and activities carried out under this section are to be available for obligation only on the basis of a fiscal year.
37.
            
        
           Section 189(g)(2) of WIOA. 
38.
            
        
           For further information, see CRS Report R43611, Recent Developments in the Job Corps Program: Frequently Asked Questions, by [author name scrubbed].
39.
            
        
           Appropriations law generally specifies that funds appropriated for the administration account are available for the fiscal year in which they are appropriated; funds appropriated for the operations account are available for the accompanying program year (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 support the program in PY2013); and funds appropriated for the CRA account are available for the accompanying program year and the two succeeding program years (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 are available through June 30, 2017).
40.
            
        
           The FY2014 appropriations law (P.L. 113-76) and FY2015 appropriations law (P.L. 113-235) authorize DOL to transfer up to 15% of CRA funds to the operations account or administration account. 
41.
            
        
           DOL, Office of Inspector General, Office of Audit, The U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds, Report No. 22-13-015-03-370, May 31, 2013, http://www.oig.dol.gov/public/reports/oa/2013/22-13-015-03-370.pdf. (Hereinafter, U.S. DOL, Office of Inspector General, The U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds.)
42.
            
        
           Title I, Chapter 4 of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 664. 
43.
            
        
           Section 129(a) of WIA.
44.
            
        
           Section 102 and Section 103 of WIOA (and Section 112(b)(12) of WIA). 
45.
            
        
           Section 107(b) of WIOA (Section 117(b) of WIA).
46.
            
        
           Section 121 of WIOA (Section 134(b) of WIA).
47.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.700).
48.
            
        
           Section 117(h) of WIA.
49.
            
        
           Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIA. WIA specified that the youth council include members of the local board with special interest or expertise in youth policy; representatives of youth service, juvenile justice, and local law enforcement agencies; representatives of local public housing authorities; and parents of eligible youth seeking assistance through the Adult or Dislocated Worker programs, among others. Further, the local board had to ensure that parents, participants, and other members of the community with experience relating to programs for youth were involved in the design and implementation of the Youth program. 
50.
            
        
           Section 107(2)(iv) of WIOA.
51.
            
        
           Section 107(b)(4)(A)(ii) of WIOA.
52.
            
        
           Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIOA.
53.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.100).
54.
            
        
           The outlying areas comprise the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau. WIOA specifies that the Republic of Palau may not apply for funding during any period during which DOL and the Department of Education (ED) determine that a Compact of Free Association (COFA) is in effect and contains provisions for training and education assistance that prohibit the assistance provided under WIOA. COFA defines the relationship that Palau has entered into as an associated state agreement with the United States.
55.
            
        
           Section 127(1) of WIOA (Section 127(1) of WIA). 
56.
            
        
           Section 127(b)(1)(B)(ii) of WIOA (and Section 127(1)(B)(ii) of WIA). In practice, funds for outlying areas were distributed under WIA by formula. 
57.
            
        
           The word "relative" means the number of individuals in a state compared to the total number in all states.
58.
            
        
           As with WIA, WIOA provides small state minimums such that no state receives less than—the total of three-tenths of 1% of $1 billion that is allocated to states, or two-thirds of 1% of the excess if the allocation exceeds $1 billion. Under WIA, in years where appropriations exceed $1 billion, the minimum allotments were the higher of (1) 90% of a state's relative share of the previous year's funding, (2) the amount the state received in 1998, or (3) 0.3% of the first $1 billion plus 0.4% of the amount over $1 billion.
59.
            
        
           Section 128(a) of WIOA (Section 128(a) of WIA). 
60.
            
        
           Section129(b) of WIOA (Section129(b) of WIA).
61.
            
        
           Section 128(b) of WIOA (Section 128(b) of WIA). 
62.
            
        
           Section 107(d)(10(B) and Section 123 of WIOA. "For cause" is not defined under WIOA. (Section 117(d)(2)(B) and Section 123 of WIA.)
63.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.400).
64.
            
