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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job
Training Programs
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara
Specialist in Social Policy
January 13, 2014May 5, 2015
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R40929
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Summary
In an increasingly global economy, and with retirement startingunderway for the Baby Boomer
generation,
Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young people have the
the educational attainment and employment experience needed to become highly skilled workers,
contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the economy and
among certain youth populations, however, have heightened concern among policymakers that
some young people may not be prepared to fill these roles.
The employment levels for youth
under age 25 have declined markedly in recent years, including
in the wake of the 2007-2009
recession. Certain young people—includingsuch as high school dropouts,
current and former foster youth,
and other at-risk populations—face challenges in completing
school and entering the workforce.
While the United States has experienced a dramatic increase
in secondary school attendance in
the past several decades, approximately 97% of youth ages 18
through to 24 have not attained a high school
diploma or its equivalent. In addition, millions of
young people are out of school and not working.
Since the 1930s, federal job training and employment programs and policies have sought to
connect vulnerable youth to work and school. Generally, these young people have been defined as
being at-risk because they are economically disadvantaged and have a barrier to employment.
During the Great Depression, the focus was on employing young men who were idle through
public works and other projects. The employment programs from this era included an educational
component to encourage youth to obtain their high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the
federal government began funding programs for low-income youth that address their multiple
needs through job training, educational services, and supportive services.
Today’s primary federal youth employment and job training programs are carried out by the
Department of Labor’s (DOL’s) Employment and Training Administration (ETA). These
programs were authorized under the authorized under the
Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA, P.L. 105-220), and are carried out by the Department of
Labor’s (DOL’s) Employment and Training Administration (ETA). Although these programs are
funded somewhat differently and have varying eligibility requirements, they generally have a
common purpose—to provide
through FY2003, and Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent
years. Although these programs have varying eligibility requirements and are carried out under
different funding arrangements, they generally have a common purpose—to provide vulnerable
youth with educational and employment opportunities and access
to leadership development and community service activities. Many of the programs target the
most vulnerable youth, including school dropouts, homeless youth, and youth offenders. Based on
funding and the number of youth served, the WIA Youth Activities (Youth) formula program and
Job Corps are the largest.
community service activities.
The Youth Activities program provides an array ofoffers job training and
other services through what are known as
local workforce investmentdevelopment boards. The program was
is funded at $781.3831.8 million in FY2013FY2015
(Program Year (PY) 2015; the program year extends from July 1 of one year through June 30 of
the next year). Job Corps provides training in a number of trades at centers
where youth reside,
and received FY2013FY2015 (PY2015) appropriations of $1.617 billion.
Another program, YouthBuild,
engages youth in educational services and job training that focus
on the construction trades.
YouthBuild received FY2013FY2015 (PY2015) appropriations of $75.579.7 million.
Separately, WIA’s pilot
and demonstration authority has been used to carry out the Reintegration
of Ex-Offenders
program (RExO), which providesincludes job training and other services tofor juvenile and
adult offenders.
The youth component of the program was funded at $43.9 million in FY2013. Finally, the Youth
Opportunity Grant (YOG) program, which was funded until FY2003, was targeted to youth who
lived in select high-poverty communities. In FY2003, the program received $54.6 million.
This report accompanies CRS Report R42583, Vulnerable Youth: Overview of Issues Affecting
Youth Programs Authorized Under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA).
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
42.5 million in FY2014 (final FY2015
funding for the youth component was not available at the time this report was published).
On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed into law the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity
Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128). WIOA made significant amendments to the youth programs,
particularly to the Youth Activities program and Job Corps program. The YouthBuild program
remains essentially the same. WIOA does not explicitly authorize the Reintegration of ExOffenders program; however, Congress appropriated funding for the program in FY2015 (P.L.
113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169
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authorizes evaluations and research. The amendments to the youth programs generally go into
effect on July 1, 2015.
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Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Context............................................................................................................................................. 12
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job Training Programs ................................................ 4
Depression Era........................................................................................................................... 4
War on Poverty Programs .......................................................................................................... 5
Expanding Youth Programs ....................................................................................................... 5
CETA and YEDPA .........Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) and Youth Employment
and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA) ..................................................................................................... 6
JTPA ................................................. 6
Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)................................................................................... 7
STWOASchool to Work Opportunity Act (STWOA) ....................................................................... 7
Workforce Investment Act (WIA) ........................................................ 7
WIA .......................................................................... 8
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) ........................................................... 8
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under Title I of the Workforce Investment ActWIA and WIOA ............. 8................ 9
Coordination .............................................................................................................................. 9 16
Funding .......................................................................................................................................... 10
FY2014 Funding and Request 16
Funding for FY2000-FY2015.................................................................................................. 11
Funding for FY2000-FY201317
FY2015 Funding ............................................................................................................... 12
FY201317
FY2014 Funding ............................................................................................................... 1318
Job Corps Transfer Authority .................................................................................................. 1519
Youth Activities Formula Grant Program Program...................................................................................... 17
Overview and Purpose ...................................................................... 20
Overview and Purpose ....................................... 17
Program Structure ........................................................................... 20
Program Structure ......................................... 18
Youth Councils .......................................................................................... 21
Youth Councils ........................ 19
Elements of Local Programs ............................................................................................. 20
Participants 22
Allocations.............................................................................................................................. 22
Older and Out-of-School Youth . 23
Elements of Local Programs ............................................................................................. 23
Allocations.24
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 2327
Performance............................................................................................................................. 2429
Job Corps ....................................................................................................................................... 2632
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 2632
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 2632
Services ............................................................................................................................. 27
Participants 33
Allocations............................................................................................................................... 29
Allocations.35
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 2935
Performance............................................................................................................................. 29
YouthBuild ......................36
Performance Oversight............................................................................................................... 30
Overview and Purpose 37
Financial Oversight ............................................................................................................. 30
Program Structure.... 38
YouthBuild .................................................................................................................... 30
Participants ................. 38
Overview and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 32
Allocations.........38
Program Structure ...................................................................................................................... 32
Performance 39
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 32
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders41
Allocations....................................................................................................... 32
Overview and Purpose ........................ 41
Performance..................................................................................... 32
Program Structure ........................................ 41
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders............................................................................ 33
Education........................... 42
Overview and Purpose ................................................................................................ 34
Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and Expansion Grants ....................................... 34............. 42
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Reentry ......
Program Structure ......................................................................................................................... 35
Community Service/Restorative Justice......................... 42
Education................................................... 36
Participants ........................................................................ 43
Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and Expansion Grants ...................................................... 36
Allocations 44
Reentry ............................................................................................................................... 36
Performance 44
Community Service/Restorative Justice............................................................................ 45
Participants ................................................. 37
Youth Opportunity Grants............................................................................. 45
Allocations................................. 37
Overview and Purpose .............................................................................................. 46
Performance............... 37
Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 37
Participants ........................ 46
Tables
Table 1. Features of Youth Programs Authorized Under WIA and (as of July 1, 2015)
WIOA ...................................................................................................... 38
Allocations...................................... 11
Table 2. Appropriations for DOL Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
PY2000-PY2015 and Under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA,
P.L. 111-5)......................................................................................... 38
Performance Measures ............................................................................................................ 39
Tables18
Table 1. Funding for DOL Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
Appropriations for FY2000-FY20133. Elements of Youth Programs as Specified Under WIA and WIOA .......................................................................................... 13 25
Table 2. Elements of Youth Programs Funded by
WIA Youth Activities Formula Grant Program .4. Youth Program Eligibility Under WIA and WIOA ......................................................................... 20 27
Table 35. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs ........................................... 2530
Table 46. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild,
as Specified in the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) .................................... as Specified Under WIOA ............................ 3140
Table A-1. WIA Youth Activities State Allotments, PY2008-PY2013PY2009-PY2014, Plus Funding Under
the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5) ......................................... 4047
Appendixes
Appendix A. Workforce Investment Act Funding for Youth Programs ......................................... 40
Appendix B. Definitions of Terms Used in WIA Youth Programs ........WIA Youth Program........................................ 43 47
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 4650
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Introduction
In an increasingly competitive economy, and with retirement starting for the Baby Boomer
generation, Congress has indicated a strong interest in ensuring that today’s young people have
the educational attainment and employment experience necessary to become highly skilled
workers, contributing taxpayers, and successful participants in civic life. Challenges in the
economy and among vulnerable youth populations, however, have heightened concern among
policymakers that many young people may not be prepared to fill these roles.
The employment levels for youth under age 25 have declined markedly in recent years, including
generally declined since 2000, though
attachment to the workforce has improved for this population in the wake of the recession that
extended from December 2007 through June 2009. Certain
young people in particular—including
those from low-income families, high school dropouts,
foster youth, and other at-risk
populations—face barriers to completing school and entering the
workforce. Since the 1960s,
federal job training programs and policies have sought to connect
these youth to education and
employment pathways. Contemporary federal youth employment
programs with this same
purpose arewere authorized under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of
1998 (P.L. 105-220) 1998 (P.L. 105-220)
through FY2003. Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent
years. These programs provide a range of services and supports to youth. They
include the Youth
Activities (Youth) formula“Youth”) grant program; Job Corps; YouthBuild; the
and the Reintegration of Ex-OffendersExOffenders program, which includes a youth component; and the Youth
Opportunity Grant (YOG) program. Some of the programs concentrate on
specific job trades
and/or serve targeted at-risk populations. Based on funding, Job Corps and the Youth program are
the largest.is the
largest program. On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed into law the Workforce Innovation
and Opportunity Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128). WIOA supersedes WIA and makes significant
amendments to the youth programs, including new services that are to be provided under the
Youth Activities program and new accountability provisions for the Job Corps program. Changes
made by WIOA will generally go into effect on July 1, 2015.1
This report provides an overview of federal employment programs for vulnerable young people.
It begins with a discussion of the current challenges in preparing all youth today for the
workforce. The report then provides a chronology of job training and employment programs for
at-risk youth that began in the 1930s and were expanded or modified from the 1960s through the
1990s. It goes on to discuss the fivefour youth programs authorized under WIA, and draws
comparisons between these programs. Following this section is a detailed discussion of each of
the programs. This report accompanies CRS Report R42583, Vulnerable Youth: Overview of
Issues Affecting Youth Programs Authorized Under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA).
Context
The recent economic recession that ended in June 2009 focused attention on the role of the
federal and state governments in supporting workers who have been laid off or are at risk of being
laid off. During economic downturns, youth are particularly vulnerable to job loss. From 2000
through 2011, the employment to population (E/P) ratio1 among teens steadily declined, from
36.8% to 25.8%, and increased slightly to 26.1% in 2012. Over the summer, when teens are most
likely to have jobs, the E/P ratio has decreased steadily in the past several years. In July 2000,
about four out of ten (44.1%) teens were employed, compared to 26.6% in July 2013.2 The July
2013 E/P ratio was the third lowest (after the employment rates for July 2010 and 2011) during
the post-World War II period. The declining E/P ratio overall appears to be attributable to rising
1
The employment to population (E/P) ratio is the proportion of individuals in the population as a whole who are
employed.
2
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
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levels of joblessness and not to a declining interest in employment among teens.3 According to
the research literature, possible consequences of reduced work among teens are reduced
employment earnings, labor productivity in the future, and output in the economy. Similarly, the
E/P ratio of young adults ages 20 through 24 have declined steadily.4 In 2012, the average E/P
ratio for 20- through 24-year-olds was 61.5%, which represents about a 15% decrease from
Where applicable, the report discusses how the programs will change under WIOA.
1
U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), Employment and Training Administration (ETA), Training and Employment
Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 19-14, “Vision for the Workforce System and Initial Implementation of the Workforce
Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014,” February 19, 2015; and DOL, ETA, TEGL No. 23-14, “Workforce
Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) Youth Program Transition.” See also, U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking,” PUT 80 Federal Register 20689–21150, April 16, 2015; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment
and Training Administration and U.S. Department of Education, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Joint
Rule for Unified and Combined State Plans, Performance Accountability, and the One-Stop System Joint Provisions;
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking,” PUT 80 Federal Register 20573—20687, April 16, 2015.
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Context
During economic downturns, youth are particularly vulnerable to job loss. From 2000 through
2012, the employment-to-population (E/P) ratio2 among teens steadily declined, from 36.8% to
26.1%, and increased slightly to 26.6% in 2013 and 27.3% in 2014. Over the summer, when teens
are most likely to have jobs, the E/P ratio decreased steadily in the past several years. In July
2000, about four out of ten (44.1%) teens were employed, compared to 27.1% in July 2014.3 The
July 2014 E/P ratio was among the lowest during the post-World War II period; however, it
increased from 25.2% in July 2011. According to the research literature, possible consequences of
reduced work among teens are reduced employment earnings, labor productivity in the future,
and output in the economy.4 Similarly, the E/P ratio of young adults ages 20 through 24 have
declined steadily. In 2014, the average E/P ratio for 20- through 24-year-olds was 62.9%, which
represents about a 15% decrease from 2000.5
Even in periods of relative economic stability, some youth do not complete school and/or make
the transition to the workforce. While the majority of young people graduate from (public) high
school by age 18 or shortly thereafter,6 just over 7% of youth ages 16 through 24 have dropped
out and have not earned a high school diploma or its equivalent.7 This figure is higher among
black and Hispanic youth.8 Further, recent estimates of youth who are not working or in school
(i.e., “disconnected”) for at least a year are approximately 2.64 million.9 Certain youth face
barriers to remaining in school or securing employment, including poverty, their parents’ level of
education, and whether the youth are pregnant or parenting, among other factors. For example,
youth ages 16 through 24 who are parenting are far more likely to be disconnected than their
counterparts who are not.10 Youth in or aging out of foster care, runaway and homeless youth, and
youth offenders, among other groups of youth, are particularly vulnerable to not completing high
school, going on to college, or securing employment.11 For example, in a study of youth who had
been in foster care and were, on average, about age 25, most had obtained a high school diploma
or passed the general education development (GED) test at about the same rate as young people
ages 18 to 29 in the general population. However, they were much less likely to have a bachelor’s
degree—1.8% versus 22.5% of all young people.12 Further, the employment rate for these foster
care alumni was 80%, while the employment rate for their counterparts in the general population
was 95%.
3
Ibid.
2
The employment-to-population (E/P) ratio is the proportion of individuals in the population as a whole who are
employed.
3
DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. (Hereinafter, DOL,
BLS, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.)
4
Andrew Sum, Joseph McLaughlin, and Sheila Palma, The Collapse of the Nation’s Male Teen and Young Adult Labor
Market, 2000-2009: The Lost Generation of Young Male Workers, Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern
University, prepared for C.S. Mott Foundation, July 2009, http://www.nyec.org/content/documents/
ThecollapseoftheNation'sMaleTeenandYoungAdult.pdf.
5
U.S. Department of Labor See also, CRS Report R42519, Youth and the Labor Force:
Background and Trends, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
5
DOL, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
6
The average freshman graduation rate (AFGR) is an estimate of the percentage of an entering public school freshman
class graduating in four years. For the most recent school years, the AFGR has been about 75%. Of the 25% of youth
between 74% and 81%. Of the
approximately 20% to 25% of youth who do not graduate in four years, some continue in school because they have a
learning disability or for other reasons;
however, many of these youth drop out, with some returning to school at a later time while they are working or are idle.
time. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2013, 2014,
“Averaged
Freshman Graduation Rate (AFGR) for Public High School Students: School Years 1990-91 through 2009-2010,”
20112012,” Indicator 28, Figure 1, May 20132014, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2013/2013037.pdf.pubs2014/2014083.pdf
7
Ibid, “Status Dropout Rates of 16- Through 24-year-olds, by Race/Ethnicity: 1990 through 20112012,” Indicator 29,
Figure 12.
8
Ibid.
9
CRS Report R40535, Disconnected Youth: A Look at 16- to 24-Year Olds Who Are Not Working or In School, by
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara and Thomas Gabe.
10
Ibid.
11
For further information about the challenges certain groups of youth face while making the transition to adulthood,
see CRS Report RL33975,
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12
Peter J. Pecora et al., Improving Foster Family Care: Findings from the Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study, Casey
Family Programs, 2005, http://www.casey.org/Resources/Publications/ImprovingFamilyFosterCare.htm.
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youth offenders, among other groups of youth, are particularly vulnerable to not completing high
school, going on to college, or securing employment.11
As they leave high school, either through graduation or by dropping out, young people can pursue
various options. Youth with a high school diploma may attend a two- or four-year college, enlist
in the armed services, or secure part-time or full-time employment (sometimes paired with
attending school). Youth without a high school diploma can do some of these same things, but
their opportunities are more limited. They cannot enroll in a four-year college or, in most cases,
enlist in the military. These youth will likely have difficulty supporting themselves if they do
work.
In fact, individuals who drop out are less likely to secure employment and are likely to have less
earning power. As the level of education rises, the unemployment rate decreases and median
weekly earnings increase for those who work.13 In 201212 In 2014, among workers with less than a high
school degree, the unemployment rate was 12.49.0% and earnings averaged $471488 per week. This is
compared to an unemployment rate of 8.36.0% and $652668 in weekly earnings for workers with a high
school degree. Workers with a bachelor’s degree had an unemployment rate of 43.5% and median
weekly earnings of $1,066101. With the shift to a knowledge-based economy, many new jobs will
require some college education or better. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the
fastest growing occupations between 20102012 and 20202022 will require some postsecondary education.1413
Further, in all career clusters, a bachelor’s degree or better offers accessibility to the most highpaying jobs.14 Still, most highpaying jobs.15 As discussed later in the report, the growing need for education to secure
employment is likely a major reason why some young people are foregoing work for school. Still,
BLS predicts that the occupations with the largest numeric increases will not
require workers to
have postsecondary education. A high school diploma or less is sufficient to enter 23 of 30 such
occupations. have postsecondary education15
The costs of dropping out extend beyond the individual’s foregone job opportunities and lower
wages.16 According to the research literature, costs can be incurred by society overall. These costs
include possible lost payroll tax revenue and increased transfers for welfare payments,
imprisonment, and programs to re-enroll dropouts in school.
Federal youth employment and job training programs have long targeted services to young people
who leave school before graduating or are in school and may be vulnerable to dropping out. The
purpose of these programs, as they currently exist, is to provide job training, employment,
educational services, and social services that can help youth become economically self-sufficient
and achieve their career and academic goals. These contemporary programs also emphasize
13
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey; Education Pays, May 22, 2013,
http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm.
14
C. Brett Lockard and Michael Wolf, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2020,” Monthly Labor Review, vol.
135, no. 1 (January 2012), pp. 88, 90, and 103, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2012/01/art5full.pdf.16
11
For further information about the challenges certain groups of youth face while making the transition to adulthood,
see CRS Report RL33975, Vulnerable Youth: Background and Policies, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
12
DOL, BLS, “Employment projections: Earnings and Unemployment Rates by Educational Attainment,” April 2015,
http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm.
13
Emily Richards and David Terkanian, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2022,” Monthly Labor Review, pp.
9-10, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2013/article/pdf/occupational-employment-projections-to-2022.pdf. (Hereinafter
Emily Richards and David Terkanian, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2022.”) See also, Anthony P.
Carnevale, Nicole Smith, and Jeff Strohl, Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements through
2018, Georgetown University, Center on Education and the Workforce, June 2010, http://cew.georgetown.edu/
JOBS2018/.
1514
Anthony P. Carnevale et al., Career Cluster: Forecasting Demand for High School Through College Jobs 20082018, November 2011, http://cew.georgetown.edu/clusters/.
15
Emily Richards and David Terkanian, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2022.”
16
Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, The Consequences of Dropping Out of High School:
Joblessness and Jailing of High School Dropouts and the High Cost for Taxpayers, May 5October 1, 2009,
http://iris.lib.neu.edu/
cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=10201022&context=clms_pub; Paul E. Barton, One Third of a Nation:
Rising Dropout Rates
and Declining Opportunities, Educational Testing Services, February 2009, http://www.ets.org/
Media/
Education_Topics/pdf/onethird.pdf. Clive R. Belfield, Henry M. Levin, and Rachel Rosen, The Economic Value of
of Opportunity Youth, prepared for the Corporation for National and Community Service and the White House Council
for Economic Solutions, January 2012, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED528650.pdf.
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Federal youth employment and job training programs have long targeted services to young people
who leave school before graduating or are in school and may be vulnerable to dropping out. The
purpose of these programs, as they currently exist, is to provide job training, employment,
educational services, and social services that can help youth become economically self-sufficient
and achieve their career and academic goals. These contemporary programs also emphasize
leadership development and community service. Note that while youth employment and job
training programs are also enhanced with state workforce and other dollars, the extent to which
this support is provided is unclear.
History of Federal Youth Employment and Job
Training Programs17
For more than 70 years, the federal government has played a role in helping young people secure
employment and achieve academic success. Generally, these young people have been defined as
being vulnerable in some way—either because they are economically disadvantaged and/or have
a barrier to securing employment or completing their education. During the Great Depression, the
focus was on employing idle young men in public works and other projects. The employment
programs from this era included an educational component to encourage youth to obtain their
high school diplomas. Beginning in the 1960s, the federal government started funding programs
for low-income youth, such as Job Corps, that address their multiple needs, including job training,
educational services, housing, and supportive services. During the 1970s and 1980s, Job Corps
was expanded and the federal government funded additional programs for both in-school and outof-school youth. Funding was also appropriated to test the efficacy of some of these programs.
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 extended earlier programs and created new ones, with the
intention of providing more seamless job training and education services for youth year-round.
Generally, these programs are targeted to teenagers and young adults, usually not beyond age 24,
who are at risk of dropping out or have already done so.
Depression Era
Prior to the 1930s, the federal government’s involvement in youth employment was primarily
limited to regulating child labor.18 The Great Depression served as a catalyst for the creation of
federal programs to employ and educate young people who were out of work or at risk of
dropping out of school due to financial difficulties. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
began in 1933 as an employment program for unemployed males ages 18 to 25 (and veterans,
Indians, and residents of territories of any age) to participate in projects planned by the
Departments of the Interior and Agriculture. These projects focused on creating and improving
infrastructure, transportation, and recreational services, among other categories. The young men
lived in camps and were provided with an allowance, food, and medical care. The CCC also
included an educational component, which taught nearly 35,000 participants to read and write and
assisted a smaller number with attaining their high school and college degrees. Until the program
ended in 1945, it served nearly 3 million men, of whom approximately 10% were veterans.
Other Depression era programs—the Student Aid program, Works Project program, and Guidance
and Placement program—were administered by the National Youth Administration, which was
created as part of the now-defunct Works Progress Administration by an executive order in 1935.
17
Unless otherwise noted, this section draws heavily on an archived report by the Congressional Research Service,
Youth Employment: A Summary History of Major Federal Programs, 1933-1976. Available upon request.
18
John H. Bremner, Tamara K. Hareven, and Robert M. Mennel, eds., Children & Youth in America, Vol. II: 18661932, Parts 1-6 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 687-749.
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assisted a smaller number with attaining their high school and college degrees. Until the program
ended in 1945, it served nearly 3 million men, of whom approximately 10% were veterans.
Other Depression era programs—the Student Aid program, Works Project program, and Guidance
and Placement program—were administered by the National Youth Administration, which was
created as part of the now-defunct Works Progress Administration by an executive order in 1935.
The programs provided funds for part-time employment of needy high school, college, and
graduate students to assist them in completing school, as well as funds for part-time employment
for unemployed out-of-school youth. These young people, all of whom were ages 16 through 25,
were employed in a number of broad areas, including construction, clerical work, and research.
These programs served hundreds of thousands of youth before they were discontinued in the early
1940s.
War on Poverty Programs
The 1960s marked a period of federal efforts to assist poor and disadvantaged children,
adolescents, and their families through job training and other programs. In response to concerns
about high unemployment, the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 (P.L. 87-415)
and subsequent amendments to it authorized funding for employment training. Specifically,
amendments to the act in 1963 (P.L. 88-214) encouraged the Department of Labor to provide
assistance to youth so that they might be able to successfully enter the labor force, and expanded
the share of job training funds that could be used to train youth under age 22 from 5% to 25%.