        
           Section 129(c) of WIOA (Section 129(c) of WIA).
65.
            
        
           These elements were classified under these categories (for purposes of WIA) in the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data Book.
66.
            
        
           Section 129(c)(3) of WIOA (Section 129(c)(3) of WIA).
67.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, TEGL No. 9-00, "Workforce Investment Act of 1998, Section 129—Competitive and Non-competitive Procedures for Providing Youth Activities Under Title I", January 31, 2001, and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter No. 18-00, April 23, 2001. Local boards are advised to establish ongoing relationships with non-WIA funded activities that provide services for WIA-eligible youth. 
68.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.470).
69.
            
        
           A local area is exempt if it is in a state that (1) receives 90% of the allotment percentage for the preceding fiscal year for the Youth program (per Section 127(b)(1)(C)(iv)(I)) or Adult program (Section 132(b)(1)(B)(iv)(I)); or (2) receives the small state minimum allotment under the Youth program (per Section 127(b)(1)(C)(iv)(II)) or Adult program (per Section 132(b)(1)(B)(iv)(II). A local area that meets one of these two criteria would be able to decrease the funds used for out-of-school youth to 50% of their allotment (that is used for non-administrative costs) only if the state (1) determines that the local area will be unable to use at least 75% of the funds available due to a low number of out-of-school youth; (2) submits to the Secretary, on behalf of the local area, a request including a proposed percentage decrease (not less than 50%), and (3) a summary of the analysis about the determination. This request has to be approved by the Secretary. WIA included these same requirements.
70.
            
        
           Section 129(a)(4) of WIOA (Section 129(c)(4) of WIA). 
71.
            
        
           Less than 1% of youth tend to enroll in both programs as implemented under WIA. See Social Policy Research Associates, WIASRD Data Book, Table II-14.
72.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, "Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules," 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.430).
73.
            
        
           Section 136 of WIA. 
74.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-04 "Announcing the Soon-to-be Proposed Revisions to Existing Performance Reporting Requirements... ," February 28, 2005.
75.
            
        
           U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, "WIA Waiver Authority: Increased Flexibility and Improved Programmatic Outcomes, Summary of WIA Waivers," http://www.doleta.gov/waivers/.
        
      
      
        76.
            
        
           Section 116(A) of WIOA.
77.
            
        
           Program participants who obtain a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent are to be included in the percentage counted if, in addition to obtaining such diploma or its recognized equivalent, they have obtained or retained employment or are in an education or training program leading to a recognized postsecondary credential within one year after exit from the program.
78.
            
        
           The law specifies that DOL and the Department of Education are to jointly develop and establish one or more indicators of performance that indicate the effectiveness of the Youth program (and Adult and Dislocated Worker programs) in serving employers.
79.
            
        
           Section 116(b(3)(v) of WIOA.
80.
            
        
           Title I, Subtitle J of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 670.
81.
            
        
           Section 141 of WIA and WIOA. These are the purposes under WIOA. The purposes specified under WIA are similar.
82.
            
        
           Under WIA, the DOL Secretary may select an entity to operate a CCC on a competitive basis if the center fails to meet national performance standards (as with DOL-operated centers). WIOA specifies that DOL must select another entity to operate a CCC if it fails to meet the expected levels of performance relating to the primary indicators of performance or fails to improve performance after three program years. WIOA also adds that enrollees in CCCs may provide assistance in addressing disasters, consistent with current child labor laws.
83.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook, http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/prh.sflb. (Hereinafter, DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook.)
84.
            
        
           Section 147(a) of WIOA (Section 147(a) of WIA). 
85.
            
        
           Section 147(g) of WIOA.
86.
            
        
           Section 150 of WIOA (Section 150 of WIA). 
87.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook.
88.
            
        
           Section 154 of WIOA (Section 154 of WIA). WIA specified that a business and community liaison designated by the director was responsible for these activities.
89.
            