Further, federal funding was first authorized through the 1963 amendments to provide
employment opportunities to youth from low-income families.
President Lyndon B. Johnson’s subsequent War on Poverty established new youth-targeted
programs in job training and educational assistance under an initiative known as the
Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC). The NYC was comprisedmade up of work training programs, the
Work Work
Study program, and Job Corps. The work training programs provided work experience, job
training, and supportive services to low-income unemployed youth ages 16 through 21 who were
in school or out of school, including dropouts. The Work Study program was modeled on the
Depression-era Student Aid program and provided money to high school and college students
from low-income families who needed earnings to stay in school. The program continues today
for college students. Job Corps, which also continues today, was established under the Economic
Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452) to provide educational and job training opportunities to
disadvantaged youth at residential and non-residential centers. (See “Job Corps,” below, for
further information.)
Expanding Youth Programs
The 1973 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA, P.L. 93-203) was the first of
four laws enacted during the 1970s and 1980s that focused greater federal attention on youth
employment and training. The second law, the Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project
Act (YEDPA, P.L. 95-93) was enacted in 1977 and established a variety of employment, training,
and demonstration programs for youth. The 1982 Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA, P.L. 97300) repealed CETA. JTPA was subsequently repealed by WIA. Separately, the School-to-Work
Opportunities Act of 1994 (STWOA, P.L. 103-239) supported the development of programs that
encouraged students to pursue learning opportunities and experiences that incorporated
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occupational skills. Activities authorized under these acts were administered by DOL. STWOA
was additionally carried out by the Department of Education (ED).
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CETA and YEDPAComprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) and Youth Employment
and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA)
As amended through 1978, CETA authorized a range of employment and training programs for
adults and youth. Job Corps and the Summer Program for Economically Disadvantaged Youth
(SPEDY) were the primary youth programs authorized under CETA. SPEDY provided funding to
employers to hire low-income youth ages 14 through 21 during the summer months. Youth served
as assistants in hospitals, libraries, community service organizations, and schools, among other
settings.
The Youth Employment and Demonstrations Project Act (YEDPA), signed into law in 1977,
amended CETA.19 YEDPA increased authorization of appropriations for Job Corps and SPEDY
and authorized three additional programs targeted to “economically disadvantaged” (defined
under the act) youth ages 14 through 21: Youth Employment and Training Programs (YETP),
Youth Community Conservation and Improvement Projects (YCCIP), and Youth Incentive
Entitlement Pilot Projects (YIEPP).20 YEDPA was passed in response to high levels of
unemployment among youth relative to adults, even during periods of economic expansion, and
growing gaps in youth unemployment among whites and blacks, males and females, and inschool and out-of-school youth. The programs were carried out during the Carter Administration,
from 1977 through 1981. Over this period, YEDPA served 6.1 million youth.
YETP and YCCIP were intended to meet the immediate employment needs of youth, and funding
for the programs was allocated primarily on a formula basis. YETP activities include work
experience, pre-employment skills, and an emphasis on the transition from school to work.
YCCIP was intended to assist unemployed, out-of-school youth obtain a high school degree,
conditional on satisfactory performance in work and school. Further, it was aimed at improving
coordination between the job training and educational systems as a means of addressing the
dropout problem.21 Finally, YIEPP funded evaluations to test the efficacy of demonstration
programs; the other two programs included funding for demonstration programs. During the
YEDPA years, more than 60 major demonstrations were funded in about 300 sites, operated by
DOL in cooperation with six other federal agencies and private nonprofit intermediaries.
19
Much of this section on YEDPA was drawn from Charles L. Betsey, Robinson G. Hollister, and Mary R.
Papageorgiou, eds., Youth Employment and Training Programs: The YEDPA Years, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1985, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=
true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED265245&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED265245.
(Hereinafter, Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs.)
20
A fourth, the Young Adult Conservation Corps (YACC), was operated by the Department of Agriculture and
Department of the Interior, in cooperation with DOL, and targeted unemployed youth ages 16 to 23 who were not
necessarily disadvantaged. This program operated year-round and was separate from a similarly named program, the
Youth Conservation Corps (YCC). YCC was permanently authorized by the Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970
(P.L. 91-378) and continues to operate.
21
Other parts of YEDPA required close coordination with the school system. According to an assessment of the act’s
implementation, the schools maintained their focus on in-school youth and provided essentially the same set of
educational services as usual. The lack of influence of YEDPA on schools may be largely attributed to the schools’
resistance to allocating services according to income and the schools’ perception that their mission was exclusively to
educate students. Betsey, Hollister, and Papageorgiou, Youth Employment and Training Programs, pp. 84-87.
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JTPA22.
Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA)22
CETA was repealed in 1982 by the Job Training Partnership Act. JTPA was distinct from its
predecessor because it emphasized that states and localities, rather than the federal government,
had the primary responsibility for administering job training and employment programs. Funding
was appropriated under JTPA through FY1999. JTPA programs focused on the training needs of
“economically disadvantaged” (defined under the act) youth and adults facing significant barriers
to employment. These programs were frequently referred to as “second chance” programs
because most of them were intended to train individuals who had not sufficiently benefitted from
traditional secondary and post-secondary education. They included the Summer Youth
Employment and Training program, the Youth Training Program, and Job Corps (discussed in the
next section).
The Summer Youth Employment and Training program provided employment and training
activities during the summer months for low-income youth ages 14 through 21 to strengthen basic
educational skills, encourage school completion, provide work exposure, and enhance citizenship
skills. In the summer of 1997, an estimated 500,000 youth participated. The Youth Training
Program was established by the Job Training Reform Amendments of 1992 (P.L. 102-367), which
amended JTPA to address concerns that school dropouts were not being reached by the thenexisting combined program for disadvantaged adults and youth, and that the program primarily
served youth who were the easiest to place in jobs and required the fewest services.23 The
program was year-round and provided direct services, such as on-the-job training, tutoring and
study skills training, and school-to-work transition services. It also provided training-related and
supportive services, including job search assistance, drug and alcohol abuse counseling, and cash
incentives based on attendance and performance in a program. Economically disadvantaged inschool and out-of-school youth ages 16 through 21 were eligible, but 50% of participants in
service delivery areas (SDAs), comprised of the state or one or more units of local government,
had to be out of school. Further, at least 65% of youth had to be hard to serve, meaning they were
school dropouts (if out of school), pregnant or parenting, or offenders, among other
qualifications. In program year 1997, an estimated 107,000 youth participated. As discussed
below, JTPA was repealed by WIA, the current law that authorizes youth job training and
employment programs.
STWOASchool to Work Opportunity Act (STWOA)
The School to Work Opportunity Act of 1994 authorized the School-to-Work (STW) program
administered jointly by DOL and the Department of Education through the National School-toWork Office. The program was funded from FY1994 through FY2000.24 The law supported the
development of programs with three main elements: work-based learning to provide participating
students with work experience and on-the-job training; school-based learning, involving
upgrading and integrating the occupational skills participating students learn in school and the
workplace; and program coordination to aid the planning, implementation, and operation of the
22
Unless otherwise noted, this section was drawn heavily from an archived report by the Congressional Research
Service, The Job Training Partnership Act: A Compendium of Programs. Available upon request.
23
Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, Job Training Partnership Act: Legislation and Budget
Issues. Available upon request.
24
Archived report by the Congressional Research Service, The School-to-Work Opportunities Act. Available upon
request.
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.
program. STWOA grants were competitively awarded to states, local partnerships, programs for
Indian youth, and U.S. territories to implement school-to-work systems. In addition, STWOA
authorized national activities, such as research and demonstrations. Some school-to-work
programs that received seed money from the federal program continue to operate today.
WIAWorkforce Investment Act (WIA)
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 replaced JTPA. WIA includes titles that authorize
programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult education and literacy (Title II),
employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation (Title IV). Title I of WIA authorizes
job training programs for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.25 As described by DOL in a 2000
Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) to state and local workforce development
boards, WIA places “new emphasis on serving youth within a comprehensive statewide
workforce development system.” The programs for youth are discussed in further detail below.
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under
Title I of the Workforce Investment Act
Job training and employment services for youth under WIA include
•
Youth Activities, a formula grant program for states that includes employment and
other services that are provided year-round;
•
Job Corps, a program that provides job training and related services primarily at
residential centers maintained by contractor organizations;
•
YouthBuild, a competitive grant program that emphasizes job training and
education in construction;
•
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders, a demonstration program for juvenile and adult
offenders that provides job training and other services and is authorized under
WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority; and
•
Youth Opportunity Grants program, a multi-site demonstration program funded
through FY2003 that created centers in low-income communities where youth
could receive employment and other services.
WIA’s authorization of appropriations expired at the end of FY2003. However, Congress
continues to appropriate funds, including those for youth job training programs—except for the
Youth Opportunity Grants program, which has not been funded since FY2003. All of the
programs are carried out by DOL’s Employment and Training Administration (ETA).26 As
mentioned above, Job Corps was enacted as part of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L.
88-452), and was later incorporated into CETA and JTPA. YouthBuild was originally authorized
25
The programs for youth are
discussed in further detail below. Funding was authorized for the program through FY2003, and
Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs in subsequent years.
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA)
Congress has taken steps toward reauthorizing WIA since the 108th Congress. For example,
during the 111th Congress, the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP) Committee
held a series of listening sessions in April 2009 to address the positive aspects of WIA and to
increase understanding of the issues that can be addressed as part of any reauthorization
legislation. The Senate HELP Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety subsequently
conducted a hearing in July 2009 to discuss how WIA could be updated to help workers and
employers meet the demands of a changing economy.26 In October 2009, the House Education
and Workforce Committee held a hearing on declining youth employment.27 During the 112th
Congress, the House Education and Workforce Subcommittee on Higher Education and
Workforce Training held hearings on removing inefficiencies in job training programs and
modernizing WIA on May 11, 2011, and October 4, 2011, respectively. The full committee held a
hearing on a reauthorization bill, the Workforce Investment Improvement Act of 2012 (H.R.
4297), on April 17, 2012. The committee marked up and favorably reported the bill on June 7,
2012. Also during the 112th Congress, the Senate HELP Committee released discussion drafts in
June 2011 of legislation to amend and reauthorize WIA, but they did not receive further action in
that Congress.
In the 113th Congress, the House Committee on Education and the Workforce ordered reported
H.R. 803—the Supporting Knowledge and Investing in Lifelong Skills Act (SKILLS Act). This
bill was introduced on February 25, 2013, by Representative Virginia Foxx of North Carolina, the
chair of the Subcommittee on Higher Education and Workforce Training. A hearing on H.R. 803
was held before the full Committee on Education and the Workforce on February 26, 2013. The
committee ordered the bill reported by a vote of 23 to 0 on March 6, 2013. The House passed the
bill on March 15, 2013, by a vote of 215 to 202. In the Senate, Senators Patty Murray, Lamar
25
For further information about the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs, see CRS Report RL33687, The Workforce
Investment Act (WIA): Program-by-Program Overview and Funding of Title I Training Programs, by David H.
Bradley.
26
The Office of Job Corps is being transferred from the Office of the Secretary to ETA pursuant to the Consolidated
Appropriations Act, 2010 (P.L. 111-117).
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under the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-550). The
program was administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) until it
was transferred to DOL in 2007 under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281) and
incorporated into WIA.
All of the programs offer employment, job training, and educational services. For example, local
areas must provide 10 specific elements, including mentoring and follow-up, to youth who
receive services under the Youth Activities formula grant program. YouthBuild program
participants engage in employment and other activities primarily related to housing and other
types of construction work. Job Corps is the only one of the programs that provides residential
services; youth can live onsite and receive health care services, child care, and other supports. As
with Job Corps, the YOG program established centers, albeit non-residential, where youth could
receive employment and other services. Further, the programs generally serve vulnerable youth,
but some have more targeted eligibility criteria. Participants in the Youth Activities formula grant
program, YouthBuild, and Job Corps must be low-income and have specific employment barriers.
The youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders serves youth who have become
involved in the juvenile justice or criminal justice system or youth at risk of becoming involved.
When the YOG program was in operation, youth automatically qualified for the program if they
lived in low-income communities. Finally, the programs are funded somewhat differently. DOL
allocates funding for Youth Activities to states based on a formula, while Job Corps enters into
agreements with nonprofit and for-profit organizations and other federal agencies. The other
programs competitively award grants to nonprofit and other organizations and local communities.
Coordination
Together, the WIA Youth program and other WIA programs collectively make up a job training
and workforce system for youth. In some communities, this may be formalized while in others,
coordination between the programs may be less structured.WIA includes provisions that
encourage or require the programs to coordinate with one another. In submitting their state
workforce investment plans to DOL, states must specify how they will coordinate Youth
Activities programming with services provided by Job Corps centers in places where they exist.
In addition, youth councils, comprised of stakeholders with an interest in the employment and
other needs of youth, must include representatives from Job Corps, where applicable. Further,
Youth Activities, Job Corps, and YouthBuild are required partners at one-stop centers. One-stop
centers include approximately 20 federal programs that coordinate employment and other
services in a community for all youth and adults.
The White House Task Force for Disadvantaged Youth, convened in 2002 under President George
W. Bush, sought to improve coordination of youth programs across the federal government and
use federal resources to assist the neediest youth, including those who would be eligible for
programs under Title I of WIA. In response, ETA established the Shared Youth Vision, which was
intended to connect the most at-risk youth to work and school.27 As part of these efforts, DOL
partnered with other federal agencies, including the U.S. Departments of Education, Health and
Human Services, and Justice to improve communication and collaboration across programs that
27
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, TEGL No. 3-04 (“The Employment and
Training Administration’s (ETA’s) new strategic vision to serve out-of-school and at-risk youth under the Workforce
Investment Act (WIA)”), July 16, 2004.
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target at-risk youth groups under an initiative called the “Shared Youth Vision.”28 Together, the
agencies convened an Interagency Work Group and conducted regional forums to develop and
coordinate policies and research on the vulnerable youth population. The purpose of these forums
was to create and implement plans to improve communication and collaboration between local
organizations that serve at-risk youth. DOL competitively awarded grants totaling $1.6 million to
16 states to assist them in developing strategic plans to link their systems that serve youth.
These efforts have been carried forward by the Interagency Working Group on Youth Programs,
which was established by President George W. Bush under Executive Order 13459. Pursuant to
the executive order, the working group consists of 12 federal departments and five federal
agencies, including the Department of Labor.29 The primary functions of the working group, as
specified in the executive order, include (1) identifying and engaging key government and private
or nonprofit organizations that can play a role in improving the coordination and effectiveness of
programs serving and engaging youth, such as faith-based and other community organizations;
(2) developing a new federal website on youth programs; (3) encouraging all youth-serving
federal and state agencies, communities, grantees, and organizations to adopt high standards for
assessing program results, including through the use of rigorous impact evaluations, as
appropriate; and (4) reporting to the President on its work and on the implementation of any
recommendations arising from its work.
Funding
Funding authorization for the youth programs under WIA expired in FY2003. Although funding
authorization has expired, Congress has continued to appropriate funds for most programs
authorized under the law.
Section 189(g)(1)(A) of WIA requires that funds appropriated for a program or activity carried
out under Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis of a program year.30 The
program year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends
June 30 of the following year. Under Section 189(g)(1)(B), funds for Youth Activities may first
become available for a new program year in the preceding April. In addition, Congress has tended
to specify that funds appropriated for YouthBuild and the youth component of the Reintegration
of Ex-Offenders program are available for obligation beginning in the April preceding a given
program year.31
28
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “Shared Youth Vision, Mission and
Objectives,” http://www.doleta.gov/ryf/whitehousereport/vmo.cfm.
29
These include the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Education, Health and Human Services,
Homeland Security, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, Justice, Labor, State, and Transportation; and the
Corporation for National and Community Service, National Science Foundation, Office of National Drug Control
Policy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and U.S. Small Business Association.
30
Section 173(h)(2), which pertains to authorization for YouthBuild, states that notwithstanding Section 189(g),
appropriations for any fiscal year for programs and activities carried out under this section are to be available for
obligation only on the basis of a fiscal year.
31
For information about the timing of funding under the three WIA formula grant programs—Adult, Dislocated
Workers, and Youth—see Congressional Distribution Memorandum, Issues Related to Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
Funding, by David H. Bradley. Available upon request.
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Pursuant to Section 189(g)(2) of WIA, funds obligated for any program year for a program or
activity carried out under Title I may be expended by each state receiving such funds during that
program year and the two succeeding program years.32 Local areas may expend funds received
from the state during the program year and the succeeding program year. Congress has generally
required that obligated funds for Job Corps are made available for one program year, although
funding for certain purposes can be obligated through later dates.
FY2014 Funding and Request33
FY2014 appropriations were not enacted prior to the beginning of the fiscal year (October 1),
resulting in a 16-day shutdown of the federal government. On October 16, 2013, the Senate and
House agreed to a bill (H.R. 2775) to provide temporary government-wide FY2014 funding
through January 15, 2014 (or until full-year funding is appropriated). This bill was signed by the
President on October 17, 2013 (P.L. 113-46). This continuing resolution (CR) generally funds
discretionary, non-security programs at their FY2013 post-sequester, post-rescission levels. All of
the DOL youth programs are discretionary, non-security programs.
As part of the FY2014 budget request, the Administration prioritized the following activities for
each of the youth programs:
•
Youth Activities: The request is for $846.6 million. With these funds, DOL would
increase the share of youth who have credentials by connecting youth to
employment and training programs in growing occupations; increase work
experience and training in the health care sector; implement promising strategies
identified through Workforce Investment fund (WIF) grantees (see below for
discussion of WIF); and assist local programs in developing collaborative
partnerships with the Department of Health and Human Services (which
administers the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program), the
Departments of the Interior and Agriculture (which provide work experiences for
youth on public lands), and the Department of Education (to improve literacy for
out-of-school youth), among other departments.
•
Job Corps: The request is for $1.7 million, including authority for the DOL
Secretary to transfer up to 15% of funds from the construction account to the
operations account. DOL has plans to close a small number of centers that are
“chronically low-performing,” identify and seek to replicate the practices of
high-performing centers, and adopt reforms to reduce costs for the program. The
budget also addresses efforts to improve the program’s financial and contract
oversight practices, including changes to program budget calculations. DOL
further proposes to shift its focus toward strategies that were proven cost
effective in evaluations of the Job Corps program, such as serving more youth
ages 20 through 24.34
32
Funds obligated for any program year for a pilot or demonstration program (Section 171) are to remain available
until expended.
33
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, FY2014 Congressional Budget Justification,
Training and Employment Services and Job Corps.
34
The evaluation was completed in 2006. See Peter Z. Schochet, John Burghardt, and Sheena McConnell, National Job
Corps Study and Longer-Term Follow-Up Study: Impact and Benefit-Cost Findings Using Survey and Summary
Earnings Records Data, August 2006, http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/FullText_Documents/
(continued...)
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•
YouthBuild: The request is for $79.7 million. DOL intends to continue efforts to
expand training in demand occupations outside of construction35 and to increase
credential attainment (GED, high school diplomas, and industry-recognized
credentials). DOL plans to enhance participant placement in employment; postsecondary education, including community colleges; and registered
apprenticeships. Related to this, DOL intends to develop and maintain
partnerships with community colleges and apprenticeship programs.
•
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders: The request for the overall program, which
includes the youth component, is $90.2 million. Some of these funds would be
targeted for testing and replicating innovative and evidence-based strategies for
youth offenders. Some funds would be used for competitive grants to national
and regional intermediaries for activities that prepare young ex-offenders and
dropouts for employment. Priority would be given to projects that serve highcrime, high-poverty areas. DOL also plans to collaborate with the Department of
Defense to demonstrate whether non-violent adjudicated youth will experience
the same benefits as other at-risk youth who have participated in the National
Guard Youth ChalleNGe program. The Youth ChalleNGe program provides
education and social supports to youth who have dropped out of school.36
Funding for FY2000-FY2013
Table 1 includes the level of funds appropriated to each of the youth job training and employment
programs for FY2000 through FY2013. Congress appropriated $2.42 billion to $2.81 billion
annually in most years over this period. Table A-1 in Appendix A presents Youth Activities
funding allocated to the states and outlying areas for PY2008 through PY2013 (the most recent
data available), including under the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA, P.L. 1115), the law that provided additional funding to create and preserve jobs, among other purposes. 37
Of programs that continue to be funded (as of FY2013),38 Job Corps has received the largest
appropriation each year, followed by the Youth Activities program, YouthBuild, and the youth
(...continued)
National%20Job%20Corps%20Study%20and%20Longer%20Term%20Follow-Up%20Study%20%20Final%20Report.pdf.
35
On February 15, 2012, DOL issued a final rule for the YouthBuild program. The preamble to the final rule states that
grantees may expand their occupational skills training beyond construction skills training; however, all programs must
still provide training in the construction trades. DOL explained the reason for the change: “ ... [W]e believe that
allowing programs to be able to match job training opportunities with local, in-demand jobs will lead to more
successful employment outcomes for YouthBuild participants. This will also allow programs, when possible, a better
way to match training opportunities with participants’ interests.” U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, “YouthBuild Program Final Rule,” 77 Federal Register 9112, February 15, 2012.
36
For further information about Youth ChalleNGe, see CRS Report RL34306, Vulnerable Youth: Federal Mentoring
Programs and Issues, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
37
In the accompanying conference report to ARRA, Congress specified that funds for the Youth Activities program
should be used for summer youth employment and to expand year-round employment opportunities for youth up to age
24 (from age 21, as generally required under WIA). U.S. Congress, U.S. House of Representatives. Making
Supplemental Appropriations for Job Preservation and Creation, Infrastructure Investment, Energy Efficiency and
Science, Assistance to the Unemployment, and State and Local Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 2009, and For Other
Purposes, 111th Cong., 1st sess., February 12, 2009, H.Rept. 1116-16.
38
The Youth Opportunity Grants program was funded from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated through FY2005.
(continued...)
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component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders (although in two years, YouthBuild received less
funding than the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders’ youth component).
FY2013 Funding
On March 26, 2013, President Obama signed into law the Consolidated and Further Continuing
Appropriations Act, 2013 (P.L. 113-6). This full-year continuing resolution (CR) superseded a
six-month CR for FY2013 (P.L. 112-175) that had been enacted on September 28, 2012. P.L. 1136 generally funded discretionary, non-security DOL programs and activities at their FY2012
levels, minus an across-the-board rescission of 0.2%, as interpreted by the Office of Management
and Budget (OMB) per Section 3004 of P.L. 113-6. On March 1, 2013, under the terms of the
Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25), as amended by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of
2012 (P.L. 112-240), President Obama ordered a sequestration. 39 The result was an across-theboard cut of an additional 5% for most DOL programs and activities for FY2013. The FY2013
funding levels provided in Table 1 are based on an operating plan provided by DOL to Congress
that incorporates both the rescission and sequestration.40
Table 1. Funding for DOL Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
Appropriations for FY2000-FY2013
(dollars in thousands)
Youth
Offenders
(Reintegration
of ExOffenders)b
Total
Funding, All
Programs
Fiscal Year
Youth
Activities
FY2000
$1,000,965
$1,357,776
$43,000
$13,907
$2,415,648
FY2001
1,127,965
1,399,148
60,000
55,000
2,642,113
FY2002
1,127,965
1,458,732
65,000
55,000
2,706,697
FY2003
994,459
1,509,094
59,610
54,643
2,617,806
FY2004
995,059
1,541,151
65,000
49,705
2,650,915
FY2005
986,288
1,551,861
62,000
69,440
2,669,589
FY2006
940,500
1,564,180
62,000
49,104
2,615,784
FY2007
940,500
1,566,178
49,500
49,104
2,605,282
FY2008
924,069
1,610,506
58,952
55,000
2,648,527
FY2009
924,069
1,683,938
70,000
88,500
2,766,507
ARRA
1,200,000
250,000
50,000
0
1,500,000
Job Corps
YouthBuilda
(...continued)
The program received between $225,100 and $250,000 in each of FY2000 through FY2002 and $44,211 in FY2003.
39
White House, President Obama, Sequestration Order for Fiscal Year 2013 Pursuant to Section 251A of the Balanced
Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act, As Amended, March 1, 2013, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/
default/files/2013sequestration-order-rel.pdf.
40
U.S. Department of Labor, FY2013 Operating Plan, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2014/PDF/
2013OperatingPlanTable.pdf. (Hereinafter, U.S. Department of Labor, FY2013 Operating Plan.)
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Fiscal Year
Youth
Activities
Job Corps
YouthBuilda
Youth
Offenders
(Reintegration
of ExOffenders)b
Total
Funding, All
Programs
FY2010
924,069
1,708,205
102,500
73,493
2,808,267
FY2011c
825,914
1,706,171d
79,840
50,000
2,661,925
FY2012e
824,353
1,702,947
79,689
60,000
2,666,989
FY2013f
781,375
1,613,872
75,534
43,910
N/A
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from Department of Labor (DOL) budget
justifications; Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) budget justifications; DOL Employment
and Training Administration budget information at http://www.doleta.gov/budget; correspondence with DOL;
DOL, All Purpose Table FY2011 Full-Year Continuing Resolution, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2012/PDF/
2011OperatingPlanTable.pdf; U.S. Congress, Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 2055, Military Construction
and Veterans Affairs and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2012 Division F, 112th Cong., 1st sess., December 15,
2011, H.Rept. 112-331; and DOL, FY2013 Operating Plan, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2014/PDF/
2013OperatingPlanTable.pdf.
a.
YouthBuild was transferred from HUD to DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP), Subcommittee on
Employment and Workplace Safety, Modernizing the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 to Help Workers and
Employers Meet the Changing Demands of a Global Market, 111th Cong., 1st sess., July 16, 2009.
27
U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Ensuring Economic Opportunities for Young Americans,
111th Cong., 1st sess., October 1, 2009.
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Alexander, Tom Harkin, and Johnny Isakson introduced the Workforce Investment Act of 2013
(S. 1356) on July 24, 2013. The Senate HELP Committee held a markup of S. 1356 on July 31,
2013, and ordered the bill reported by a vote of 18 to 3. On May 21, 2014, House and Senate
leaders announced an agreement that represented a compromise between H.R. 803 and S. 1356.28
On June 25, 2014, the legislation was subsequently taken up, and passed, by the Senate as H.R.
803.
On July 22, 2014, President Obama signed into law the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity
Act (WIOA, P.L. 113-128). As of July 1, 2015, the law will supersede WIA. Like WIA, WIOA
includes titles that authorize programs for job training and related services (Title I), adult
education and literacy (Title II), employment services (Title III), and vocational rehabilitation
(Title IV). The major job training programs for youth and other workers are authorized in Title I.
The changes made by the bill generally go into effect on July 1, 2015.29
Overview of Youth Programs Authorized Under
Title I of the WIA and WIOA
WIA authorizes, and Congress has funded, three job training and employment services for youth:
•
Youth Activities, a formula grant program for state and local workforce
investment boards that includes employment and other services that are provided
year-round;
•
Job Corps, a program that provides job training and related services primarily at
residential centers maintained by contractor organizations; and
•
YouthBuild, a competitive grant program that emphasizes job training and
education in construction.
Under WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority, DOL established the Reintegration of ExOffenders (ReXO) program, a demonstration program for juvenile and adult offenders that
provides job training and other services. All of the programs are carried out by DOL’s
Employment and Training Administration (ETA). As mentioned above, Job Corps was enacted as
part of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-452), and was later incorporated into
CETA and JTPA. YouthBuild was originally authorized under the Cranston-Gonzalez National
Affordable Housing Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-550). The program was administered by the
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) until it was transferred to DOL in 2007
under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281) and incorporated into WIA.
28
House Committee on Education and the Workforce and Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (HELP)
Committee, “Bipartisan, Bicameral Group Announces Deal to Improve American Workforce Development System,”
May 21, 2014.
29
Most workforce programs operate on a program year basis, which extends from July 1 of one year through June 30 of
the following year. WIOA specifies that most of the bill’s provisions go into effect at the beginning of the first full
program year (PY) following the law’s enactment, which is July 1, 2015. The Department of Labor (DOL),
Employment and Training Administration (ETA) has a website that includes guidance and other information about the
new law. See DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act,” http://www.doleta.gov/wioa/.
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All of the programs offer employment, job training, and educational services. For example, local
areas must provide specific elements, including mentoring and follow-up, to youth who receive
services under the Youth Activities formula grant program. YouthBuild program participants
engage in employment and other activities primarily related to housing and other types of
construction work. Job Corps is the only one of the programs that provides residential services;
youth can live onsite and receive health care services, child care, and other supports. Further, the
programs generally serve vulnerable youth, but some have more targeted eligibility criteria.
Participants in the Youth Activities formula grant program, YouthBuild, and Job Corps must be
low-income and have specific employment barriers, though youth in Youth Activities who are not
in school do not have to be low-income under WIOA. The youth component of the Reintegration
of Ex-Offenders serves youth who have become involved in the juvenile justice or criminal
justice system or youth at risk of becoming involved.
Finally, the programs are funded somewhat differently. DOL allocates funding for Youth
Activities to states based on a formula, while Job Corps enters into agreements with nonprofit and
for-profit organizations and other federal agencies. The other programs competitively award
grants to nonprofit and other organizations and local communities. Table 1 summarizes the major
features of the programs and how they will change under WIOA.30 These changes generally go
into effect on July 1, 2015. (States will receive their first allotment under WIOA for the Youth
Activities program in April 2015.) WIOA does not explicitly authorize the Reintegration of ExOffenders program; however, Congress appropriated funding for the Reintegration of ExOffenders program in FY2015 (P.L. 113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and
the Second Chance Act. Section 169 authorizes evaluations and research.
30
Another youth program, Youth Opportunity Grants program, was authorized under WIA. The program was funded
from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated until 2005. As stated in WIA, the program was intended to provide
employment, educational, and youth development activities to increase the long-term employment of youth who live in
enterprise communities, empowerment zones, and high-poverty areas and who seek assistance. By definition, enterprise
communities and empowerment zones are in low-income areas. WIOA did not reauthorize this program.
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Table 1. Features of Youth Programs Authorized Under WIA and (as of July 1, 2015) WIOA
Key
Feature
Purpose
Youth Activities Program
Job Corps
YouthBuild
Per WIA, to provide eligible youth
with assistance in achieving academic
and employment success through
activities that improve educational
and skill competencies and foster
effective connections to employers;
ensure ongoing adult mentoring
opportunities for eligible youth;
provide opportunities for training,
continued supportive services, and
participation in activities related to
leadership, citizenship, and
community service; and offer
incentives for recognition and
achievement to eligible youth.
Per WIA, to maintain a national Job
Corps program—carried out in
partnership with states and
communities—to assist eligible
youth who need and can benefit
from an intensive program,
operated in a group setting in
residential and nonresidential
centers to become more
responsible, employable, and
productive citizens. The other
purpose areas focus on program
operations.
Per WIA, to enable disadvantaged
youth to obtain the education and
employment skills necessary to
achieve self-sufficiency; foster
leadership skills; provide work and
service opportunities; and expand
the supply of permanent affordable
housing for the homeless.
WIOA does not specify purpose
areas for the program, known as the
Youth Workforce Investment
Activities program. However, the
purpose areas under WIA are
generally consistent with the
provisions of the program under
WIOA.
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WIOA maintains the language
about the partnership with states
and communities but specifies that
the purpose is to assist eligible
youth to connect to the labor
force by providing them with
intensive social, academic, career
and technical education, and
service learning opportunities, in
primarily residential centers, to (1)
obtain secondary school diplomas
or recognized postsecondary
credentials leading to successful
careers, in in-demand industry
sectors or occupations or the
Armed Forces or (2) enroll in
postsecondary education, including
apprenticeship programs; and to
provide responsible citizenship.
The other purpose areas focus on
program operations.
WIOA adds another purpose
area—to improve the quality and
energy efficiency of community and
other nonprofit and public facilities,
including those facilities that are
used to serve homeless and lowincome youth.
Youth Offenders
(Reintegration of ExOffenders)
Per WIA’s pilot and demonstration
authority, to support related
initiatives that seek to assist youth
offenders and youth at risk of
dropping out; to reduce violence
within persistently dangerous
schools; and provide supports for
youth at risk of involvement with
the justice system.
Congress appropriated funding for
the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
program in FY2015 (P.L. 113-235)
under the authority of Section 169
of WIOA and the Second Chance
Act. Section 169 authorizes
evaluations and research.
.
Key
Feature
Target
Population
Youth Activities Program
Job Corps
YouthBuild
Under WIA, youth ages 14 through
21 who are low-income and are one
or more of the following: (1)
deficient in basic literacy skills; (2) a
school dropout; (3) homeless, a
runaway, or a foster child; (4)
pregnant or parenting; (5) an
offender; or (6) require additional
assistance to complete an educational
program or to secure and hold
employment. At least 30% of funds
are to be used for out-of-school
youth.
Under WIA, youth ages 16 through
24 who are low-income and meet
one or more of the following
criteria: (1) basic skills deficient; (2)
homeless, a runaway, or a foster
child; (3) a parent; or (4) an
individual who requires additional
education, vocational training, or
intensive counseling and related
assistance in order to participate in
regular schoolwork or to secure
and maintain employment.
Under WIA, youth ages 16 through
24 who are (1) members of lowincome families, in foster care,
offenders, disabled, the children of
incarcerated parents, or migrants;
and (2) are school dropouts.
Under WIOA, “in-school youth” ages
14 to 21 and “out-of-school youth”
ages 16 to 24 are eligible. “In-school
youth” includes those who are
attending school, low-income, and
meet the criteria specified above
(except that one such barrier
includes individuals who are English
language learners or aged out of
foster care, and does not include
being a school dropout). “Out-ofschool” youth includes those who
meet certain criteria such as being a
high school dropout or being lowincome. For purposes of eligibility,
“low-income” also means youth who
are living in a high-poverty area. No
less than 75% of funds (for statewide
funding and funding for local areas)
must be used for out-of-school
youth.
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WIOA maintains the eligibility
criteria but makes changes to two
of the categories. It specifies
individual youth who aged out of
foster care under the category for
homeless, runaway, and foster
youth. It also changes the last
category to include individuals who
require additional education,
career and technical education or
training, or workforce preparation
skills to be able to obtain and
retain employment that leads to
economic self-sufficiency.
WIOA maintains the eligibility
criteria and adds that it includes
individuals who aged out of foster
care or who were school dropouts
and subsequently reenrolled.
Youth Offenders
(Reintegration of ExOffenders)
Per WIA’s pilot and demonstration
authority, youth offenders, young
adult offenders, and students in
high-risk schools.
It appears that the program will
continue to serve the same
population under WIOA.
.
Key
Feature
Funding
Mechanism
Youth Activities Program
Job Corps
YouthBuild
Under WIA, funds are allocated by
formula to state Workforce
Investment Boards (WIBs), based on
a formula that accounts for a state’s
relative share of unemployment and
economically disadvantaged youth. In
turn, state boards reallocate, by
formula, funding to local WIBs using
certain factors. Local WIBs
competitively contract with local
entities, such as nonprofit
organizations and community
colleges, to provide services.
Under WIA and WIOA, DOL
enters into an agreement with a
federal, state, or local agency; an
area vocational education school or
residential vocational school; or a
private organization to operate Job
Corps centers.
Under WIA and WIOA, grants are
competitively awarded to
community-based organizations,
faith-based organizations, entities
carrying out activities under Title I
(such as a local workforce board),
community action agencies, state
or local housing development
agencies, an Indian tribe or other
agency primarily serving Indians,
state or local youth service or
conservation corps, and other
organizations that provide
education or employment training
under a federal program other than
YouthBuild.
Per WIA’s pilot and demonstration
authority, grants are competitively
awarded to a variety of entities,
including community-based
organizations, school districts, and
state departments of corrections.
Under WIA, grantees may carry
out a number of activities, including
education and employment
activities, supervision in
rehabilitating or constructing
housing and facilities; adult
mentoring; provision of wages or
other benefits; and follow-up
services.
Per WIA’s pilot and demonstration
authority, grantees provide a
variety of activities, depending on
the type of grant awarded. Such
activities can include pre-release,
mentoring, housing, case
management, employment services,
and violence prevention strategies.
WIOA changes the reference from
vocational school to career and
technical education school.
Under WIOA, the allocation of funds
is generally the same. WIOA changed
the language to refer to State
Workforce Development Boards and
Local Workforce Boards.
Types of
Activities for
Youth
Under WIA, each local WIB must
provide 10 elements that include
academic activities, summer
employment opportunities,
supportive services, follow-up
services, and other activities.
Under WIOA, each local board must
provide 14 elements that overlap or
expand on those elements under
current law, and add new elements
that pertain to financial literacy,
entrepreneurial skills training, and
preparation for the transition to
postsecondary education and
training.
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Youth Offenders
(Reintegration of ExOffenders)
Per WIA and WIOA, youth
generally live at the Job Corps
centers, which provide youth with
a program of education, career and
technical training, work experience,
recreational activities, physical
rehabilitation and development,
and counseling.
WIOA adds that grantees may
provide training and supports in
additional in-demand industries, if
approved by the DOL Secretary.
It appears that the program will
continue to award funds under
WIOA in the same way.
It appears that the program will
continue to support the same types
of activities under WIOA.
.
Key
Feature
Youth Activities Program
Job Corps
YouthBuild
Youth Offenders
(Reintegration of ExOffenders)
Youth Served in
the Program
102,971 youth exited the program
(April 1, 2013-March 31, 2014)
53,862 (July 1, 2013-June 30, 2014)a
28,836 were enrolled (cumulative
from October 1, 2007-June 30,
2013)
6,758 (July 1, 2013-June 30, 2014)
Authorized
Funding
Under WIA, such sums as necessary
for FY1999-FY2003.
Under WIA, such sums as
necessary for FY1999-FY2003.
Under WIA, such sums as
necessary for FY2008-FY2012.b
Under WIOA, specified funding
levels that increase over FY2015FY2020 from $820 million to $964
million.
Under WIOA, specified funding
levels that increase over FY2015FY2020 from $1.69 billion to $1.98
billion.
Under WIOA, specified funding
levels that increase over FY2015FY2020 from $76 million to $91
million.
Under WIA pilot and
demonstration authority, such
sums as necessary
for FY1999-FY2003.
FY2014 Funding
(dollars in
thousands)
$820,430
$1,688,155
$77,534
Under WIOA, funding authority
for Section 169 (evaluations and
research) increases over FY2015FY2020 from $91 million to $106.9
million.
$44,134
(FY2013 funding)
$43,500
(FY2014 funding estimate)
Sources: Congressional Research Service (CRS), based on correspondence with DOL, ETA, March 2015; Workforce Investment Act (P.L. 105-220), as amended;
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128); DOL ETA, “Workforce Investment Act; Final Rules,” 65 Federal Register, August 11, 2000; DOL, ETA,
Workforce System Results for the Quarter Ending March 30, 2013 and Workforce System Results for the Quarter Ending June 30, 2013, http://www.doleta.gov/performance/
results/#etaqr, and DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, “Student Outcomes/Who Job Corps Serves,” http://www.jobcorps.gov/AboutJobCorps/performance_planning.aspx;
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data Book,” Table IV-1, March 6, 2015, http://www.doleta.gov/performance/results/pdf/
PY_2013_WIASRD_Data_Book.pdf; and U.S. Congress, House Committee on Rules, 113th Cong., 2nd sess., Committee Print 113-32 to the Senate Amendment to the
Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547), which was enacted as P.L. 113-76.
Notes: Both WIA and WIOA require that funds appropriated for a program or activity carried out under Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis
of a program year (PY). The program year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends June 30 of the following year. Generally, the
appropriations for a given fiscal year (e.g., FY2015) are used to fund the program in the same program year (e.g., PY2015).
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a.
This number includes students who are enrolled in the program during this period, graduates who separated prior to April 1, 2013, and were receiving placement
services; and former enrollees who separated prior to April 1, 2013, and were receiving placement services.
b.
The YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281) was enacted in 2006. It codified the authorizing statute for the YouthBuild program under WIA and transferred the
program from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to the Department of Labor. The program was reauthorized under WIA from FY2008 through
FY2012. P.L. 109-281 retained the core parts of the program; however, it made several notable changes. For a detailed discussion of these changes, see U.S.
CRS-14
.
Department of Labor, “YouthBuild Transfer Act: Synopsis and Section-by-Section Analysis” and “YouthBuild Transfer Act: Side-by-Side Comparison,”
http://www.doleta.gov/reports/youthbuild_program.cfm.
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.
Coordination
Under WIA, the WIA Youth program and other youth programs make up a job training and
workforce system for youth. In some communities, this may be formalized while in others,
coordination between the programs may be less structured. WIA includes provisions that
encourage or require the programs to coordinate with one another. For example, in submitting
their state workforce investment plans to DOL, states must specify how they will coordinate
Youth Activities programming with services provided by Job Corps centers in places where they
exist. In addition, local workforce investment boards must include youth councils, which are
made up of stakeholders with an interest in the employment and other needs of youth and must
include representatives from Job Corps, where applicable. Further, Youth Activities, Job Corps,
and YouthBuild are required partners at one-stop centers. One-stop centers include approximately
20 federal programs that coordinate employment and other services in a community for all youth
and adults.
WIOA strikes some of these provisions and adds new related provisions. The youth programs
authorized under the act will continue to be required partners at one-stop centers.31 Previously,
WIA did not specifically address whether state workforce boards include representatives of youth
organizations. These boards are responsible for carrying out WIA programs at the state level and
allocating funds to local workforce investment boards. Under WIOA, the state workforce board
may include representatives of organizations that have demonstrated experience and expertise in
addressing the employment, training, or education needs of eligible youth, including
representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school youth.32 Further, under the state
workforce plan (“unified state plan”), states will be required to submit a description of the state’s
strategic vision and goals for preparing an educated and skilled workforce—including preparing
youth and individuals with barriers to employment—and for meeting the skilled workforce needs
of employers, among other requirements.33 In addition, local workforce boards, which receive
funds to carry out the Youth Workforce Investment program (and the Adult and Dislocated
Investment programs) will now be required, as part of their local plans, to describe and assess the
type and availability of youth workforce investment activities in the local area, including
activities for youth who are individuals with disabilities. The plan must identify successful
models of such youth workforce investment activities.34 WIOA does not require local workforce
boards to have youth councils; however, they may choose to establish a standing committee to
provide information and assist with planning to provide services to youth.35
Funding
Funding authorization for the youth programs under WIA expired in FY2003; however, funding
was authorized through FY2012 for YouthBuild under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109281), which amended WIA. Although funding authorization expired, Congress continued to
31
Section 121(b)(1)(B).
Section 101(b)(1)(II) of WIOA.
33
Section 102(b)(1)(D) of WIOA.
34
Section 108(b)(9) of WIOA.
35
Section 107(b)(4)(ii) of WIOA.
32
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appropriate funds for most programs authorized under the law. WIOA generally provides funding
authorization from FY2015 through FY2019.
Both WIA and WIOA require that funds appropriated for a program or activity carried out under
Title I of the act are available for obligation only on the basis of a program year.36 The program
year begins on July 1 in the fiscal year for which the appropriation is made and ends June 30 of
the following year. Funds for Youth Activities may first become available for a new program year
in the preceding April under both WIA and WIOA. In addition, Congress has tended to specify
that funds appropriated for YouthBuild and the youth component of the Reintegration of ExOffenders program are available for obligation beginning in the April preceding a given program
year.37 Congress has generally required that obligated funds for Job Corps are made available for
one program year, although funding for certain purposes can be obligated through later dates.
Funds obligated for any program year for a program or activity carried out under Title I of WIA
or WIOA may be expended by each state receiving such funds during that program year and the
two succeeding program years. Local areas may expend funds received from the state during the
program year and the succeeding program year.38
Funding for FY2000-FY2015
Table 2 includes the level of funds appropriated to each of the youth job training and employment
programs for FY2000 through FY2015. Appropriations for these years correspond to the same
program year, and are reported as such in the table (i.e., PY2000 through PY2015). Congress
appropriated a total of $2.42 billion to $2.81 billion annually for these programs in most years
over this period. Table A-1 in the Appendix presents Youth Activities funding allocated to the
states and outlying areas for PY2009 through PY2014 (the most recent data available), including
under the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5), the law that provided
additional funding to create and preserve jobs, among other purposes.
Job Corps has generally received the largest appropriation each year, followed by the Youth
Activities program, YouthBuild, and the youth component of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
(although in two years, YouthBuild received less funding than the ReXO youth component).
FY2015 Funding
After passing a continuing resolution for FY2015 (PY2015), Congress enacted the Consolidated
and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235) to fund DOL through FY2015.
Funding increased from FY2014 by over $11 million for the Youth Activities program and over
$7 million for the YouthBuild program; Job Corps funding remained level. DOL has not yet
determined the amount of funding for youth ex-offenders from the FY2015 appropriation for the
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which is funded at $82.1 million in FY2015. Notably,
36
Section 189(g)(1)(A) of both WIA and WIOA. Section 173(h)(2), which pertains to authorization for YouthBuild,
states that notwithstanding Section 189(g), appropriations for any fiscal year for programs and activities carried out
under this section are to be available for obligation only on the basis of a fiscal year.
37
For information about the timing of funding under the three WIA formula grant programs—Adult, Dislocated
Workers, and Youth—see Congressional Distribution Memorandum, Issues Related to Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
Funding, by David H. Bradley. Available upon request.
38
Section 189(g)(2) of WIA and WIOA.
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Congress specified that of the amount appropriated to the program, $20 million is to be for
competitive grants to national and regional intermediaries for activities that prepare young exoffenders and school dropouts for employment, with a priority for projects serving high-crime,
high-poverty areas.
FY2014 Funding
FY2014 (PY2014) appropriations were not enacted prior to the beginning of the fiscal year
(October 1), resulting in a 16-day shutdown of the federal government. On October 16, 2013, the
Senate and House agreed to a bill (H.R. 2775) to provide temporary government-wide FY2014
funding through January 15, 2014 (or until full-year funding was appropriated). This bill was
signed by the President on October 17, 2013 (P.L. 113-46). A second short-term continuing
resolution (P.L. 113-73) extended appropriations through January 18, 2014. On January 17, 2014,
the President signed into law the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (P.L. 113-76) to fund
appropriations through September 30, 2014. In total, $2.6 billion was appropriated for youth job
training and employment programs.
Table 2. Appropriations for DOL Youth Job Training and Employment Programs,
PY2000-PY2015 and Under the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5)
Dollars in thousands; the fiscal year generally corresponds to the program year for each program
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Youth
Offenders
(Reintegration
of ExOffenders)b
Total
Funding, All
Programs
Program
Year
Youth
Activities
2000
$1,000,965
$1,357,776
$43,000
$13,907
$2,415,648
2001
1,127,965
1,399,148
60,000
55,000
2,642,113
2002
1,127,965
1,458,732
65,000
55,000
2,706,697
2003
994,459
1,509,094
59,610
54,643
2,617,806
2004
995,059
1,541,151
65,000
49,705
2,650,915
2005
986,288
1,551,861
62,000
69,440
2,669,589
2006
940,500
1,564,180
62,000
49,104
2,615,784
2007
940,500
1,566,178
49,500
49,104
2,605,282
2008
924,069
1,610,506
58,952
55,000
2,648,527
2009
924,069
1,683,938
70,000
88,500
2,766,507
ARRA
1,200,000
250,000
50,000
0
1,500,000
2010
924,069
1,708,205
102,500
73,493
2,808,267
2011c
825,914
1,706,171d
79,840
50,000
2,661,925
2012e
824,353
1,702,947
79,689
60,000
2,666,989
2013f
781,375
1,613,872
75,534
43,910
2,514,691
2014
820,430
1,688,155
77,534
42,500
2,628,619
2015
831,842
1,688,155
79,689
Congressional Research Service
Job Corps
YouthBuilda
Not available
Not available
18
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
.