        
           Section 154 of WIOA (Section 154 of WIA). WIA referred to this body as the industry advisory council. 
90.
            
        
           Ibid.
91.
            
        
           No more than 20% of participants may be ages 22 through 24 on the date of enrollment. The age limit may be waived by DOL, in accordance with DOL regulations, for individuals with a disability. 
92.
            
        
           Section 145 of WIOA (Section 145 of WIA).
93.
            
        
           Section 145(a) of WIOA (Section 145(a) of WIA).
94.
            
        
           Section 145(b) of WIOA (Section 145(b) of WIA).
95.
            
        
           Section 145(d) of WIOA (Section 145(d) of WIA).
96.
            
        
           Section 147(b) of WIOA (Section 147(b) of WIA). 
97.
            
        
           Section 146 of WIOA (Section 146 of WIA). 
98.
            
        
           Section 159(c) and Section 159(d) of WIA.
99.
            
        
           For further information, see DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, "Performance Management System Overview Guide." 
100.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, "Performance Management System Overview Guide." 
101.
            
        
           Section 159(f) of WIA and WIOA.
102.
            
        
           Section 161(b) of WIOA.
103.
            
        
           DOL, Office of Inspector General, The U.S. Department of Labor's Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds.
104.
            
        
           Section 161(a) of WIOA.
105.
            
        
           Title I, Subtitle D, Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
106.
            
        
           Section 171(a) of WIOA (Section 173A(a) of WIA).
107.
            
        
           Section 173(b) of WIOA (Section 173A(b) of WIA). 
108.
            
        
           U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, "YouthBuild Program Final Rule," 77 Federal Register 9112, February 15, 2012. 
109.
            
        
           U.S. DOL., ETA, "ETA Quarterly Workforce System Results, YouthBuild," http://www.doleta.gov/performance/results/#etaqr. 
110.
            
        
           Section 171(c) of WIOA (and Section 173(c) of WIA).
111.
            
        
           Title I, Subtitle D, Section 171 of the Workforce Investment Act.
112.
            
        
           This is based on a review of initiatives funded by the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program. DOL, ETA, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/Youth_services/Discretionary.cfm.
113.
            
        
           This program was known as the Youth Offender Pilot Program, and funded 14 communities that provided educational, employment, re-entry, and other services to youth. 
114.
            
        
           The earliest funding for the program was authorized under Title IV of the Job Training Partnership Act. See U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Notice Inviting Proposals for Youth Offender Demonstration Projects, August 28, 1998, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/sga/01-101sga.cfm.
115.
            
        
           For a list of grantees and grant funding amounts, see DOL, ETA, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/. 
        
      
      
        116.
            
        
           Between PY2000 and PY2006, DOL used Youthful Offender funding to support the Serious and Violent Reentry Initiative at the Department of Justice; to award competitive grants to serve youthful offenders in 29 communities; to award non-competitive grants to several nonprofit organizations to serve young offenders and youth at risk of becoming offenders; and to award grants to eight states to improve the academic and workforce preparation programs in one juvenile correctional facility in each state. 
117.
            
        
           Youth ages 18 and older may also be eligible to participate in the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI), which seeks to reduce recidivism by helping former inmates find work when they return to their communities.
118.
            
        
           For further information about Youth ChalleNGe, see CRS Report RL34306, Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring Programs and Issues, by [author name scrubbed].
119.
            
        
           ESEA requires each state receiving funds under the act to establish and implement a statewide policy requiring that a student attending a persistently dangerous school, as determined by the state in consultation with a representative sample of local education agencies (LEAs), or a student who becomes a victim of a violent criminal offense on school grounds be allowed to attend a safe school within the LEA.
120.
            
        
           DOL, ETA, Budget Justification of Appropriation Estimates for Committees on Appropriations, FY2016, vol. I, p. TES-83.