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from DOL budget justifications; Department of
Housing and Urban Development (HUD) budget justifications; DOL Employment and Training Administration
budget information at http://www.doleta.gov/budget; correspondence with DOL; DOL, All Purpose Table FY2011
Full-Year Continuing Resolution, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2012/PDF/2011OperatingPlanTable.pdf; U.S.
Congress, Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 2055, Military Construction and Veterans Affairs and Related
Agencies Appropriations Act, 2012 Division F, 112th Cong., 1st sess., December 15, 2011, H.Rept. 112-331; DOL,
FY2013 Operating Plan, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2014/PDF/2013OperatingPlanTable.pdf; U.S. Congress,
House Committee on Rules, 113th Cong., 2nd sess., Committee Print 113-32 to the Senate Amendment to the
Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547), which was enacted as P.L. 113-76; and the Consolidated and
Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235).
a.
YouthBuild was transferred from HUD to DOL in 2007 pursuant to the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109281).
b.
Prior to FY2008, the Reintegration of Youthful Offenders program was a stand-alone program. It is now
part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program, which includes funding for juvenile and adult activities.
Funding for the program is authorized under Section 171 (Demonstration and pilot projects) of WIA and
Section 112 (Responsible reintegration of offenders) of the recently enacted Second Chance Act (P.L. 110199). Section 112 authorizes DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of providing
mentoring, job training and job placement services, and other comprehensive transitional services to assist
eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining employment.
c.
The Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act, 2011 (P.L. 112-10) includes a
0.2% across-the-board rescission.
d.
Job Corps includes three accounts—administration, operations, and construction. The FY2011
appropriations law iswas based on funding for FY2010, and includesincluded an across-the-board rescission of 0.2% for
for all programs and an additional rescission of $75.0 million. The 0.2% across-the-board rescission applies only
applied
only to current year, and not advance, appropriations. Advance appropriations are those funds enacted in one
one fiscal year but not available for obligation until a subsequent fiscal year or years. Two of Job Corps’ three
three accounts, operations and construction, include advance funds. Therefore, the across-the-board reduction
only applies
reduction only applied to current year funding (or $983.0 million for operations and $5.0 million for
construction).
According to the Department of Labor, $75.0 million was subtracted from existing balances,
and therefore
the FY2011 funding iswas not affected by this decrease. Congressional Research Service
correspondence with
the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, May 2010.
e.
FY2012 funding information was included in the conference report (H.Rept. 112-331) for the Consolidated
Appropriations Act, FY2012 (P.L. 112-74). This law was the final in a series of continuing resolutions to
provide funding for the Department of Labor and select other departments. The figures presented in this
table incorporate an across-the-board rescission of 0.189%.
f.
Funding for FY2013 was provided through a series of continuing resolutions. The final continuing resolution
was the Consolidated and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013 (P.L. 113-6). The FY2013 funding levels
provided were based on the operating plan provided by DOL to Congress. This funding included a 0.2%
rescission, per P.L. 113-6, and a sequestered amount of 5.0%, per the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 11225), as amended by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-240).
Workforce Innovation Fund
In addition to the funds appropriated to the youth programs authorized under WIA, Congress has
provided funding for the Workforce Innovation Fund (WIF), a grant program to supplement
funding for the Youth Activities program and the Adult and Dislocated Worker programs (WIF
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funding not shown in Table 1). These funds are intended to support projects that demonstrate
innovative strategies or replicate evidence-based strategies that strengthen the workforce
investment system and ultimately benefit the education and employment of participants.
According to the DOL FY2013 operating plan, the WIF was funded at $49.9 million for
FY2013.41 DOL has since indicated that approximately $29 million of these funds specifically
targeted youth employment and training.42
Congress provided funding for the WIF in both FY2011 and FY2012. In December 2011, DOL
issued a solicitation announcing the availability of funding for the WIF. The solicitation provides
examples of projects targeted to vulnerable youth. For instance, the solicitation states that projects
can connect “the multiple systems that serve disconnected youth” to support summer employment
and educational work experiences or improve coordination among existing programs, such as Job
Corps and YouthBuild.43 Funds were awarded under this solicitation in June 2012.44
Job Corps Transfer Authority
Congress appropriates funding for Job Corps under three accounts—administration; operations;
and construction, rehabilitation, and acquisition (CRA).45 The final FY2013 appropriations law
Job Corps Transfer Authority39
Congress appropriates funding for Job Corps under three accounts—administration; operations;
and construction, rehabilitation, and acquisition (CRA).40 The final FY2013 appropriations law
39
For further information, see CRS Report R43611, Recent Developments in the Job Corps Program: Frequently
Asked Questions, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
40
Appropriations law generally specifies that funds appropriated for the administration account are available for the
fiscal year in which they are appropriated; funds appropriated for the operations account are available for the
accompanying program year (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 support the program in PY2013); and funds
appropriated for the CRA account are available for the accompanying program year and the two succeeding program
years (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 are available through June 30, 2017).
c11173008
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.
(P.L. 113-6) authorized DOL to transfer up to $30 million of unobligated funds—from previous
appropriations laws or P.L. 113-6, as of March 26, 2013 (the date of the law’s enactment)—to the
operations account from other Employment and Administration (ETA) accounts.41 Notably, these
funds maycould be used to fund operations in program year (PY) 2012 (which ended June 30, 2013)
and possibly PY2013 (which ends June 30, 2014). The law required that of any amount
transferred, a minimum of $10 million must be transferred to support PY2012 operations within
30 days of enactment of the law. It further required that within 15 days of the transfer, DOL was
to submit a report to the appropriations committees including (1) the source of the transferred
funds; (2) Job Corps programs, projects, or activities for which funds will be used; (3) a detailed
explanation of the need for the transfer; and (4) cost saving measures implemented in PY2012
and PY2013, as well as the savings gained by implementing each initiative. On May 7, 2013,
DOL submitted letters to the Committees on Appropriations to indicate that $10 million was
transferred from the ETA Training and Employment Services (TES) account to the Job Corps
operations account for PY2012. 46 Specifically, the funds used were from the Dislocated Worker
National Reserve Pilots and Demonstration funding. The letter also included information that
responded to the other requirements in the appropriations law.
41
U.S. Department of Labor, FY2013 Operating Plan.
Based on correspondence with the U. S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, December
2013.
43
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “Notice of Availability of Funds and
Solicitation for Grant Applications for Workforce Innovation Fund Grants,” December 22, 2011.
44
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “U.S. Labor Department Awards Nearly $147
Million in Workforce Innovation Fund Grants, Announces “Pay for Success” Funding, June 14, 2012.
45
Funds appropriated for the administration account are available for the fiscal year in which they are appropriated;
funds appropriated for the operations account are available for the accompanying program year (i.e., funds appropriated
in FY2013 support the program in PY2013); and funds appropriated for the CRA account are available for the
accompanying program year and the two succeeding program years (i.e., funds appropriated in FY2013 are available
through June 30, 2017).
46
Letter from Seth Harris, U.S. Department of Labor Acting Secretary to The Honorable Barbara Mikulski and The
Honorable Richard Shelby, United States Senate, and The Honorable Harold Rogers and The Honorable Nita M.
Lowey, U.S. House of Representatives, May 7, 2013.
42
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The FY2013 transfer was in response to a shortfall in the operations account for PY2012. DOL
took several measures to reduce costs in PY2012, such as stopping enrollments at all centers
except for certain students. Other cost-reduction measures included implementing a new policy
that winter and summer breaks no longer qualify for paid leave; revising the structure and
payment amounts for stipends and clothing allowances to students; revising and updating policies
on health and wellness; and taking measures to help avoid or lower costs from previous program
years; among other changes.47 These measures achieved $54.6 million in savings.48 Combined
with the transferred amount of $10 million, the operations account recovered $64.6 million for
PY2012.
The shortfall in PY2012 was preceded by a shortfall in the account for PY2011.49 As part of the
FY2011 appropriations law (P.L. 112-10), Congress appropriated $1.7 billion to Job Corps. The
law authorized DOL to transfer up to 25% of appropriated funds from the CRA account to the
operations account, provided that no funds were to be made available to “initiate a competition
for any Job Corps center not previously approved through a competitive selection.”50 Recognizing
a possible funding shortage in the program’s operations account during FY2011, DOL transferred
$26.2 million in the final month of PY2011 (June 2012) from the CRA to the operations accounts,
which was the full 25% authorized under P.L. 112-10. 51 Using other transfer authority for DOL’s
overall budget, the department transferred an additional $2.2 million from the Dislocated Worker
National Reserve account in the Training and Employment Services (TES) appropriation.52 In
total, DOL transferred $28.4 million to the operations account to shore up funding in the
operations account for PY2011.
DOL also took immediate measures in PY2011 to reduce costs. These measures included
modifying contracts to temporarily cut spending in non-mission critical areas such as
administrative expenses, purchasing, and staff travel; adjusting the start of the summer break by
three days so it commenced in PY2012; temporarily suspending student enrollment in June 2012;
and enrolling new students after the summer break, thereby beginning these new enrollments in
47
Ibid, and U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Congressional and Intergovernmental Affairs, congressional listserv
email correspondence from September 2012 through January 2013; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and
Training Administration, Office of Job Corps, “Policy and Requirements Handbook Record of Changes,”
http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/prh_record.sflb.
48
Letter from Department of Labor Acting Secretary Harris to Senators Mikulski and Shelby and Representatives
Rogers and Lowey, May 7, 2013.
49
For further information, see CRS Congressional Distribution Memorandum, Job Corps: Slot Reductions and
Proposal to Close Selected Centers, by Adrienne Fernandes-Alcantara. Available upon request from author.
50
U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Military Construction and Veterans Affairs and Related Agencies
Appropriations Act, 2012 Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 2055, H.Rept. 112-331, committee print, 112th Cong.,
1st sess., December 15, 2011.
51
Letter from Brian V. Kennedy, U.S. Department of Labor Assistant Secretary for Congressional and
Intergovernmental Affairs, to The Honorable Tom Harkin and The Honorable Richard Shelby, United States Senate,
July 20, 2012.
52
Ibid. DOL’s authority to transfer funds from the Dislocated Worker National Reserve account is derived from the
FY2011 appropriations law (P.L. 112-10), which, as a continuing resolution, incorporated provisions from the FY2010
appropriations law (P.L. 111-117). Section 102 of P.L. 111-117 authorized the transfer of up to 1% of any discretionary
funds for the Department of Labor between a program, project, or activity, but “no such program, project, or activity
shall be increased by more than 3 percent by any such transfer.” The transfer amount of $2.2 million was less than 1%
of discretionary funding for Job Corps (or Job Corps operations), which is one of multiple discretionary programs
within DOL.
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PY2012.53 DOL explained that the adjustment to the start of the summer break and delayed
enrollment of new students eliminated transportation costs at the end of PY2011.
At a March 2013 hearing on the Job Corps shortfall before the Senate Health, Education, Labor
and Pensions (HELP) Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety, the then-Assistant
Secretary for ETA Jane Oates testified that that she was uncertain why the funding shortfall
occurred in PY2011, but attributed it, in part, to “serious weaknesses in Job Corps’ financial
management processes,” the opening of three new centers, increases in student-related
expenditures, and concerns with monitoring cost-reimbursement contracts.54
On May 31, 2013, the DOL Office of Inspector General (OIG) released a performance audit
report that discussed the cause of the PY2011 shortfall and addressed whether DOL management
had implemented internal controls over Job Corps funds and expenditures during the first five
months of PY2012. The report found that the PY2011 shortfall was due to (1) untimely
communication about projected costs that exceeded appropriations for the program; (2) initial
planning for costs that did not account for increased expenditures for three new centers; (3)
inaccurately accounting for costs in cost projection models; and (4) lack of consistent monitoring
of costs throughout the program year. The OIG audit also documented concerns with internal
controls to manage Job Corps funding during the first five months of PY2012. Such concerns
included deficiencies in the areas of budget execution, data that supported spending projections,
monitoring of projected to actual costs; and lack of policies concerning communication of
financial and program risks and certain Job Corps activities pertaining to monitoring contracts.55
The next section of the report provides further discussion about the five youth programs
authorized under Title I of WIA.
Youth Activities Formula Grant Program56
Overview and Purpose
The Youth Activities formula grant program is one of three state formula grant programs
authorized by WIA. The other two programs target adults (Adult Activities) and dislocated
workers (Dislocated Worker Activities), although youth ages 18 or older are eligible for services
provided through the Adult Activities program. These programs provide core funding for a
coordinated system of employment and training services overseen by a state workforce
53
U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Congressional and Intergovernmental Affairs, congressional listserv email
correspondence from September 2012 through January 2013; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, Office of Job Corps, “Policy and Requirements Handbook Record of Changes,”
http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/prh_record.sflb.
54
U.S. Congress, Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (HELP), Employment and Workplace Safety, Job
Corps Budget Shortfall: Safeguarding Workforce Training for America’s Disconnected Youth, 113th Cong., 1st sess.,
March 12, 2013. See testimony of Jane Oates, Assistant Secretary for Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration.
55
U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Inspector General, Office of Audit, The U.S. Department of Labor’s
Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds, Report No. 22-13-01503-370, May 31, 2013, http://www.oig.dol.gov/public/reports/oa/2013/22-13-015-03-370.pdf.
56
Title I, Chapter 4 of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 664.
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investment board (WIB) and the governor, and comprised of representatives of businesses and
other partners. The WIA Youth Activities formula grant program is arguably the centerpiece of the
federal youth job training and employment system. As specified in the law, the program has
several purposes: to provide assistance in achieving academic and employment success through
activities that improve educational and skill competencies and foster effective connections to
employers; to ensure ongoing adult mentoring opportunities for eligible youth; to provide
opportunities for training, continued supportive services, and participation in activities related to
leadership, citizenship, and community service; and to offer incentives for recognition and
achievement to youth.
Unlike its predecessor JTPA, which had two separate programs for summer and year-round
activities, WIA funds both under the Youth formula program. WIA also mandates that certain
elements be made available to all youth participants through Youth Activities, including summer
opportunities linked to academic and occupational learning (see Table 2). Under JTPA, several of
these elements were either optional or not present. In addition, the Youth program requires that
30% of WIA youth funds be spent on out-of-school youth. While JTPA’s Youth Training Program
required half of all youth to be out of school, the larger summer youth program did not set any
requirements for this population.
Program Structure
DOL provides funding to state WIBs based on their relative57 unemployment and youth poverty
status.58 In turn, the state WIBs distribute 85% of funds, also based on unemployment and
poverty factors, to local workforce areas that are designated by the governor. The state retains as
much as 15% for statewide activities.59 A local area is overseen by the local WIB. Membership of
the local WIB includes representatives of businesses, local education entities, labor organizations,
community-based organizations, and economic development agencies, among others. Local
WIBs, in coordination with their youth councils (discussed below), competitively award funds to
local organizations and other entities to provide employment and job training services to youth. A
2004 report by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) examined the entities that local
WIBs contract with to provide these services. Based on a survey of all local WIBs, the report
found that about half of all youth received Youth Activities services through community-based
organizations, secondary schools, and colleges or universities.60 A smaller share of youth received
57
The word “relative” as used in this report means the number of individuals in a state compared to the total number in
all states.
58
Under WIA, of the funds appropriated for Youth Activities, not more than 0.25% is reserved for outlying areas and
not more than 1.5% is reserved for Youth Activities for Native Americans. The remainder of funds are allocated to
states by a formula based one-third on the relative number of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial
unemployment (an unemployment rate of at least 6.5%), one-third on the relative “excess” number of unemployed
individuals (an unemployment rate more than 4.5%), and one-third on the relative number of low-income youth.
Section 127(b) of WIA.
59
Alternatively, a state may distribute to local areas a portion equal to not less than 70% of the funds they would have
received using the employment and poverty factors, with the remaining portion of funds allocated on the basis of a
formula that incorporates additional factors relating to excess youth poverty in urban, rural, and suburban local areas
and excess unemployment above the state average in these areas. Such a formula must be developed by the state WIB
and approved by the DOL Secretary as part of the state plan. Section 128(b)(3) of WIA.
60
The report found that in-school youth were most likely to receive services through—in this order—community
organizations, secondary schools, colleges or universities, youth one-stop centers, adult one-stop centers, and other
providers, such as local or state governments. Out-of-school youth were most likely to receive services through—in this
order—community organizations, colleges or universities, secondary schools, adult one-stop centers, youth adult one(continued...)
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services through one-stop centers (discussed below) and other entities, such as local or state
governments and private employers.
With assistance from the state WIB, the governor develops a five-year plan that addresses several
items related to employment and training needs, performance accountability, and employment
and training activities. The plan must address items specific to Youth Activities (Section 112),
including a description of the factors used to distribute funds to local areas for Youth Activities;
the state’s strategy for providing comprehensive services to eligible youth, particularly those who
have significant barriers to employment; the criteria used by local boards in awarding and
assessing providers for youth activities’ grants; and a description of how the state will coordinate
Youth Activities with services provided by Job Corps and Youth Opportunity grants, where
applicable.
The local WIB develops a local plan that discusses items similar to those in the state plan, except
that the plan describes the local area’s one-stop delivery system, which is comprised of partners
that collaborate to provide coordinated employment and training services in the community.
Nearly 20 federal programs must provide services through the one-stop system, either by colocation, electronic linkages, or referrals. A local program funded by the Youth Activities formula
grant program and the one-stop workforce system are encouraged to work together to facilitate
the coordination and delivery of comprehensive, longer-term workforce services for youth.61 In
fact, as a required partner in the one-stop system, a local program must use a portion of its funds
to create and maintain the one-stop delivery system and enter into a memorandum of
understanding with the local WIB relating to the operation of the one-stop, among other
requirements.62
Youth Councils
Each local WIB is required under law to establish a local youth council (Section 117(h)).
Together, the WIB and the youth council oversee a local youth program funded by Youth
Activities. The purpose of the youth council is to provide expertise in youth policy and to assist
the local board in developing portions of the local plan relating to eligible youth. As specified in
the law, the councils must coordinate youth activities in a local area, develop portions of the local
plan related to eligible youth, recommend eligible providers of youth activities to be
competitively awarded grants or contracts, oversee the activities of the providers, and carry out
other duties specified by the local WIB.
The youth council is comprised of members of the local board with special interest or expertise in
youth policy; representatives of youth service, juvenile justice, and local law enforcement
(...continued)
stop centers, and other providers, such as local or state governments. U.S. General Accounting Office, Workforce
Investment Act: Labor Actions Can Help States Improve Quality of Performance Outcome Data and Delivery of Youth
Services, GAO-04-308, February 2004, pp. 17-19. (GAO is now known as the Government Accountability Office.)
61
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter
(TEGL) No. 9-00 (“Workforce Investment Act of 1998, Section 129—Competitive and Non-competitive Procedures
for Providing Youth Activities Under Title I”), January 31, 2001; and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and
Training Administration, TEGL No. 16-00 (“Availability of Funds to Support Planning Projects that Enhance Youth
Connections and Access to the One-Stop System”), March 19, 2001. (Hereinafter, U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration, TEGL No. 16-00, March 19, 2001.)
62
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, TEGL No. 16-00, March 19, 2001.
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agencies; representatives of local public housing authorities; and parents of eligible youth seeking
assistance through the adult activities or dislocated workers activities, among others. A 2002
study by GAO of the Youth Activities program included survey data about the membership of
local youth councils. At the time, nearly all youth councils included participants from youthserving agencies (92%) and people who had experience in youth activities (93%). Seventy-five
percent of youth councils had personnel from public housing authorities and 71% included
parents of WIA-eligible youth. Most youth councils expanded their membership to include
optional representatives, such as local educators.63
Elements of Local Programs
Local programs are responsible for carrying out the purposes of the act. In addition to assessing
the skills of youth who receive services, local programs must provide 10 activities or “elements”
to youth, as summarized in Table 2. DOL classifies elements based on whether they are targeted
to educational achievement, summer employment, employment services, leadership development
activities, or additional support for youth services. In addition, programs must provide follow-up
services.64 Note that although local WIBs must make all 10 program elements available to youth,
each individual youth does not need to participate in all elements. Further, local programs that
receive Youth Activities funding need not provide all 10 program elements if certain services are
already accessible for all eligible youth in the area; however, these other services must be closely
coordinated with the local programs.65 Local WIBs must provide to each youth information on the
fully array of applicable or appropriate services available through the local board, other eligible
providers, or one-stop partners, and they must also refer youth to appropriate training and
educational programs, among other activities.
Table 2. Elements of Youth Programs Funded by
WIA Youth Activities Formula Grant Program
Educational achievement
•
Tutoring, study skills training, and instruction leading to completion of secondary school, including dropout
prevention strategies.
•
Alternative secondary school services, as appropriate.
Summer employment opportunities
•
Summer employment opportunities that are directly linked to academic and occupational learning.
Employment services
•
As appropriate, paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.
•
Occupational skill training, as appropriate.
63
U.S. General Accounting Office, Workforce Investment Act: Youth Provisions Promote New Service Strategies, but
Additional Guidance Would Enhance Program Development, GAO-02-213, April 2002, pp. 20-21. (GAO is now
known as the Government Accountability Office.)
64
These elements are classified in the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data Book.
65
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL)
No. 9-00, January 23, 2001; and Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and
Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-00, April 23, 2001. Local WIBs are advised to establish ongoing
relationships with non-WIA funded activities that provide services for WIA-eligible youth.
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Leadership development activities
•
Leadership development opportunities, which may include, but are not limited to, community service and peercentered activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors during non-school hours, as
appropriate; community and service learning projects; organizational and teamwork training, including team
leadership training; and citizenship training, including life skills training such as parenting, work behavior training,
and budgeting of resources, among other activities.
Additional support for youth services
•
Supportive services.
•
Adult mentoring for the period of participation and a subsequent period, for a total of not less than 12 months.
•
Comprehensive guidance and counseling, which may include drug and alcohol abuse counseling and referral, as
appropriate.
Follow-up services
•
Follow-up services for not less than 12 months after the completion of participation, as appropriate; follow-up
services for youth include regular contact with a youth participant’s employer, including assistance in addressing
work-related problems that arise; assistance in securing better jobs, career development, and further education;
work-related peer groups; adult mentoring; and tracking the progress of youth in employment after training.
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on Section 129(c)(2) of the Workforce Investment Act and
Department of Labor, WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B.
What Elements Mean in Practice66
As part of a 2004 survey of local WIBs, GAO found that most local programs used multiple
service providers to deliver youth services, although some used a small number. For example, a
single WIA provider in rural Wisconsin delivered all 10 elements in a long-term, year-round
program for out-of-school youth. Youth participants worked in teams to build or refurbish lowincome housing. At the building sites, youth received paid employment, occupational training,
leadership training, and mentoring from an adult supervisor. Off site, youth received classroom
instruction to prepare for their high school equivalency exam; career counseling; and support
services, such as meals and health care. Upon exiting, they received monthly follow-up services
for at least two years.
According to the GAO report, schools were also used as youth service providers. Many of the
schools provided youth services directly or collaborated with other education providers. For
instance, an education provider in New Jersey collaborated with local school districts,
universities, and private businesses to operate a program designed to help youth explore careers
in the food industry. During the summer, 30 in-school youth ages 14 through 16 learned basic job
skills in the classroom, visited farms and food businesses, and worked at local food businesses
and restaurants. During the school year, students were placed in paid internships in the food
industry and received mentoring services from employers.
The 2004 report also discusses that local areas developed partnerships with the business
community to deliver services. Over one-third of local WIBs reported that businesses subsidized
work experience for WIA youth. Examples of the types of services provided to youth through
these partnerships include work readiness training, in issues such as punctuality, teamwork,
66
See also archived CRS Report R40830, Vulnerable Youth: Federal Policies on Summer Job Training and
Employment, by Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara.
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respect for others, and appropriate dress, that businesses assisted with; and financial management
curricula provided by businesses.
Finally, a 2004 report for DOL by Social Policy Research Associates drew on data from site visits
to a small number of states and local areas in 2000 and 2001 to understand how the elements are
carried out.67 For example, paid and unpaid work experience entailed work experience in
conjunction with other services to increase a youth’s education and occupational skills. For
instance, in Du Page County, IL, the local WIB developed paid and unpaid work experiences in
information technology occupations, such as web design and computer maintenance.
Participants
A youth is eligible for the Youth Activities formula grant program if he or she is age 14 through
21,68 is a low-income individual, and has one or more of the following barriers:
•
deficient in basic literacy skills;
•
a school dropout;
•
homeless, a runaway, or a foster child;
•
pregnant or parenting;
•
an offender; or
•
requires additional assistance to complete an educational program or to secure
and hold employment.69
At least 30% of all Youth Activities formula grant funds must be used for activities for out-ofschool youth, or youth who have dropped out or received a high school diploma or its equivalent
but are basic skills deficient, unemployed, or underemployed.70
67
Social Policy Research Associates, The Workforce Investment Act After Five Years: Results from the National
Evaluation of the Implementation of WIA, prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor, June 2004,
http://www.doleta.gov/reports/searcheta/occ/papers/SPR-WIA_Final_Report.pdf.
68
ARRA effectively authorized programs funded by Youth Activities via the law to temporarily extend the age of
eligibility from 21 to 24.
69
These terms are defined in Appendix B. Up to 5% of youth participants in a local area may be individuals who do
not meet the income criteria, but have at least one barrier to employment, some of which are not identical to those listed
above: (1) deficient in basic literacy skills; (2) a school dropout; (3) homeless or a runaway; (4) an offender; (5) one or
more grade levels below the grade level appropriate to the individual’s age; (6) pregnant or parenting; (7) possess one
or more disabilities, including learning disabilities; or (8) face serious barriers to employment as identified by the local
WIB (20 C.F.R. 664.220).
70
Title I, Section 101(33) of the Workforce Investment Act.
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Older and Out-of-School Youth
Youth ages 18 through 21 may enroll in
the Youth Activities formula grant program
or Adult Activities program, or may coenroll in both programs. Less than 1% of
youth tend to enroll in both programs.71
Participation in the adult program is based
on a “sequential service” strategy that
consists of three levels of services. Any
individual may receive “core” services
(e.g., job search assistance). To receive
“intensive” services (e.g., individual career
planning and counseling), an individual
must have received core services and need
intensive services to become employed or
to obtain or retain employment that allows
for self-sufficiency. To receive training
services (e.g., occupational skills training),
an individual must have received intensive
services and need training services to
become employed or obtain or retain
employment that allows for selfsufficiency.
Allocations
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker
Programs for Youth
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker programs are authorized
under Section 167 of WIA. Of appropriations exceeding $1
billion for Youth Activities, 4% is to be allocated to youth
activities for farmworkers. The law specifies that every two
years, DOL must, on a competitive basis, make grants or
enter into contracts to carry out workforce investment
activities (including those for youth) and provide related
assistance for eligible migrant and seasonal farmworkers.
These activities may include employment; training;
educational assistance; literacy assistance; an English language
program; workers’ safety training; housing; supportive
services; dropout prevention activities; follow-up services for
those placed in employment, self-employment, and related
business enterprise development; and technical assistance to
build capacity in management information technology.
Funds were allocated in FY1999 through FY2003 for
workforce investment activities targeted to youth from
migrant and seasonal farmworker families. The projects
provided a variety of educational, employment, and youth
development activities to migrant youth.
Migrant youth can qualify for education and other services as
dependents under the Adult Migrant and Seasonal
Farmworker program authorized under Section 167 of WIA.
Youth ages 18 and older can also be served as adults under
the program.
Source: Congressional Research Service correspondence
Funding for the Youth Activities formula
with the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, September 2009.
grant program is allocated from DOL to
states, including Washington, DC, and
territories. Under current law, not more than 0.25% is reserved for outlying areas72 and not more
than 1.5% is reserved for youth activities in the Native American programs (Section 166). The
remainder of the funds are allocated to states by a formula based one-third on the relative number
of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial unemployment (an unemployment rate
of at least 6.5%), one-third on the relative “excess” number of unemployed individuals (an
unemployment rate of at least 4.5%), and one-third on the relative number of low-income youth.
In addition, states receive, at minimum, the higher of 90% of their relative share of the prior
year’s funding or 0.25% of the total allocation, or at maximum, 130% of their relative share of the
prior year’s funding.73
Of the funds allocated to states for the Youth Activities formula grant program (as well as for the
Adult and Dislocated Worker programs), not more than 15% can be reserved for statewide
71
Ibid, Table II-14.
The outlying areas comprise the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau.
73
In years where appropriations exceed $1 billion, the minimum allotments are the higher of (1) 90% of a state’s
relative share of the previous year’s funding, (2) the amount the state received in 1998, or (3) 0.3% of the first $1
billion plus 0.4% of the amount over $1 billion.
72
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activities (Section 128(a)). States may use some of this funding for certain purposes related to
youth activities, such as disseminating a list of eligible providers of youth activities and providing
additional assistance to local areas that have high concentrations of eligible youth, among other
activities. Funds may not be used to develop or implement education curricula for school systems
in the state.
The balance of funding is allocated to local areas on the same basis that Youth Activities’ funds
are allocated to states, to take into account the relative numbers of unemployed individuals and
low-income youth in that area compared to other local areas of the state (Section 128(b)). Local
WIBs may reserve no more than 10% of funds allotted under the Youth program (and Adult and
Dislocated Worker programs) for administrative costs. The local WIBs are responsible for
competitively awarding grants or contracts to youth providers, based on the recommendations of
the youth council and the criteria listed in the state plan (Section 117(d)(2)(B) and Section 123).
When funds exceed $1 billion, DOL is to reserve a portion for Youth Opportunity grants,
discussed in more detail below, and the Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers program (see text box
above) before allocating funds to states. In addition, if appropriations exceeded $1 billion for
youth activities for FY1999, DOL was to make available such sums as necessary for the Role
Model Academy Project. Funds have not been appropriated for the Youth Opportunity grants and
Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers program since FY2003, the last year that Congress
appropriated more than $1 billion for Youth Activities. The Role Model Academy Project
received $10 million in FY1999 to establish a training academy for youth on an old military base.
However, the project operated for only one year due to problems with the grant and the project
did not enroll youth.74
Performance
Section 136 of WIA sets forth state and local performance measures as part of the accountability
system. The measures, or “core indicators,” for youth ages 14-18 are different than the indicators
for youth ages 19-21, as shown in Table 3. The measures for younger youth focus on skill
attainment and educational attainment. The older youth outcomes focus on employment. For each
of the core indicators, the states negotiate with DOL to establish a level of performance. That is,
the “measures” are identified in WIA Section 136, but the “levels” are determined by negotiation
between states and DOL.75 Measures are reported as part of the Workforce Investment Act
Standardized Record Data (WIASRD), which also collects demographic and other information
about youth, adults, and dislocated workers who exit the program.
74
According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, the grantee spent all of the
grant funds except for $12,355. An audit by the Office of the Inspector General (OIG) resulted in $262,258 in
disallowed costs. The grantee appealed the determination, and the Department of Labor and the grantee entered into a
settlement agreement in which the grantee agreed to pay $90,000. This is based on Congressional Research Service
correspondence with the Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration in October 2009.
75
In their state plans, states must identify the expected (adjusted) level of performance for each of the core indicators
for the first three program years of the plan, which covers five program years. In order to “ensure an optimal return on
the investment of Federal funds in workforce investment activities,” the Secretary and the governor of each state shall
“reach agreement on the levels of performance” for all youth and other indicators identified in Section 136(b)(2)(A).
This agreed-upon level then becomes the “state adjusted level of performance” that is incorporated into the plan.
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ETA implemented a “Common Measures” policy for several workforce programs and revised the
reporting requirements for WIA Title I programs.76 Specifically, ETA introduced three youth
measures, as listed in Table 3. It is important to note, however, that ETA specifically indicated
that the Common Measures were not to supersede the existing statutory performance reporting
requirements for WIA. Despite this, DOL has granted waivers to multiple states to permit
implementation of and reporting on only the Common Measures rather than on the current, fuller
array of measures in WIA for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.77 These states only negotiate
performance levels for the Common Measures.
Table 3. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs
WIA Statutory Measures
Youth
(ages 14 through 18)
Youth
(ages 19 through 21)
•
Skill Attainment Rate: (Number of basic
skills goals attained + Number of work
readiness skills goals attained + Number
of occupational skills goals attained)/
(Number of basic skills goals set +
Number of work readiness skills goals
set + Number of occupational skills
goals set).
•
Diploma or Equivalent Attainment Rate:
Number of younger youth attaining
secondary school diploma or equivalent
by end of 1st quarter after exit /
Number of younger youth exiters
during exit quarter.
•
Retention Rate: Number of youth in
postsecondary education, advanced
training, employment, or apprenticeships
/ Number of younger youth exiters
during exit quarter.
•
Entered Employment Rate: Number of
older youth employed in 1st quarter
after exit quarter / Number of older
youth exiters during the exit quarter.
•
Employment Retention Rate at Six Months:
Number of older youth employed in 3rd
quarter after exit / Number of older
youth exiters during the exit quarter.
•
Earnings Change in Six Months: Earnings in
2nd and 3rd quarter after exit minus
earnings in 2nd and 3rd quarter prior to
participation / Number of older youth
exiters during the exit quarter.
•
Credential/Certificate Rate: Number of
Common Measures
•
Placement in Employment
and Education: Number of
youth in employment
(including the military) or
enrolled in postsecondary education
and/or advanced training
or occupational skills
training in the first quarter
after the exit quarter /
Number of youth exiters
during the exit quarter.
•
Attainment of a Degree or
Certificate: Number of
youth participants who
attain a diploma, GED, or
certificate by the end of
the third quarter after the
exit quarter / Number of
youth exiters during the
exit quarter.
•
Literacy or Numeracy Gains:
Number of youth
participants who increase
one or more educational
functional levels / Number
of youth participants who
have completed a year in
the program (i.e., one
year from the date of first
youth program service) +
the number of youth
participants who exit
before completing a year
in the program.
76
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter
(TEGL) No. 18-04 (“Announcing the Soon-to-be Proposed Revisions to Existing Performance Reporting
Requirements... ”), February 28, 2005.
77
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “WIA Waiver Authority: Increased Flexibility
and Improved Programmatic Outcomes, Summary of WIA Waivers,” at http://www.doleta.gov/waivers/.
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WIA Statutory Measures
Common Measures
older youth employed, in postsecondary
education, or in advanced training after
1st quarter of exit and received
credential by end of 3rd quarter /
Number of older youth exiters during
the exit quarter.
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-220), ETA
Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 7-99 (“Core and Customer Satisfaction Performance
Measures for the Workforce Investment System “), March 3, 2000, and ETA TEGL No. 17-05 (“WIA Title IB
Performance Measures and Related Clarifications,” Attachment D), February 17, 2006.
Note: Some of the terms, such as “basic skills goals,” “credential,” and “certificate” are defined in Appendix B.
The next section of the report discusses, in less detail, four additional programs for youth that are
authorized under WIA.
Job Corps78
Overview and Purpose
The Job Corps program is carried out by the Office of Job Corps within the Office of the DOL
Secretary,79 and consists of residential centers throughout the country. The purpose of the
program is to provide disadvantaged youth with the skills needed to obtain and hold a job, enter
the Armed Forces, or enroll in advanced training or higher education. In addition to receiving
academic and employment training, youth also engage in social and other services to promote
their overall well-being.
Program Structure
Currently, 125 Job Corps centers operate throughout the country.80 Of these 125 centers, 28 of the
sites are known as Civilian Conservation Corps Centers, which are operated by the U.S. Forest
Service, an agency within the Department of Agriculture.81 Programs at these sites focus on
conserving, developing, or managing public natural resources or public recreational areas. Most
Job Corps centers are located on property that is owned or leased long-term by the federal
government.
78
Title I, Subtitle J of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 670.
Since FY2006, Congress has directed DOL to operate the Job Corps Office in the Office of the Secretary. Federal
regulations established the Office of Job Corps within the Office of the Secretary, pursuant to Secretary’s Order 092006. U.S. Department of Labor, “Establishment of the Office of Job Corps Within the Office of the Secretary;
Delegation of Authority and Assignment of Responsibility to Its Director and Others,” 71 Federal Register 16192,
March 30, 2006.
80
For the most recent number of centers, see the U.S. Department of Labor, Budget Justifications of Appropriation
Estimates for Committee on Appropriations, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/.
81
DOL transfers funding for these centers to USDA under an interagency agreement.
79
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Job Corps centers may be operated by a federal, state, or local agency; an area vocational
education school, or residential vocational school; or a private organization. Authorization and
funding for new Job Corps centers are contained in appropriations law. DOL initiates a
competitive process seeking applicants that are selected based on their ability to coordinate
activities in the workforce system for youth, their ability to offer vocational training opportunities
that reflect local employment opportunities, past performance, proposed costs, and other factors.
Job Corps campuses include dormitories, classrooms, workshops for various trades, wellness (or
health) centers, a cafeteria, a career services building, and administrative buildings. Each Job
Corps center must develop standards for student conduct and implement a zero tolerance policy
for violence and drug and alcohol use. Students are dismissed from the program if they violate
this policy. Centers also follow detailed guidelines about all aspects of the program as they are
outlined in the Policy and Requirements Handbook.82
Services
Students may participate in the Job Corps program for up to two years. While at a Job Corps
center, students receive the following services:
•
academic, vocational, employment, and social skills training;
•
work-based learning, which includes vocational skills training and on-the-job
training; and
•
counseling and other residential support services, including transportation, child
care, a cash clothing allowance or clothing that is needed for participating in the
program, and living and other allowances.
Students tend to experience the program in four stages.83ended June 30, 2014). Ultimately, $10 million was transferred from
the ETA Training and Employment Services (TES) account to the Job Corps operations account.
The FY2013 transfer authority was in response to a shortfall in the operations account for
PY2012, which had been preceded by a shortfall for PY2011. In May 2013, the DOL Office of
Inspector General (OIG) released a performance audit report that discussed the cause of the
PY2011 shortfall and addressed whether DOL management had implemented internal controls
over Job Corps funds and expenditures during the first five months of PY2012. The report found
that the PY2011 shortfall was due to (1) untimely communication about projected costs that
exceeded appropriations for the program; (2) initial planning for costs that did not account for
increased expenditures for three new centers; (3) inaccurately accounting for costs in cost
projection models; and (4) lack of consistent monitoring of costs throughout the program year.
The OIG audit also documented concerns with internal controls to manage Job Corps funding
during the first five months of PY2012. Such concerns included deficiencies in the areas of
budget execution, data that supported spending projections, and monitoring of projected to actual
costs; and lack of policies concerning communication of financial and program risks and certain
Job Corps activities pertaining to monitoring contracts.42
The next section of the report provides further discussion about the youth programs authorized
under Title I of WIA, and, where applicable, WIOA.
Youth Activities Program43
Overview and Purpose
The Youth Activities program is one of three formula grant programs that was initially authorized
by WIA, and is now authorized under WIOA as the Youth Workforce Investment Activities
program (hereinafter Youth program when in reference to WIA or WIOA). The other two
WIA/WIOA programs target adults (Adult Activities) and dislocated workers (Dislocated Worker
Activities), although youth ages 18 or older are eligible for services provided through the Adult
Activities program. These programs provide core funding for a coordinated system of
employment and training services overseen by a state workforce investment board (WIB) and the
governor, and composed of representatives of businesses and other partners. The Youth program
is arguably the centerpiece of the federal youth job training and employment system.
41
The FY2014 appropriations law (P.L. 113-76) and FY2015 appropriations law (P.L. 113-235) authorize DOL to
transfer up to 15% of CRA funds to the operations account or administration account.
42
DOL, Office of Inspector General, Office of Audit, The U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training
Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds, Report No. 22-13-015-03-370, May 31, 2013,
http://www.oig.dol.gov/public/reports/oa/2013/22-13-015-03-370.pdf. (Hereinafter, U.S. DOL, Office of Inspector
General, The U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration Needs to Strengthen Controls Over
Job Corps Funds.)
43
Title I, Chapter 4 of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 664.
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.
WIA specified several purpose areas for the Youth program: to provide assistance in achieving
academic and employment success through activities that improve educational and skill
competencies and foster effective connections to employers; to ensure ongoing adult mentoring
opportunities for eligible youth; to provide opportunities for training, continued supportive
services, and participation in activities related to leadership, citizenship, and community service;
and to offer incentives for recognition and achievement to youth.44 WIOA does not include
purpose areas for the Youth program; however, it retains many of the same elements specified
under WIA, such as providing assistance to youth in achieving academic and employment
success.
Program Structure
With assistance from the state WIB, the governor develops a plan that is submitted to DOL. The
plan is to address several items related to employment and training needs, performance
accountability, and employment and training activities. Under WIA, the plan (“state plan”) was
submitted every five years and pertained generally to the statewide workforce investment system.
It had to address items specific to youth, including a description of the factors used to distribute
Youth funds to local areas; the state’s strategy for providing comprehensive services to eligible
youth, particularly those who have significant barriers to employment; the criteria used by local
boards in awarding and assessing providers for youth services; and a description of how the state
would coordinate the Youth program with services provided by Job Corps, where applicable.
Under WIOA, the plan (“unified state plan”) is to be submitted every four years for the three
programs (Youth, Adult, and Dislocated).45 The unified state plan is to address youth primarily in
two places. It must outline the state’s strategic vision and goals for preparing an educated and
skilled workforce, include preparing youth with barriers to employment. It must also outline the
criteria to be used by local boards in awarding contracts for youth services and describing how
local boards will take into consideration the ability of providers to meet performance measures
that are based on primary indicators of performance for the Youth program (these indicators are
discussed in a subsequent section).
As specified under WIOA, a local workforce area is overseen by the local workforce board (under
WIA, this was called the local workforce investment board). Membership of the local board
includes representatives of businesses, local education entities, labor organizations, communitybased organizations, and economic development agencies, among others.46 Local boards
competitively award funds to local organizations and other entities to provide employment and
job training services to youth. The local board develops a local plan that discusses items similar
to those in the state plan, except that the plan describes the local area’s one-stop delivery system.
The local board is made up of partners that collaborate to provide coordinated employment and
training services in the community.47 Further, one-stop systems may have specialized centers to
address special needs. WIOA specifies that this may include the needs of youth. The youth
program is a required partner in the one-stop system under WIOA. The proposed WIOA
regulations issued in April 2015 specify that local boards must either collocate youth program
staff at one-stop centers and/or ensure one-stop centers and staff are equipped to advise youth in
44
Section 129(a) of WIA.
Section 102 and Section 103 of WIOA (and Section 112(b)(12) of WIA).
46
Section 107(b) of WIOA (Section 117(b) of WIA).
47
Section 121 of WIOA (Section 134(b) of WIA).
45
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.
order to increase youth access to services and connect youth to the program that best aligns with
their needs.48
Youth Councils
WIA required each local workforce board to establish a local youth council.49 Together, the
workforce investment board and the youth council would oversee a local program funded by the
Youth program. The purpose of the youth council was to provide expertise in youth policy and to
assist the local board in developing portions of the local plan relating to eligible youth. As
specified in the law, the councils were required to coordinate youth activities in a local area,
develop portions of the local plan related to eligible youth, recommend eligible providers of
youth activities to be competitively awarded grants or contracts, oversee the activities of the
providers, and carry out other duties specified by the local board.50
WIOA does not direct local workforce boards to have youth councils; however, local boards may
include representatives of organizations that have demonstrated experience and expertise in
addressing the employment, training, or education needs of eligible youth, including
representatives of organizations that serve out-of-school youth.51 In addition, the local board may
establish a standing committee to provide information and to assist with planning, operational,
and other issues relating to providing services to youth, including community-based organizations
with a demonstrated record of success in serving eligible youth.52 As with WIA, the local board
must ensure that parents and other stakeholders are involved in designing and implementing the
Youth program.53 The April 2015 proposed rule for WIOA discusses the potential role of a
standing youth council, including to recommend policy direction to the local board for the design
and development of programs to benefit all youth; recommend the design of a comprehensive
community workforce development system to ensure a full range of services and responsibilities
for all youth, including disconnected youth; and recommend ways to leverage resources and
coordinate services among schools, public programs, and community-based organizations serving
youth, among other possible responsibilities.54
48
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.700).
49
Section 117(h) of WIA.
50
Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIA. WIA specified that the youth council include members of the local board with special
interest or expertise in youth policy; representatives of youth service, juvenile justice, and local law enforcement
agencies; representatives of local public housing authorities; and parents of eligible youth seeking assistance through
the Adult Activities or Dislocated Worker programs, among others. Further, the local board had to ensure that parents,
participants, and other members of the community with experience relating to programs for youth were involved in the
design and implementation of the Youth program.
51
Section 107(2)(iv) of WIOA.
52
Section 107(b)(4)(A)(ii) of WIOA.
53
Section 129(c)(3)(C) of WIOA.
54
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.100).
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.
Allocations
Funding for the Youth program is allocated from DOL to states, including Washington, DC, and
the outlying areas.55 As with WIA, WIOA requires that not more than 0.25% is reserved for
outlying areas and not more than 1.5% is reserved for youth activities in the Native American
programs.56 The remainder of the funds are allocated to states by a formula based one-third on the
relative number of unemployed individuals residing in areas of substantial unemployment (an
average unemployment rate of at least 6.5% for the most recent 12 months), one-third on the
relative “excess” number of unemployed individuals (an unemployment rate of at least 4.5%),
and one-third on the relative number of disadvantaged youth (individuals 16 through 21 who
receive an income that, in relation to family size, does not exceed the higher of the poverty line or
70% of the lower living standard income level).57 Like WIA, WIOA specifies that states are to
receive, at minimum, the higher of 90% of their relative share of the prior year’s funding or, at
maximum, 130% of their relative share of the prior year’s funding.58 Further, WIOA specifies that
funds for the territories are allocated on a competitive basis;59 however, in practice DOL has
allocated WIA funds to the eligible territories by formula.60
Under WIA and WIOA, of the funds allocated to states for the Youth program (as well as for the
Adult and Dislocated Worker programs), not more than 15% can be reserved for statewide
activities (only 5% of reserved funds may be used for administrative activities, per WIOA).61
States must use these funds for certain specified activities, and may use the funds for other
specified activities. The two laws have an overlapping, but not identical, set of specified
activities. For example, WIOA now requires states to use the statewide funds to carry out
monitoring and oversight activities of the Youth program (and Adult and Dislocated Worker
programs), which may include a review comparing the services provided to male and female
youth.62 WIOA also allows new discretionary activities, such as supporting financial literacy.
The balance of funding that goes to states is allocated to local areas on the same basis that Youth
funds are allocated to states, to take into account the relative numbers of unemployed individuals
and low-income youth in the area compared to other local areas of the state. In addition, the law
55
The outlying areas comprise the U. S. Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau.
WIOA specifies that the Republic of Palau may not apply for funding during any period during which DOL and the
Department of Education (ED) determine that a Compact of Free Association (COFA) is in effect and contains
provisions for training and education assistance that prohibit the assistance provided under WIOA. COFA defines the
relationship that Palau has entered into as an associated state agreement with the United States.
56
Section 127(1) of WIOA (Section 127(1) of WIA).
57
The word “relative” means the number of individuals in a state compared to the total number in all states.
58
As with WIA, WIOA provides small state minimums such that no state receives less than—the total of three-tenths
of 1% of $1 billion that is allocated to states, or two-thirds of 1% of the excess if the allocation exceeds $1 billion.
Under WIA, in years where appropriations exceed $1 billion, the minimum allotments were the higher of (1) 90% of a
state’s relative share of the previous year’s funding, (2) the amount the state received in 1998, or (3) 0.3% of the first
$1 billion plus 0.4% of the amount over $1 billion.
59
Section 127(1)(B)(ii) of WIOA (and Section 127(1)(B)(ii) of WIA).
60
See, for example, DOL, ETA, “Employment and Training Administration Program Year (PY) 2014 Workforce
Investment Act (WIA) Allotments; PY 2014 Wagner-Peyser Act Final Allotments and PY 2014 Workforce Information
Grants,” 79 Federal Register 20235-20243, April 11, 2014.
61
Section 128(a) of WIOA (Section 128(a) of WIA).
62
Section129(b) of WIOA (Section129(b) of WIA).
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.
includes provisions for minimum (90% of the average allocation for the preceding two years) and
maximum (130% of the average allocation for the preceding two years) funding that goes to local
areas.63 Local areas may reserve no more than 10% of funds allotted under the program for
administrative costs. WIA and WIOA specify different processes for local boards to competitively
award funds. Under WIA, the local boards competitively awarded grants or contracts to youth
providers based on the recommendations of the youth council and criteria specified in the state
plan. Under WIOA, local boards are to award grants or contracts on a competitive basis to youth
providers based on criteria in the state plan, and by taking into consideration the ability of the
providers to meet performance accountability measures that are based on primary indicators of
performance for the Youth program. Further, a local board may award funding on a sole-source
basis if the board determines there is an insufficient number of eligible providers of youth
workforce investment activities in the local area to participate on a competitive basis. Local
boards may terminate “for cause” the eligibility of these providers.64 The proposed regulation on
WIOA issued by DOL in April 2015, specifies that if a local board establishes a standing
committee, it may assign it the responsibility of selecting youth providers.65
Elements of Local Programs
Local Youth programs, carried out by local workforce boards, are responsible for providing direct
services to youth participants. The programs must be designed to include an objective assessment
of the youth’s skills, and they must develop service strategies for these youth that are linked to
employment goals.66 Under WIOA specifically, these service strategies must be directly linked to
one or more of the indicators of performance for the program and they must identify career
pathways that both include education and employment goals. Each local Youth program must also
provide specific services, or elements. Table 3 shows the 10 elements that were required under
WIA and the 14 elements required under WIOA. Some of these elements are the same. WIOA
amended some of these elements and added some new ones. The table is organized based on
whether the elements are targeted for educational achievement, linkages between educational
achievement and employment services, employment services, leadership development activities,
additional support for youth services, and other activities.67
Under both laws, local boards must provide to each youth information on the full array of
applicable or appropriate services available through the local board, other eligible providers, or
one-stop partners, and they must also refer youth to appropriate training and educational
programs, among other activities.68 Under WIOA specifically, at least 20% of the funds allocated
to the local area must be used to provide youth (whether in-school or out-of-school) with paid and
unpaid work experiences that have academic and occupational education as a component.
63
Section 128(b) of WIOA (Section 128(b) of WIA).
Section 107(d)(10(B) and Section 123 of WIOA. “For cause” is not defined under WIOA. (Section 117(d)(2)(B) and
Section 123 of WIA.)
65
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.400).
66
Section 129(c) of WIOA (Section 129(c) of WIA).
67
These elements are classified under these categories (for purposes of WIA) in the Workforce Investment Act
Standardized Record Data (WIASRD) Data Book.
68
Section 129(c)(3) of WIOA (Section 129(c)(3) of WIA).
64
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In guidance on WIA, DOL said that although local boards must make all program elements
available to youth, each individual youth does not need to participate in all elements. Further,
local programs that receive Youth funding were not required to provide all program elements if
certain services are already accessible for all eligible youth in the area; however, these other
services had to be closely coordinated with the local programs.69 WIOA states much of the same,
noting that each of the elements need not be offered by each provider of youth services. In the
April 2015 proposed rule for WIOA, DOL notes that the local program must have an agreement
in place if it partners with another organization to ensure that a program element will be offered
by that organization. In practice, this means that youth program case managers must contact and
monitor the other provider to ensure the activity is of high quality and beneficial to the youth
participant.70
Table 3. Elements of Youth Programs as Specified Under WIA and WIOA
WIA
WIOA
Educational achievement
•
Tutoring, study skills training, and instruction leading
to completion of secondary school, including
dropout prevention strategies.
•
Tutoring, study skills training, instruction, and
evidence-based dropout prevention strategies that
lead to completion of the requirements for a
secondary school diploma or its recognized
equivalent (including a recognized certificate of
attendance) or for a recognized postsecondary
credential.
•
Alternative secondary school services, as
appropriate.
•
Alternative secondary school services or dropout
recovery services, as appropriate.
•
Not applicable.
•
Activities that help youth prepare for and transition
to postsecondary education and training.
Employment services
•
As appropriate, paid and unpaid work experiences,
including internships and job shadowing.
•
Summer employment opportunities that are directly
linked to academic and occupational learning.
•
Occupational skill training, as appropriate.
•
Paid and unpaid work experiences that have as a
component academic and occupational education,
which may include (1) summer employment
opportunities and other employment opportunities
throughout the school year; (2) pre-apprenticeship
programs;0 (3) internships and job shadowing; and
(4) on the job skills training.
•
Occupational skills training, which may include
priority consideration for training programs that
lead to recognized postsecondary credentials that
are aligned with in-demand industry sectors or
occupations in the local area involved, if the local
board determines that the programs meet the
quality criteria for eligible youth providers.
69
DOL, ETA, TEGL No. 9-00 (“Workforce Investment Act of 1998, Section 129—Competitive and Non-competitive
Procedures for Providing Youth Activities Under Title I”), January 31, 2001, and U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-00, April 23,
2001. Local boards are advised to establish ongoing relationships with non-WIA funded activities that provide services
for WIA-eligible youth.
70
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 CFR 681.470).
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•
•
Not applicable.
Services that provide labor market and employment
information about in-demand industry sectors or
occupations available in the local area, such as
career awareness, career counseling, and career
exploration services.
Linkages between educational achievement and employment services
•
•
Not applicable.
Education offered concurrently within and in the
same context as workforce preparation activities
and training for a specific occupation or
occupational cluster.
Leadership development activities
•
Leadership development opportunities, which may
include, but are not limited to, community service
and peer-centered activities encouraging
responsibility and other positive social behaviors
during non-school hours, as appropriate; community
and service learning projects; organizational and
teamwork training, including team leadership
training; and citizenship training, including life skills
training such as parenting, work behavior training,
and budgeting of resources, among other activities.
•
Leadership development opportunities, which may
include community service and peer-centered
activities concerning responsibility and other
positive social and civic behaviors, as appropriate.
Additional support for youth services
•
Supportive services.
•
Same.
•
Adult mentoring for the period of participation and
a subsequent period, for a total of not less than 12
months.
•
Same.
•
Comprehensive guidance and counseling, which may
include drug and alcohol abuse counseling and
referral, as appropriate.
•
Same.
Other
•
Follow-up services for not less than 12 months after
the completion of participation, as appropriate;
follow-up services for youth include regular contact
with a youth participant’s employer, including
assistance in addressing work-related problems that
arise; assistance in securing better jobs, career
development, and further education; work-related
peer groups; adult mentoring; and tracking the
progress of youth in employment after training.
•
Follow-up services for not less than 12 months after
the completion of participation, as appropriate.
•
Not applicable.
•
Financial literacy education.
•
Not applicable.
•
Entrepreneurial skills training.
Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS), based on Section 129(c)(2) of the Workforce Investment Act
(WIA; P.L. 105-220) and the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128) and Department
of Labor, WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B.
Notes: The proposed rule issued by the Department of Labor on April 16, 2015, defines the following terms:
“pre apprenticeship program,” “adult mentoring,” “financial literacy education,” “comprehensive guidance and
counseling,” “leadership development opportunities,” “positive civic and social behaviors,” and “occupational
skills training.” DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking;
Proposed Rules,” 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.480 through 20 C.F.R.
681.540).
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Participants
WIA and WIOA have different eligibility requirements for youth participants. Some of these
distinctions are described in Table 4. Notably, WIA enabled local areas to serve youth up to the
age of 21, compared to age 24 for out-of-school youth under WIOA. In addition, WIOA requires
local areas (and states) to use no less than 75% of funds for serving out-of-school youth. This is
compared to no less than 30% of funds for this population under WIA. Also under WIOA, not
more than 5% of the in-school youth in a local area may be eligible because they are an offender.
Both laws address whether a state (and local area for WIOA) may adjust the share of out-ofschool youth served (down to 50% under WIOA; percentage not specified under WIA) if the state
determines it will be unable to use a certain share of funding to serve these youth. WIA required
all youth to be low-income, except that up to 5% of participants in a local area did not have to
meet the income criteria if they meet certain other criteria such as being a high school dropout.
WIOA requires in-school youth generally and two groups of out-of-school youth to be lowincome, and enables up to 5% of these youth to not meet the income criteria.71 Under WIA, youth
ages 18 through 21 could enroll in the Youth Activities formula grant program or Adult program,
or may co-enroll in both programs.72 The same is true under WIOA for youth ages 18 through
24.73
Table 4.Youth Program Eligibility Under WIA and WIOA
WIA
WIOA
Age
A youth is eligible for the Youth Activities
program if he or she is age 14 through 21.
A youth is eligible for the Youth Workforce program if he or she is
age 14 through 24. Eligibility by age varies depending on whether the
youth is in school or out-of-school.
Other Criteria
The youth must be low-income and one or
more of the following:
•
deficient in basic literacy skills;
•
a school dropout;
•
homeless, a runaway, or a foster child;
•
pregnant or parenting;
•
an offender; or
•
an individual who requires additional
assistance to complete an educational
program or to secure and hold
employment.
Of these youth, an “out-of-school youth” is
“In school youth” is a youth
attending school (as defined by
state law) who is age 14
through 21 (or older age if the
individual has a disability and is
attending school per state law);
low-income; and one or more
of the following:
•
basic skills deficienta;
•
a homeless individual, a
homeless child or youth, a
runaway, in foster care or
has aged out of the foster
care system, a current or
former foster child eligible
“Out-of-school youth” is a youth
not attending any school (as
defined by state law), age 16
through 24, and one or more of
the following:
•
a school dropout;
•
within the age of compulsory
school attendance, but has
not attended school for at
least the most recent
completed school year
calendar quarter;
•
a homeless individual, a
homeless child or youth, a
runaway, in foster care or has
71
Section 129(a)(4) of WIOA (Section 129(c)(4) of WIA). See Appendix for the definition of “low-income” under
both laws.
72
Less than 1% of youth tend to enroll in both programs as implemented under WIA. See Social Policy Research
Associates, WIASRD Data Book, Table II-14.
73
DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking; Proposed Rules,” 80
Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.430).
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WIA
WIOA
an eligible youth who is a school dropout or
an eligible youth who has received a
secondary school diploma but is basic skills
deficient, unemployed, or underemployed.
for independent living
services or in an out-ofhome placement;
aged out of the foster care
system, a current or former
foster child eligible for
independent living services or
in an out-of-home placement;
•
pregnant or parenting;
•
an offender;
•
pregnant or parenting;
•
an English language
learner;
•
•
an individual with a
disability; or
an individual who is subject to
the juvenile or adult justice
system;
•
an individual with a disability;
•
who requires additional
assistance to enter or
complete an educational
program or to secure or
hold employment.
•
a low-income recipient of a
secondary school diploma or
its recognized equivalent, and
who is basic skills deficient or
an English language learner; or
•
a low-income individual who
requires additional assistance
to enter or complete an
educational program or to
secure or hold employment.
Exceptions based on income
Up to 5% of participants in a local area can
participate if they are not low-income but
meet one of the following criteria:
As noted above, most of the eligibility categories do not specify a
certain level of income.
Up to 5% of in-school youth can participate if they are not lowincome. In addition, up to 5% of out-of-school youth participants can
participate if they are not low-income and qualify under one of these
two categories: (1) recipients of a secondary school diploma or its
recognized equivalent and who are basic skills deficient, or English
language learners, or (2) individuals who require additional assistance
to enter or complete an educational program or to secure or hold
employment.
•
deficient in basic literacy skills;
•
a school dropout;
•
homeless or a runaway;
•
an offender;
•
one or more grade levels below the
grade level appropriate to the
individual’s age;
•
pregnant or parenting;
•
possesses one or more disabilities,
including learning disabilities; or
•
faces serious barriers to employment as
identified by the local board.
Restrictions on share of funds
No less than 30% of the Youth program
funds for local areas must be used to provide
youth activities to out-of-school youth.
No less than 75% of the Youth program funds for statewide activities
and local activities must be used to provide youth workforce
investment activities for out-of-school youth.
Source: Section 101(13), Section 101(33), and Section 129(c)(4) of WIA and Section 129(a) of WIOA.
Notes: For purposes of eligibility, “low-income” means youth living in a high-poverty area or the youth receives
or is eligible to receive a free or reduced price lunch under the Richard R. Russell National School Lunch Act
(Section 3(36) of WIOA). Eligibility for an individual with a disability is based on his or her own income rather
than his or her family’s income, so long as the personal income meets the definition of low-income (Section
3(36)(A)(vi) of WIOA). The proposed rule issued by the Department of Labor in April 2015 specifies that a highpoverty area is a Census tract, set of contiguous Census tracts, Indian reservation, tribal land, or Native Alaskan
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Village or county that has a poverty rate of at least 30% as set every five years in the American Community
Survey 5-Year data. DOL, ETA, “Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking;
Proposed Rules,” 80 Federal Register 20732, April 16, 2015 (proposed 20 C.F.R. 681.260).
a.
“Basic skills deficient” means the individual (1) has English reading, writing, or computing skills at or below
the 8th grade level on a generally accepted standardized test or (2) is unable to compute or solve problems,
or read, write, or speak English at a level necessary to function on the job, in the individual’s family, or in
society (Section 3(5) of WIOA).
Performance
WIA established state and local performance measures as part of the accountability system for the
Youth program.74 (This accountability system is in effect until FY2016.) The measures, or “core
indicators,” for youth ages 14-18 were different than the indicators for youth ages 19-21, as
shown in Table 5. The measures for younger youth focused on skill attainment and educational
attainment. The older youth outcomes focused on employment. For each of the core indicators,
the states negotiate with DOL to establish a level of performance. That is, the “measures” are
identified in WIA, but the “levels” are determined by negotiation between states and DOL. The
adjustments made for each state take into account specified factors, such as how the levels
compare with the levels of performance established for other states given the differences in
economic conditions, characteristics of program participants, and the services to be provided.
Measures are reported as part of the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data
(WIASRD), which also collects demographic and other information about youth, adults, and
dislocated workers who exit the program. Similarly, local workforce areas negotiate with the
governor on the local levels of performance based on the state adjusted levels of performance.
Separately, ETA implemented a “Common Measures” policy for several workforce programs and
revised the reporting requirements for WIA Title I programs.75 Specifically, ETA introduced three
youth measures, as listed in Table 5. It is important to note, however, that ETA specifically
indicated that the Common Measures were not to supersede the existing statutory performance
reporting requirements for WIA. Despite this, DOL has granted waivers to multiple states to
permit implementation of and reporting on only the Common Measures rather than on the current,
fuller array of measures in WIA for youth, adults, and dislocated workers.76 These states only
negotiate performance levels for the Common Measures.
74
Section 136 of WIA.
DOL, ETA, Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 18-04 (“Announcing the Soon-to-be Proposed
Revisions to Existing Performance Reporting Requirements... ”), February 28, 2005.
76
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “WIA Waiver Authority: Increased Flexibility
75
and Improved Programmatic Outcomes, Summary of WIA Waivers,” http://www.doleta.gov/waivers/.
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Table 5. Statutory and Common Measures for WIA Youth Programs
WIA Statutory Measures
Youth
(ages 14 through 18)
Youth
(ages 19 through 21)
Common Measures
•
Attainment of Basic Skills, and As
Appropriate, Work Readiness or
Occupational Skills: (Number of basic
skills goals attained + Number of
work readiness skills goals attained +
Number of occupational skills goals
attained)/ (Number of basic skills
goals set + Number of work
readiness skills goals set + Number
of occupational skills goals set).
•
Placement in Employment and
Education: Number of youth in
employment (including the
military) or enrolled in postsecondary education and/or
advanced training or
occupational skills training in the
first quarter after the exit
quarter / Number of youth
exiters during the exit quarter.
•
Attainment of Diploma or Equivalent
Attainment: Number of younger youth
attaining secondary school diploma
or equivalent by end of 1st quarter
after exit / Number of younger youth
exiters during exit quarter.
•
•
Placement and Retention: Number of
youth in postsecondary education,
advanced training, employment, or
apprenticeships / Number of younger
youth exiters during exit quarter.
Attainment of a Degree or
Certificate: Number of youth
participants who attain a
diploma, GED, or certificate by
the end of the third quarter
after the exit quarter / Number
of youth exiters during the exit
quarter.
•
Literacy or Numeracy Gains:
Number of youth participants
who increase one or more
educational functional levels /
Number of youth participants
who have completed a year in
the program (i.e., one year from
the date of first youth program
service) + the number of youth
participants who exit before
completing a year in the
program.
•
Entered Unsubsidized Employment:
Number of older youth employed in
1st quarter after exit quarter /
Number of older youth exiters
during the exit quarter.
•
Employment Retention at Six Months:
Number of older youth employed in
3rd quarter after exit / Number of
older youth exiters during the exit
quarter.
•
Earnings Change in Six Months:
Earnings in 2nd and 3rd quarter after
exit minus earnings in 2nd and 3rd
quarter prior to participation /
Number of older youth exiters
during the exit quarter.
•
Credential/Certificate Number of older
youth employed, in postsecondary
education, or in advanced training
after 1st quarter of exit and received
credential by end of 3rd quarter /
Number of older youth exiters
during the exit quarter.
Source: Congressional Research Service, based on the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-220), ETA
Training and Employment Guidance Letter (TEGL) No. 7-99 (“Core and Customer Satisfaction Performance
Measures for the Workforce Investment System “), March 3, 2000, and ETA TEGL No. 17-05 (“WIA Title IB
Performance Measures and Related Clarifications,” Attachment D), February 17, 2006.
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WIOA creates six primary indicators of performance for the Youth program that will supersede
the existing performance measures that are outlined in WIA. These six primary indicators will
apply to all youth, regardless of age, and will go into effect in FY2016:77
•
percentage of program participants who are in education or training activities, or
in unsubsidized employment, during the second quarter after exit from the
program;
•
percentage of program participants who are in education or training activities, or
in unsubsidized employment, during the fourth quarter after exit from the
program;
•
median earnings of program participants who are in unsubsidized employment
during the second quarter after exit from the program;
•
percentage of program participants who obtain a recognized postsecondary
credential, or a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent,78 during
participation in or within one year after exit from the program;
•
percentage of program participants who, during a program year, are in an
education or training program that leads to a recognized postsecondary credential
or employment and who are achieving measurable skill gains toward such a
credential or employment; and
•
indicators of effectiveness in serving employers.79
As with WIA, states will be required to reach an agreement with DOL, in conjunction with the
Department of Education (ED), about the levels of performance for each state. These levels of
performance are to be based on specified factors, including how the levels compare with other
states’ adjusted levels of performance. Further, states are to ensure the levels are adjusted using an
objective statistical model established by DOL.80
The following sections of the report discuss, in less detail, additional programs for youth that are
authorized under WIA.
77
Section 116(A) of WIOA.
Program participants who obtain a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent are to be included in the
percentage counted if, in addition to obtaining such diploma or its recognized equivalent, they have obtained or
retained employment or are in an education or training program leading to a recognized postsecondary credential within
one year after exit from the program.
79
The law specifies that DOL and the Department of Education are to jointly develop and establish one or more
indicators of performance that indicate the effectiveness of the Youth program (and Adult and Dislocated Worker
programs) in serving employers.
80
Section 116(b(3)(v) of WIOA.
78
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Job Corps81
Overview and Purpose
The Job Corps program is carried out by the Office of Job Corps within the Employment and
Training Administration, and consists of residential centers throughout the country. The purpose
of the program is to provide disadvantaged youth with the skills needed to obtain secondary
school diplomas or recognized postsecondary credentials leading to successful careers in indemand industry sectors or occupations or the Armed Forces, that will result in economic selfsufficiency and opportunity for advancement; or enrollment in postsecondary education,
including apprenticeship programs.82
Program Structure
Currently, 125 Job Corps centers operate throughout the country.83 Of these 125 centers, 28 are
known as Civilian Conservation Corps Centers, which are operated by the U.S. Forest Service, an
agency within the Department of Agriculture, through an interagency agreement with DOL.84
Programs at these sites focus on conserving, developing, or managing public natural resources or
public recreational areas. Most Job Corps centers are located on property that is owned or leased
long-term by the federal government.
As specified under WIOA (and WIA), Job Corps centers may be operated by a federal, state, or
local agency; an area career and technical education school, or residential vocational school; or a
private organization. Authorization and funding for new Job Corps centers are contained in
appropriations law. DOL initiates a competitive process seeking applicants that are selected based
on their ability to coordinate activities in the workforce system for youth, their ability to offer
vocational training opportunities that reflect local employment opportunities, and past
performance. Additionally, under WIOA, an entity applying to operate a center must submit to
DOL certain information, such as a description of the entity’s strong fiscal controls in place. WIA
did not specify the length of time DOL and the center operator may enter into an agreement;
however, in practice the contract period is two years, with three one-year-option renewals. WIOA
specifies the contract may be for up to a two-year period with up to three one-year renewal
periods.85
81
Title I, Subtitle J of the Workforce Investment Act and 20 C.F.R. 670.
Section 141 of WIA and WIOA. These are the purposes under WIOA. The purposes specified under WIA are
similar.
83
For the most recent list of centers, see the U.S. Department of Labor, Budget Justifications of Appropriation
Estimates for Committee on Appropriations, http://www.dol.gov/dol/budget/. The FY2016 budget justification specifies
that DOL is in the process of closing the Treasure Lake center and opening centers in New Hampshire and Wyoming.
84
Under WIA, the DOL Secretary may select an entity to operate a CCC on a competitive basis if the center fails to
meet national performance standards (as with DOL-operated centers). WIOA specifies that DOL must select another
entity to operate a CCC if it fails to meet the expected levels of performance relating to the primary indicators of
performance or fails to improve performance after three program years. WIOA also adds that enrollees in CCCs may
provide assistance in addressing disasters, consistent with current child labor laws.
85
Section 147(a) of WIOA (Section 147(a) of WIA).
82
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WIA did not include provisions for high-performing centers; however, WIOA designates centers
as high-performing based on their ranking and performance under the primary indicators of
performance for eligible youth (see following discussion on indicators). It also enables the
operator of a high-performing center to compete in any competitive selection process carried out
for an award to operate such center. (The FY2015 appropriation law, P.L. 113-235, also specifies
that entities operating the top 5% of Job Corps centers for PY2013 are eligible to compete in any
such process from October 1, 2014, through June 30, 2015.)
WIOA further provides that DOL may not renew the agreement with an operator if the center is
ranked in the lowest 10% of centers, and fails to achieve an average of 50% or higher in the
expected levels of performance under each of the primary indicators of performance for eligible
youth in the program.86 The law allows DOL to renew an agreement with these centers under
certain circumstances (i.e., performance is due to circumstances beyond the operator’s control,
etc.), and specifies standards that all centers must meet for agreements to be renewed (i.e.,
satisfactory record of integrity and business ethics, etc.).
Job Corps campuses include dormitories, classrooms, workshops for various trades, wellness (or
health) centers, a cafeteria, a career services building, and administrative buildings. WIA
prohibited an individual from being denied a position in the Job Corps program solely on the
basis of his or her contact with the criminal justice system. Under WIOA, an individual can be
denied a position if he or she has been convicted of a felony consisting of murder (as described in
Title 18 of the U.S. Code), child abuse, or a crime involving rape or sexual assault.87 Each Job
Corps center must develop standards for student conduct and implement a zero tolerance policy
for violence and drug and alcohol use. Students are dismissed from the program if they violate
this policy. Centers also follow detailed guidelines about all aspects of the program as they are
outlined in the program’s policy guidance known as the Policy and Requirements Handbook.88
Services
While at a Job Corps center, students receive the following services:
•
education program, including English language acquisition programs;
•
career and technical education, work experience, and work-based learning; and
•
recreational activities, physical rehabilitation and development, driver’s
education, and counseling, which may include information about financial
literacy.
Youth also receive personal allowances and transition allowances as they are leaving the program.
WIOA specifies that these transition allowances are now to be incentive-based to reflect the
graduate’s completion of academic, career and technical education or training, and attainment of
recognized postsecondary credentials.89 It also strikes the provision in WIA pertaining to
allowances for former enrollees.
86
Section 147(g) of WIOA.
Section 145(b) of WIOA Section (145(b) of WIA).
88
DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook, http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/
prh.sflb. (Hereinafter, DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook.)
89
Section 150 of WIOA (Section 150 of WIA).
87
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Students tend to experience the program in four stages.90 In the first phase, students learn about
the program and center through orientation sessions and other outreach efforts conducted by the
center and its contractor for outreach and admissions. Students who decide they want to pursue
the program and are selected participate in the second phase, which emphasizes career
preparation, in the first few weeks of the program. Students learn about life at the center and
focus on personal responsibility, social skills, and career explanation. Students also receive
assessments of their abilities in math and reading, and they work with staff to develop and
commit to what is known as a Personal Career Development Plan (PCDP). This plan includes the
students’ personal, academic, and career goals, which are evaluated as they progress through the
program.
The third phase focuses on career development and is the stage at which most youth spend the
majority of their time in the program. During this period, students learn and demonstrate career
technical, academic, and employability skills. Training focuses on academic subject matters and
how they are applied to specific trades or occupations. Students who did not graduate from high
school can pursue a high school diploma or GED. Most Job Corps centers have developed a high
school diploma program for their students through partnerships with public, private, and/or
charter schools. Students who have already graduated focus on developing their technical skills at
82
U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook, http://www.jobcorps.gov/
Libraries/pdf/prh.sflb.
83
Ibid.
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the center and on work sites under the direction of Job Corps’ employer partners. Job Corps
centers offer several technical training clusters. The clusters that graduates most often train in are
, such as construction, health care, business and
finance, hospitality, and advanced manufacturing.8491 During
this period, students also begin to
look for a job and learn how to identify and access the support
services that are needed to live
independently.
Finally, in the fourth phase, students participate in a period of career transition, in which they
receive placement services that focus on placing them in full-time jobs that are related to their
vocational training and pay wages that allow them to be self-sufficient, or placing them in higher
education or advanced training programs, including apprenticeship programs. For one year after
exiting the program, graduates must receiveJob Corps must provide graduates with services that include transition
support and
workplace counseling. Some graduates may go on to participate in advanced training. These
These students continue to remain in the program for another year while obtaining additional training
training and education, such as an Associate’s Degree.
Job Corps centers provide services both on-site and off-site, and contract some of these services.
Centers rely on outreach and admissions contractors to recruit students to the program. These
contractors may include a one-stop center, community action organizations, private for-profit and
nonprofit businesses, labor organizations, or other entities that have contact with youth.
Contractors seek out potential applicants, conduct interviews with applicants to identify their
needs and eligibility status, and identify youth who are interested and likely Job Corps
participants. Similarly, centers rely on placement agencies—organizations that enter into a
contract or other agreement with Job Corps—to provide placement services for graduates and, to
the extent possible, former students. Services such as vocational training are sometimes provided
by outside organizations, such as the Home Builders Institute.
In addition, each Job Corps center must have a business and community liaison designated by the
center director to establish relationships with employers, applicable one-stop centers and local
boards, and other stakeholders. Each center must also establish an Industry Advisory Council,
comprised of employers; representatives of labor organizations, where present, and employees;
and Job Corps students and graduates. A majority of the members must be local and distant
business owners, chief executives or chief operating officers of non-governmental employers, or
other private sector employers, and they must have substantial management and other
responsibilities and represent businesses with employment opportunities for youth in the program.
The council must work with local WIBs and review local market information to provide
recommendations to the center director about the center’s education and training offerings,
including emerging occupations that would suitable for training..
90
DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Policy and Requirements Handbook.
DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, Job Corps Annual Report: Program Year 2008, July 1, 2008—June 30, 2009, p. 29,
http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/py06report.sflb.
91
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In addition, each Job Corps center director must establish relationships with employers,
applicable one-stop centers and local boards, and other stakeholders.92 Each center must also
establish a Workforce Council, made up of employers who must have substantial management
and other responsibilities and represent businesses with employment opportunities for youth in
the program; representatives of labor organizations, where present, and employees; and Job Corps
students and graduates. A majority of the members must be employers. The council must work
with local workforce boards and review local market information to provide recommendations to
the center director about the center’s education and training offerings, including emerging
occupations that would suitable for training. WIOA also requires the council to determine indemand industries in the state for graduates to seek employment.93
Finally, each center must establish a Community Relations Council to serve as a liaison between
the center and the surrounding communities.8594 The councils are to be comprised of representatives
of business, civic, and educational organizations; elected officials; representatives from law
enforcement agencies; other service providers; students; and staff. Centers must provide
opportunities for students and staff to participate in community service activities on a regular
basis.
84
U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Job Corps, Job Corps Annual Report: Program Year 2008, July 1, 2008—June
30, 2009, p. 29, http://www.jobcorps.gov/Libraries/pdf/py06report.sflb.
85
Ibid.
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DOL enters into contracts with nonprofit and for-profit organizations and the Department of
Agriculture to operate the centers. Contracts are competitively awarded to organizations based on
ranked scores, in conjunction with other factors. The contract period is two years, with three oneyear-option renewals.
Participants
Job Corps participants must be ages 16 through 24,8695 low-income, and facingbe one or more of the
following barriers to education and employment: (1) basic skills deficient; (2) a school dropout; (3) homeless, a
runaway, or a foster child; (3) a parent; or (4
child (including an individual who was in foster care and has aged out of foster care, per WIOA);
(4) a parent; or (5) in need of additional education, vocational training,
or intensive counseling
and related assistance in order to participate in regular schoolwork or to
secure and maintain employment.87 Notably, the program does not impose an upper age limit for
students with disabilities.
employment. Pursuant to WIOA, a veteran is eligible if he or she meets the eligibility criteria,
except that the income requirement would not apply if income earned from the military within the
six-month period prior to applying for the program would exceed the income limit.96
Job Corps centers take additional factors into consideration when
selecting participants, such as
whether the program can best meet their educational and vocational
needs and whether the youth
can engage successfully in group situations and settings. The
applicant must also pass a
background check that demonstrates he or she is not on probation or
parole, or subject to similar findings. When selected for the program, students are usually placed
at the site closest to their home. No more than 20% of participants may live off the grounds of the
Job Corps center. Priority in non-residential placements is to be given to participants who are
single parents.
Allocations
DOL enters into contracts with nonprofit and for-profit organizations, the Department of
Agriculture, and the Department of Labor to operate the centers. Contracts are competitively
awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with other factors. The contract
period is two years, with three one-year-option renewals.
Performance
WIA specifies that Job Corps collect data on multiple measures related to performance and
retention in the program. These measures pertain to graduation rates, graduates’ entry into fulltime or part-time unsubsidized employment, the average wage received by graduates at certain
points in time, job retention at select points in time, entry into post-secondary education or
advanced training programs, attainment of job readiness and employment skills, and the share of
dropouts from the program, among other data. The program also collects information to assess
performance through the Common Measures. As explained above, DOL introduced the Common
Measures for WIA Title I programs in 2005. The Common Measures for Youth are placement in
employment and education, attainment of a degree or certificate, and literacy and numeracy
gains.88 The measures in WIA and the Common Measures are interwoven into the Job Corps’
performance management system that is used by the Job Corps Office to evaluate student
performance and how well students are served at each of the centers.89
86
No more than 20% of participants may be ages 22 through 24 on the date of enrollment.
Some of these terms are defined in Appendix B.
88
See Table 3 for a definition of these terms.
89
The performance management system is comprised of four outcome measure systems: Outreach and Admissions
(OA) Report Card, Center Report Card, Career Technical Training Reporting and Improvement System, and Career
Transitions Services (CTS) Report Card.
87
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YouthBuild90
Overview and Purpose91
In 2007, YouthBuild was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to
DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281). The program is authorized under WIA.
As stated in the law, the purpose of YouthBuild is to (1) enable disadvantaged youth to obtain the
education and employment skills necessary to achieve economic self-sufficiency in occupations
in demand and post-secondary education and training opportunities; (2) provide disadvantaged
youth with opportunities for meaningful work and service to communities; (3) foster the
development of employment and leadership skills and commitment to community development
among youth in low-income communities; and (4) expand the supply of permanent affordable
housing for homeless individuals and low-income families by utilizing the energy of
disadvantaged youth.
Program Structure
DOL competitively awards YouthBuild funds to organizations, which carry out the program in
cooperation with subgrantees or contractors or through arrangements made with local education
agencies and certain other entities. Entities that are eligible to apply for funding include a public
or private nonprofit agency or organization, including a consortium of such agencies or
organizations; community-based or faith-based organizations; entities that carry out activities
authorized under certain other parts of WIA; community action agencies; state or local housing
development agencies; an Indian tribe or agencies primarily serving Indians; state or local youth
service or conservation corps; or any other entity eligible to provide education or employment
training under a federal program.
While in the program, youth participate in a range of education and workforce investment
activities, as listed in Table 4. These activities include instruction, skill building, alternative
education, mentoring, and training in rehabilitation or construction of housing. In addition to
construction activities, programs can support career pathway training targeted toward other highdemand occupations and industries, as demonstrated by local labor market information, and
allows for the attainment of an industry-recognized credential.92 Notably, any housing unit that is
rehabilitated or reconstructed may be available only for rental by, or sale to, homeless individuals
or low-income families; or for use as transitional or permanent housing to assist homeless
individuals achieve independent living. All educational programs, including programs that award
academic credit, and activities supported with YouthBuild funds must be consistent with
applicable state and local educational standards.
90
Title I, Subtitle D, Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
For an overview of the differences between the YouthBuild Program as administered by HUD and DOL, see U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, YouthBuild Transfer Act: Synopsis and Section-bySection Analysis, http://www.doleta.gov/youth_services/YouthBuildSec-by-Sec%20Analysis%20FINAL.pdf.
92
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “YouthBuild Program Final Rule,” 77 Federal
Register 9112, February 15, 2012. The preamble to the final rule states that grantees may expand their occupational
skills training beyond construction skills training; however, all programs must still provide training in the construction
trades.
91
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As specified in WIA, at least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain work and skill
development activities (these activities are denoted by footnote “a” in Table 4. At least an
additional 50% of the time, participants must be engaged in education and related services and
activities designed to meet their educational needs (these activities are denoted by footnote “b” in
Table 4.
Table 4. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild,
as Specified in the Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
Education and Workforce Investment Activities
Work experience and skills training, coordinated, to the maximum extent feasible, with pre-apprenticeship and
registered apprenticeship programs, in the rehabilitation and construction activities described under “Supervision
and Training,” below.a
Occupational skills training.a
Other paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.a
Services and activities designed to meet the educational needs of participants, including—(1) basic skills instruction
and remedial education, (2) language instruction educational programs for individuals with limited English
proficiency, (3) secondary education services and activities designed to lead to the attainment of a high school
diploma or its equivalent; (4) counseling and assistance in obtaining postsecondary education and required
financial aid, and (5) alternative secondary school services.b
Counseling services and related activities, such as comprehensive guidance and counseling on drug and alcohol abuse
and referral.b
Activities designed to develop employment and leadership skills, including community service and peer-centered
activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors, and activities related to youth policy
committees that participate in decision-making related to the program.b
Supportive services and provision of need-based stipends to enable individuals to participate in the program, and
supportive services to assist individuals, for a period not to exceed 12 months after the completion of training, in
obtaining or retaining employment, or applying for and transitioning to postsecondary education.b
Job search assistance. a
Supervision and Training
Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of housing, including residential housing
for homeless individuals or low-income families, or transitional housing for homeless individuals.
Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of community and other public facilities,
except that not more than 10% of funds appropriated may be used for such supervision and training.
Other
Payment of administrative costs of the applicant, except that not more than 15% of the amount of assistance provided
to the grant recipient may be used for such costs.
Adult mentoring.
Provision of wages, stipends, or benefits to participants in the program.
Ongoing training and technical assistance that are related to developing and carrying out the program.
Follow-up services.
Source: Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
a.
This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain
work and skill development activities.
b.
This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 50% of the time, youth must participate in
education and related services and activities.
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Participants
Youth are eligible for the program if they are (1) ages 16 through 24; (2) a member of a lowincome family, a youth in foster care, a youth offender, an individual with a disability, a child of
incarcerated parents, or a migrant youth; and (3) a school dropout.93 However, up to 25% of
youth in the program are not required to meet the income or dropout criteria, so long as they are
basic skills deficient despite having earned a high school diploma, GED, or the equivalent; or
have
92
Section 154 of WIOA (Section 154 of WIA). WIA specified that a business and community liaison designated by the
director is responsible for these activities.
93
Section 154 of WIOA (Section 154 of WIA). WIA referred to this body as the Industry Advisory Council.
94
Ibid.
95
No more than 20% of participants may be ages 22 through 24 on the date of enrollment. The age limit may be waived
by DOL, in accordance with DOL regulations, for individuals with a disability.
96
Section 145 of WIOA (Section 145 of WIA).
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findings. WIA specified that when selected for the program, students are usually placed at the site
closest to their home; however, DOL could waive this requirement if the enrollee meets certain
other criteria. WIOA changes this requirement such that the enrollee is to be assigned to the
center that offers the type of career and technical education and training that he or she selects
(unless the parent or the guardian of an enrollee under 18 objects). Among the centers that offer
such education and training, the enrollee is to be assigned to the one closest to his or her home.97
No more than 20% of participants may live off the grounds of the Job Corps center. Priority in
non-residential placements is to be given to participants who are single parents.98
WIA specified that no individual may be enrolled in Job Corps for more than two years, except in
certain cases. WIOA makes additional exceptions for enrolling for more than two years: (1) an
individual with a disability who would reasonably be expected to graduate, if allowed to
participate for up to an additional year; and (2) in the case of an individual who participates in
national service (as authorized by the Civilian Conservation Center program) who may extend
enrollment to equal the period of service.99
Performance
WIA requires DOL to establish multiple performance metrics for Job Corps. (These are generally
in effect through PY2016.) Specifically, DOL had establish indicators of performance for centers
and the program that are consistent year to year, and that include certain specified measures
relating to graduation, unsubsidized employment, average wage, postsecondary education or
advance training programs. WIA also directed the Secretary to establish indicators of performance
for local and national Job Corps recruitment service providers (known as Outreach and
Admissions, or OA, staff) that relate to the number of enrollees retained in the program for 30
days and for 60 days after they are placed. The law did not specify performance indicators for
career transition services (CTS) providers who assist youth as they transition from the center to
the workplace. It additionally directed DOL to collect and submit as part of an annual report to
Congress information on the expected and actual performance of each center, the program, and
recruiters. The report must also include information on several items, such as number of enrollees
serviced, number of enrollees and graduates who enter postsecondary education, and average
learning gains.100
DOL reports on performance through four report cards that include information about various
aspects of the program’s performance: Outreach and Admissions (OA) Report Card, which
pertains to the recruiters; Center Report Card, which pertains to each individual center and all
centers combined; Career Technical Training Reporting and Improvement System, which pertains
to the students completing career technical training programs at centers; and Career Transitions
Services (CTS) Report Card, which pertains to CTS providers.101 The report cards include the
measurements specified in statute, as well as additional performance metrics. These additional
measures were developed from DOL policy and the Government Performance and Results Act
(GPRA), which established requirements in statute for most agencies to set performance goals,
97
Section 145(d) of WIOA (Section 145(d) of WIA).
Section 147(b) of WIOA (Section 147(b) of WIA).
99
Section 146 of WIOA (Section 146 of WIA).
100
Section 159(c) and Section 159(d) of WIA.
101
For further information, see DOL, ETA, Office of Job Corps, “Performance Management System Overview Guide.”
98
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measure performance, and report the information to Congress for potential use.102 The program
also collects information to assess performance through the Common Measures. As explained
previously, DOL introduced the Common Measures for WIA Title I programs in 2005. The
Common Measures for Youth are placement in employment and education, attainment of a degree
or certificate, and literacy and numeracy gains. Together, these various measures are used by the
Office of Job Corps to evaluate student performance and how well students are served at each of
the centers.
Beginning with PY2016 (July 1, 2016), WIOA directs DOL to establish expected levels of
performance for the program and individual centers that relate to each of the six primary
indicators of performance for the Youth Workforce Activities program. Specifically, these
indicators pertain to (1) entry into education, training, or unsubsidized employment (during both
the (a) second quarter and (b) fourth quarter after exiting the program); (2) median earnings; (3)
obtaining a recognized postsecondary credential or secondary school diploma or its equivalent;
(4) participation in an education or training program that leads to a credential or employment; and
(5) program effectiveness in serving employers. WIOA further specifies performance measures
for the OA staff and CTS providers. The OA performance measures pertain to recruitment,
including whether the youth are from the state or region where their center is located, and the cost
per graduate. The CTS performance measures include the performance measures for the Youth
Workforce Investment Activities program, among others. WIOA further requires DOL to report to
Congress certain specified information about enrollees and graduates. The report must include
some of the same information under current law, as well as information on the performance of
each center, program, and recruiter based on their specified performance measures. It adds other
items to the report such as demographic information on enrollees; the number of graduates who
entered apprenticeships; the total cost per enrollee and graduate; information about the state of
Job Corps buildings and facilities; and national and community service activities of enrollees,
particularly those at CCCs.
Performance Oversight
WIA specified that a Job Corps center failing to meet expected performance levels (as specified
in the law) can be placed under a performance improvement plan (PIP). PIPs are documented
plans that outline deficiencies in program performance, corrective actions, and targets for
improvement. Under WIA, the plan had to encompass certain actions taken by DOL, including
providing technical assistance to the centers; changing the vocational training offered at the
center; changing the management staff of the center; replacing the operator of the center;
reducing the capacity of the center; relocating the center; or closing the center. WIA also enabled
DOL to establish a PIP when a Job Corps center failed to meet additional criteria established by
the Secretary. These discretionary PIPs had to include the actions described above. WIOA adds
that a PIP established when a center fails to meet expected performance levels must require the
specified actions (i.e., providing technical assistance to the centers, etc.) to be undertaken within a
one-year period.103
Prior to the closure of any Job Corps center, DOL must ensure (1) that the proposed decision to
close the center is announced in advance to the general public through publication in the Federal
102
103
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Section 159(f) of WIA and WIOA.
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Register or other appropriate means; (2) that a reasonable comment period, not to exceed 30 days,
is established for interested individuals to submit written comments to the Secretary; and (3) that
the Member of Congress who represents the district in which a center is located is notified within
a reasonable period of time in advance of any final decision to close the center. WIOA required
by December 1, 2014, that DOL submit to Congress written criteria to determine when a center is
to be closed and how to carry out such closure.104 Finally, WIOA directs DOL to provide for a
third-party evaluation of the program every five years, and to submit the results to Congress. The
evaluation must address the general effectiveness of the program in relation to its costs; the
effectiveness of the performance measures for the program; the effectiveness of the structure and
mechanisms for delivering services; the impact of the program on the community, businesses, and
participants involved; the extent to which the program and activities meet the needs of various
demographic groups, and other such factors that may be appropriate.105
Financial Oversight
WIA does not require reporting on financial oversight measures specifically for Job Corps;
however, WIOA requires DOL to prepare and submit reports to Congress that include information
about implementing financial oversight measures suggested in the 2013 DOL IG report about
oversight of Job Corps funding,106 a description of any budgetary shortfalls in the period covered
by the report, and an explanation for approving contract expenditures that are in excess of the
amount specified under a contract. The reports are to be provided every six months for an initial
three-year period, then annually for another two years. WIOA further requires DOL to submit an
additional report to Congress if the program has a budget shortfall, including an explanation of
how the shortfall will be addressed. The report must be submitted within 90 days after the
shortfall is identified.107
YouthBuild108
Overview and Purpose
In 2007, YouthBuild was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to
DOL under the YouthBuild Transfer Act (P.L. 109-281). The program was authorized under WIA,
and the WIOA provisions for the program are effective as of July 1, 2015. As stated in the law,
the purpose of YouthBuild is to (1) enable disadvantaged youth to obtain the education and
employment skills necessary to achieve economic self-sufficiency in occupations in demand and
post-secondary education and training opportunities; (2) provide disadvantaged youth with
opportunities for meaningful work and service to communities; (3) foster the development of
employment and leadership skills and commitment to community development among youth in
low-income communities; and (4) expand the supply of permanent affordable housing for
104
Section 159(j) and Section 161(c) of WIOA (Section 159(g) of WIA).
Section 161(b) of WIOA.
106
DOL, Office of Inspector General, The U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration Needs
to Strengthen Controls Over Job Corps Funds.
107
Section 161(a) of WIOA.
108
Title I, Subtitle D, Section 173A of the Workforce Investment Act.
105
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homeless individuals and low-income families by utilizing the energy of disadvantaged youth.
WIOA adds an additional purpose area: (5) to improve the quality and energy efficiency of
community and other nonprofit and public facilities, including those facilities that are used to
serve homeless and low-income families.109 WIOA makes few other changes to YouthBuild.
Program Structure
DOL competitively awards YouthBuild funds to organizations, which carry out the program in
cooperation with subgrantees or contractors or through arrangements made with local education
agencies and certain other entities. Entities that are eligible to apply for funding include a public
or private nonprofit agency or organization, including a consortium of such agencies or
organizations. Specifically, such entities may include community-based or faith-based
organizations; entities that carry out activities authorized under certain other parts of WIA (and
WIOA), such as a local workforce board; community action agencies; state or local housing
development agencies; an Indian tribe or agencies primarily serving Indians; state or local youth
service or conservation corps; or any other entity eligible to provide education or employment
training under a federal program.110
While in the program, youth participate in a range of education and workforce investment
activities, as listed in Table 6. These activities include instruction, skill building, alternative
education, mentoring, and training in rehabilitation or construction of housing. Notably, any
housing unit that is rehabilitated or reconstructed may be available only for rental by, or sale to,
homeless individuals or low-income families; or for use as transitional or permanent housing to
assist homeless individuals achieve independent living. All educational programs, including
programs that award academic credit, and activities supported with YouthBuild funds must be
consistent with applicable state and local educational standards.
As specified in both WIA and WIOA, at least 40% of the time, youth must participate in certain
work and skill development activities (these activities are denoted by footnote “a” in Table 6). At
least an additional 50% of the time, participants must be engaged in education and related
services and activities designed to meet their educational needs (these activities are denoted by
footnote “b” in Table 6). WIOA made a change to some of these activities to enable them to
include, if approved by the DOL Secretary, training and supports in additional in-demand industry
sectors or occupations. This is consistent with a 2012 regulation for the program that enables
grantees to expand their occupational skills training beyond construction skills training; however,
all programs must still provide training in the construction trades.111
109
Section 171(a) of WIOA (Section 173A(a) of WIA).
Section 173(b) of WIOA (Section 173A(b) of WIA).
111
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, “YouthBuild Program Final Rule,” 77
Federal Register 9112, February 15, 2012.
110
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Table 6. Eligible Activities Funded by YouthBuild as Specified Under WIOA
Education and Workforce Investment Activities
•
Work experience and skills training, coordinated, to the maximum extent feasible, with pre-apprenticeship and
registered apprenticeship programs (in the rehabilitation and construction activities described under
“Supervision and Training,” below) and if approved by the Secretary, in additional in-demand industry sectors or
occupations in the region in which the program operates.a
•
Occupational skills training.a
•
Other paid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing.a
•
Services and activities designed to meet the educational needs of participants, including—(1) basic skills
instruction and remedial education, (2) language instruction educational programs for participants who are
English language learners, (3) secondary education services and activities designed to lead to the attainment of a
high school diploma or its equivalent; (4) counseling and assistance in obtaining postsecondary education and
required financial aid, and (5) alternative secondary school services.b
•
Counseling services and related activities, such as comprehensive guidance and counseling on drug and alcohol
abuse and referral.b
•
Activities designed to develop employment and leadership skills, including community service and peer-centered
activities encouraging responsibility and other positive social behaviors, and activities related to youth policy
committees that participate in decision-making related to the program.b
•
Supportive services and provision of need-based stipends to enable individuals to participate in the program, and
supportive services to assist individuals, for a period not to exceed 12 months after the completion of training, in
obtaining or retaining employment, or applying for and transitioning to postsecondary education.b
•
Job search assistance.a
Supervision and Training
•
Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of housing, including residential
housing for homeless individuals or low-income families, or transitional housing for homeless individuals. If
approved by the Secretary, this may also include supervision and training in additional in-demand industry sectors
or occupations in the region in which the program operates.
•
Supervision and training for participants in the rehabilitation or construction of community and other public
facilities, except that not more than 15% of funds appropriated may be used for such supervision and training. If
approved by the Secretary, this may also include supervision and training in additional in-demand industry sectors
or occupations in the region in which the program operates.
Other
•
Payment of administrative costs of the applicant, except that not more than 10% of the amount of assistance
provided to the grant recipient may be used for such costs.
•
Adult mentoring.
•
Provision of wages, stipends, or benefits to participants in the program.
•
Ongoing training and technical assistance that are related to developing and carrying out the program.
•
Follow-up services.
Source: Section 173A of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128).
Notes: WIOA made a change to some of these activities to enable them to include, if approved by the
Secretary, training and supports in additional in-demand industry sectors or occupations. In addition, WIOA
changed the percentage of funds used for supervising and training participants in the rehabilitation or
construction of community and other public facilities from 10% to 15%. The law also changed the percentage of
funds used for payment of administrative costs of the applicant, from 15% to 10%.
a.
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b.
This activity counts toward the requirement that at least 50% of the time, youth must participate in
education and related services and activities.
Participants
Youth are eligible for the program if they are (1) ages 16 through 24; (2) a member of a lowincome family, a youth in foster care, a youth offender, an individual with a disability, a child of
incarcerated parents, or a migrant youth; and (3) a school dropout. However, up to 25% of youth
in the program are not required to meet the income or dropout criteria, so long as they are basic
skills deficient despite having earned a high school diploma, GED, or the equivalent; or have
been referred by a high school for the purpose of obtaining a high school diploma.
Allocations
Grants are competitively awarded to organizations based on ranked scores, in conjunction with
other factors, such as the applicant’s potential for developing a successful YouthBuild program;
the need for the program in the community; the applicant’s commitment to providing skills
training, leadership development, and education to participants; regional distribution of grantees;
and the applicant’s coordination of activities to be carried out with certain other stakeholders,
including employers, one-stop partners, and national service and other systems; among other
criteria.
DOL makes awards for three years (two years of program operations with a one-year period of
follow-up). Applicants must provide cash or in-kind resources equivalent to at least 25% of the
grant award amount as matching funds. Prior investments and federal resources do not count
toward the match.
Performance
WIA requires grantees to use common indicators of performance for youth and lifelong learning,
as identified by the Secretary. Accordingly, DOL directs YouthBuild grantees to YouthBuild grantees report the
Common Measures and two additional performance measures for
all youth in the program. The
two other measures are retention in employment or education and
recidivism. Retention in
employment and education tracks the share of young people who are
employed or in an
educational placement for each of the three quarters after exiting. The
recidivism measure tracks
the share of youth arrested and convicted of a new crime or parole
violation within one year of enrollment.
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders94
enrollment.112
As of July 1, 2016, WIOA will require grantees to meet the primary indicators of performance for
eligible youth described in the Youth Workforce Activities program. Specifically, these indicators
pertain to entry into education, training, or unsubsidized employment (both two and four quarters
after exiting the program); median earnings; obtaining a recognized postsecondary credential or
112
U.S. DOL., ETA, “ETA Quarterly Workforce System Results, YouthBuild,” http://www.doleta.gov/performance/
results/#etaqr.
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secondary school diploma or its equivalent; participation in an education or training program that
leads to a credential or employment; and program effectiveness in serving employers.113
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders114
Overview and Purpose
Section 171 of WIA authorizes DOL to conduct pilot and demonstration programs. The purpose
of these programs is to develop and evaluate innovative approaches to providing employment and
training services. In recent years, two programs have been specified in appropriations language
and funded under the authority of Section 171. One of the programs—Reintegration of ExOffenders—is targeted, in part, to youth. A component of the program focuses on youth. (Other,
93
94
Some of these terms are defined in Appendix B.
Title I, Subtitle D, Section 171 of the Workforce Investment Act.
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shorter-term programs that do not focus on youth offenders, per se, but do specifically target
vulnerable youth have also been funded, as described in the text box below.) The youth
The youth component is comprised of related initiatives
that seek to assist youth offenders and youth at risk
of dropping out (or who have dropped out)
with pre-release, mentoring, housing, case
management, and employment services; to reduce
violence within persistently dangerous schools
through a combination of mentoring, educational,
employment, case management, and violence
prevention strategies; and to provide alternative
education and related services for youth at risk of
involvement with the justice system.95115
Grants for youth offenders have been funded under WIA since FY2000.96116 The program was a
stand-alone program until FY2008, when it was made a part of the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders
program. It, which also supports the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI) for adults. Funding for the program
is
program was authorized under both WIA and Section 112 (Responsible Reintegration of
Offenders) of the
Second Chance Act (P.L. 110-199), enacted on April 9, 2008. The Second
Chance Act authorizes
DOL to make grants to nonprofit organizations for the purpose of
providing mentoring, job
training and job placement services, and other comprehensive
transitional services to assist
eligible offenders ages 18 and older in obtaining and retaining employment
employment.
Congress appropriated funding for the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program in FY2015 (P.L.
113-235) under the authority of Section 169 of WIOA and the Second Chance Act. Section 169
authorizes evaluations and research.
Program Structure
The earliest initiatives for youth offenders, from FY1999 through FY2004, operated under what
is known as the Youth Offender Demonstration Project (YODP).97117 The pilot funded 52 grantees to
assist youth at risk of court or gang involvement, youth offenders, and gang members ages 14 to
113
Section 171(c) of WIOA (and Section 173(c) of WIA).
Title I, Subtitle D, Section 171 of the Workforce Investment Act.
115
This is based on a review of initiatives funded by the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program. DOL, ETA, Youth
Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/Youth_services/Discretionary.cfm.
116
This program was known as the Youth Offender Pilot Program, and funded 14 communities that provided
educational, employment, re-entry, and other services to youth.
117
The earliest funding for the program was authorized under Title IV of the Job Training Partnership Act. See U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Notice Inviting Proposals for Youth Offender
Demonstration Projects, August 28, 1998, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/sga/01-101sga.cfm.
114
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.
to assist youth at risk of court or gang involvement, youth offenders, and gang members ages 14
to 24 in finding long-term employment.
The more contemporary grant programs for youth offenders have funded multiple projects in
recent years that have a focus similar to the earlier projects under YODP. Recent projects have
included (1) education-related grants for the School District Youth Offender Initiative and
Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative; (2) apprenticeship and related grants under grants
collectively called Categorical Grants (Youth Offender Registered Apprenticeship, Alternative
Education, and Project Expansion Grants); (3) grants that focus on reentry, including BeneficiaryChoice Demonstration, High Growth Youth Offender Initiative, Planning, State/Local
Implementation, and Replication Grants; and (4) grants that focus on community service,
including Civic Justice Grants and Serving Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training and
Service Learning. Grantees include local and state governments, nonprofit organizations,
including faith-based organizations; school districts; and community colleges.98
95
This is based on a review of initiatives funded by the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program. U.S. Department of
Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/
Youth_services/Discretionary.cfm.
96
This program was known as the Youth Offender Pilot Program, and funded 14 communities that provided
educational, employment, re-entry, and other services to youth.
97
The earliest funding for the program was authorized under Title IV of the Job Training Partnership Act. See U.S.
Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Notice Inviting Proposals for Youth Offender
Demonstration Projects, August 28, 1998, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/sga/01-101sga.cfm.
98
For a list of grantees and grant funding amounts, see U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, Youth Services Discretionary Grants, http://www.doleta.gov/grants/.
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118
Each of these projects has been funded in at least one year since PY2006.99119 The projects are
grouped below based on their focus. While the projects each have a distinct purpose, their overall
aim is to provide employment and other assistance to youth who are involved in the justice
system, or are at risk of becoming involved.
Education
The School District Youth Offender Initiative, also known as the School District Gang Reduction
grants, was funded with FY2006 appropriations and focused on developing strategies for
reducing youth involvement in gangs using a workforce development approach. The initiative
was aimed at helping five public school districts—Baltimore; Chicago; Milwaukee; Orange
County, FL; and Philadelphia—reduce the involvement of youth in gangs and violent crimes.
Grant funds cancould be used for a range of education and employment interventions for youth who are
are involved, have been involved, or have a high risk of being involved in gangs or the juvenile
justice system. Youth were eligible if they arewere in school and in grades 8-12, or arewere high school
dropouts under the age of 21. School districts were required to partner with the local juvenile
justice system, the mayor’s office, the local WIB, the police department, and the U.S. Attorney’s
office in carrying out the program.
The Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative used FY2007 and FY2008 appropriations to
provide funding to three school districts—Berkshire Union Free School District in Canaan, NY;
Baltimore; and Philadelphia—to improve outcomes of students in nine high schools that have
been identified as persistently dangerous by the states’ department of education, pursuant to the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The grants funded a combination of new initiatives at
each school, including reduced class size in core 9th and 11th grade English and math, which have
a history of high rates of failure; a mentoring program using adult and peer mentors; career
118
For a list of grantees and grant funding amounts, see DOL, ETA, Youth Services Discretionary Grants,
http://www.doleta.gov/grants/.
119
Between PY2000 and PY2006, DOL used Youthful Offender funding to support the Serious and Violent Reentry
Initiative at the Department of Justice; to award competitive grants to serve youthful offenders in 29 communities; to
award non-competitive grants to several nonprofit organizations to serve young offenders and youth at risk of
becoming offenders; and to award grants to eight states to improve the academic and workforce preparation programs
in one juvenile correctional facility in each state.
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academies with particular themes; and a summer bridge program with remediation in English and
math.
Apprenticeships, Alternative Education, and Expansion Grants
The Categorical Grants project funded programs with FY2006 appropriations that provided
apprenticeship opportunities and alternative education to youth who had been adjudicated (i.e.,
cases have been judicially determined) or were at risk of involvement in the justice system. The
grantees with programs on apprenticeship opportunities were intended to prepare young adult
offenders for in-demand careers in fields such as construction, welding, masonry, and advanced
manufacturing. Programs with an alternative education focus were focused on creating or
enhancing schools to help young offenders earn diplomas and continue on to postsecondary
education or jobs. Some grantees received funding to expand their programs to additional sites
because of their records of successfully providing assistance to juvenile offenders. Grantees
included state departments of corrections, school boards, and nonprofit organizations.
99
Between PY2000 and PY2006, DOL used Youthful Offender funding to support the Serious and Violent Reentry
Initiative at the Department of Justice; to award competitive grants to serve youthful offenders in 29 communities; to
award non-competitive grants to several nonprofit organizations to serve young offenders and youth at risk of
becoming offenders; and to award grants to eight states to improve the academic and workforce preparation programs
in one juvenile correctional facility in each state.
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Reentry100
Multiple grant programs focus on assisting young adults as they transition from the juvenile
justice system. Two of the grants are currently funded while others received funding in the recent
pastReentry120
Multiple grant programs have focused on assisting young adults as they transition from the
juvenile justice system. Two of the grants are currently funded while others received funding in
the recent past.
Face Forward-Serving Juvenile Offenders grants (funded with FY2012 and FY2013
appropriations) seek to help improve long-term labor market outcomes for juvenile justice
involved youth. The grants are supporting community-based organizations to provide juvenile
offenders with support services, training, and skills development. Eligible youth are ages 16 to 24
and meet certain criteria related to their involvement in the juvenile justice system. Another grant,
Strategies Targeted to Characteristics Common to Female Ex-Offenders (funded with FY2011,
FY2012, and FY2013 appropriations), focuses on providing employment and support services for
previously incarcerated female youth and adults as they transition back to their communities.
The Serving Juvenile Offenders in High-Poverty, High Crime Communities (funded with
FY2009, FY2010, FY2011, and FY2013, and FY2011 appropriations) has sought to improve the long-term
labor market
prospects of juvenile offenders ages 16 to 24 in high-poverty, high-crime areas. The
grants funded
efforts at multiple sites to provide a combination of workforce development,
education and
training, case management, mentoring, restorative justice (to provide community
service or other
activities as a way to repair damage to the community), and activities to reduce
community-wide
violence. For example, the grant funded the Latino Coalition for Faith &
Community Leadership
and Public/Private Ventures to support training opportunities for high
school dropouts and young
adult offenders ages 18 through 24 throughout the country.
Another grant, Strategies Targeted to Characteristics Common to Female Ex-Offenders, seeks to
provide employment and support services for previously incarcerated female youth and adults as
they transition back to their communities. Funds were awarded with FY2011 and FY2012
appropriations. Three grantees focus on youth.
The Beneficiary Choice Demonstration provided funding (in FY2006 and FY2008) to grantees to
assist ex-offenders ages 18 through 29 transition from prison to the workplace. Participants could
choose service providers from pools of faith-based and community groups. The grantees included
the Arizona Women’s Education and Employment, Inc., of Phoenix; the Colorado Department of
120
Youth ages 18 and older may also be eligible to participate in the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI), which seeks to
reduce recidivism by helping former inmates find work when they return to their communities.
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Labor and Employment; the City of Chicago; the Indianapolis Private Industry Council, Inc.; and
the Director’s Council of Des Moines, IA. For example, Colorado’s project focused on delivering
individualized, comprehensive offender reentry strategies through partners such as the
Department of Corrections, Salvation Army, Grant Valley Catholic Outreach, one-stop centers,
and Goodwill, among other entities. The project offered mentoring, counseling, housing,
education, and training and employment opportunities in industries with high growth.
Two grants funded with FY2012 appropriations—Face Forward-Serving Juvenile Offenders and
Intermediary Organizations Serving Juvenile Offenders in High-Poverty, High-Crime
Communities—are supporting community-based organizations that provide job training,
education, and support services to juvenile offenders and formerly incarcerated youth (grantees
funded with the second grant also provide assistance to formerly incarcerated women).
The High Growth Youth Offender Initiative funded efforts (in each of FY2004 through FY2008)
to help former offenders gain the skills necessary to enter industries with high growth. Projects
focused on addressing the workforce needs of growing industries that provide employment
opportunities and potential for advancement. Among the grantees were nonprofit organizations
and workforce boards.
Finally, the Planning, State/Local Implementation and Replication Grants funded (with FY2008
appropriations) four state juvenile justice agencies in the District of Columbia, Maryland, Texas,
100
Youth ages 18 and older may also be eligible to participate in the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI), which seeks to
reduce recidivism by helping former inmates find work when they return to their communities.
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and Washington to serve all youth returning from juvenile correctional facilities to one county in
the state; five counties to develop plans for serving all youth returning from correctional facilities
to the local area; and YouthBuild Newark to develop YouthBuild programs serving juvenile
offenders in four additional cities in New Jersey.
Community Service/Restorative Justice
Some grants funded under the youth component of the
Reintegration of Ex-Offenders program
focus on
community service and restorative justice projects to
repair the harm former offenders
may have caused and
to help rebuild the community. These grants are known
as Civic Justice
Corps Grants Serving Juvenile
Offenders (funded with FY2010 appropriations) and
Serving Serving
Young Adult Ex-Offenders through Training
and Service Learning (funded with FY2011
appropriations).
Multiple Education Pathways
Blueprint
The Multiple Education Pathways Blueprint is
a one-time grant program funded under
WIA’s pilot and demonstration authority. In
FY2007, DOL provided $3.4 million to seven
midsize cities “to ‘blueprint’ and implement a
system that can reconnect youth [who have
dropped out of high school] to a variety of
high quality, innovative multiple education
pathways.” Each city has built a partnership
among multiple stakeholders to study the
scope of the dropout problem, map the
service and resources in their community,
and assess efforts to reform high schools.
Partners are currently planning or pilot
testing new approaches to education,
including identifying youth at risk of dropping
out, launching new supports during the
summer or first semester of high school,
offering Saturday school programs that get
youth back on track with their peers, and
providing sector-based education and training
programs.
and Service Learning (funded with FY2011
appropriations).
These grants sought to provide community service
opportunities to juvenile offenders ages 18 to 24
24 involved with the juvenile justice system within the past
year. Programs funded under these
grants were to
provide the following: (1) meaningful community
service projects and service
learning opportunities; (2)
educational interventions that lead to a credential and
increase increase
placement in post-secondary education and/or
Source: U.S. Department of Labor,
vocational training; (3) community connections that
“Employment and Training Administration,
vocational training; (3) community connections
that result in opportunities for offenders to rebuild trust; (4)
Multiple Education Pathways Initiative.”
high staff-to-participant ratios,
including close adult
supervision on community service projects; (5) career development
components that seek to place
each participant in a job, apprenticeship, or educational setting that
leads to an industryrecognizedindustry-recognized credential; and (6) post-program support and follow-up.
Participants
Each of the initiatives targets select groups of at-risk youth. However, the projects generally serve
youth ages 14 and older (or 18 or older) who have been involved with or have a high risk of
involvement in gangs or the juvenile justice system or criminal justice system, or attend
“persistently dangerous” schools, as reported by select states.
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.
Allocations
Grants are competitively awarded to entities such as community-based organizations and state
and local juvenile justice agencies, based on ranked scores and other factors, depending on the
project. Notably, only schools that meet the criteria of “persistently dangerous,” as specified by
the states and as permitted under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), are
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eligible to apply for funds under the Persistently Dangerous Schools Initiative.101121 Allocations vary
for each of the projects, but, generally, grantees have received grants of $1 million to $5 million
for one or more years.
Performance
DOL has performance measures for each Youth Offender initiative. The standards vary for each
initiative depending on the focus of the grants and the population of youth served. However, the
program has uniform measures for the program overall: (1) percentage of youth ages 18 and older
who are out of school entering employment or enrolling in post-secondary education, the military, or advanced
training/occupational skillsor
occupational training; (2) percentage of youth offenders ages 14 through 17 who
recidivate; and (3) percentage of youth offenders ages 18 and older who recidivate.102
Youth Opportunity Grants
Overview and Purpose
The Youth Opportunity Grants program was funded from FY1999 through FY2003, and operated
until 2005. As stated in WIA, the program was intended to provide employment, educational, and
youth development activities to increase the long-term employment of youth who live in
enterprise communities, empowerment zones, and high-poverty areas and who seek assistance.
By definition, enterprise communities and empowerment zones are in low-income areas. The
program enrolled 92,263 participants over the course of the grant period, of whom 52.7% were
female; 51.9% were in school and 48.1% were out of school; and 58.9% were black, 22.4%
Hispanic, and 11.2% American Indian or Native Alaskan. At enrollment, just over half of all
participants were attending school (54.3%). This is compared to 68.3% of youth in the
community overall who were attending school.
Program Structure
YOG funds were awarded to 36 communities, 24 in urban areas, 6 in rural areas, and 6 on tribal
lands.103 A local WIB was eligible to receive funding if it had been designated as an
empowerment zone or enterprise community; was in a state without such a zone or community
and was designated as a high-poverty area by the governor; or was one of two areas in a state
designated by the governor as areas for which a local board could apply for the grant and that met
certain poverty guidelines. Entities other than a local board were eligible to receive funding if
they were a recipient under WIA’s Native American programs (Section 136); served a community
101
(3) percentage of youth offenders ages 18 and older who recidivate.122
121
ESEA requires each state receiving funds under the act to establish and implement a statewide policy requiring that
a student attending a persistently dangerous school, as determined by the state in consultation with a representative
sample of local education agencies (LEAs), or a student who becomes a victim of a violent criminal offense on school
grounds be allowed to attend a safe school within the LEA.
102
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration122
DOL, ETA, Budget Justification of Appropriation
Estimates for Committees on Appropriations, FY2012, vol. I, p. TES-72.
103
U.S. Government Accountability Office, Youth Opportunity Grants: Lessons Can Be Learned from Program, but
Labor Needs to Make Data Available, GAO-06-53, December 2005.
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that met certain poverty guidelines; and were located on an Indian reservation or served
Oklahoma Indians or Alaska Native villages or Native groups.
According to a December 2005 report by GAO about the YOG program, recipients of the funds
included states, local WIBs, counties, cities, and other entities. These entities either provided
services directly to youth, or entered into contracts with organizations. As required under WIA,
grantees were required to provide a broad range of education, employment, and other related
activities that are currently provided under WIA Youth Activities (see Table 2). In addition,
grantees were required to implement youth development activities that addressed leadership
development, citizenship and community service, and recreational activities.
The programs were carried out at centers in each community. YOG communities had as few as
one or as many as 40 centers.104 Centers included at least a couple of the following amenities:
classrooms, recreational facilities, computer labs, career centers, health centers, and staff offices.
Some centers operated out of local high schools. At least one of the programs established a
charter school to provide alternative educational services to youth, while another had a recording
studio for youth to record music. Program staff included case managers to help identify youth’s
needs and connect them to services and activities, as well as employment specialists to help youth
look for, secure, and retain employment or help them transition to college. Program staff also
followed up with youth. WIA required grantees to provide intensive placement services, as well
as follow-up services for not less than two years after the youth completed the program.
A key feature of YOG was the networks that the grantees created in each community. According
to the GAO report, the networks were often comprised of educational, occupational, and other
providers for youth services. The networks were facilitated by formal arrangements among the
partners and referrals to other organizations, such as those that provided GED preparation and
clothing for interviews. Some participants at some of the centers had the opportunity to enroll part
time at a community college to earn academic credit. Partners also provided referrals to the
grantees.
Participants
Unlike other youth programs authorized under WIA, youth could participate in the YOG program
as long as they lived in a community receiving funds. Therefore, youth did not have to show that
they met income and other eligibility criteria.
Allocations
Funds were awarded to communities for a one-year period, with renewals in each of the four
succeeding years. WIA required that grants were distributed equitably among local boards and
other entities serving urban and rural areas, taking into account the poverty rate in these areas.
Grant applicants were required to describe how the activities carried out at the YOG center(s)
would be linked to the activities under the WIA Youth Activities program and the type of
community support for the activities, among other requirements.
104
Ibid.
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Performance Measures
As specified under Section 167(f) of WIA, DOL set performance measures for the Youth
Opportunity grants and negotiated with grantees on the levels expected to be achieved for each
measure. The performance measures included a completion rate, placement rate, retention rate,
participation rate, and enrollment rates for in-school and for out-of-school youth.
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Appendix AFY2016, vol. I, p.
TES-83.
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Appendix. Workforce Investment Act Funding for WIA Youth ProgramYouth Programs
Table A-1. WIA Youth Activities State Allotments, PY2008-PY2013PY2009-PY2014, Plus Funding Under the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA, P.L. 111-5)
Includes allotments for outlying areas and Native Americans
State
Total
PY2008
(P.L. 110-161)
ARRA
(P.L. 111-5)
PY2009
(P.L. 111-8)
PY2010
(P.L. 110-351)
PY2011
(P.L. 112-5)
PY2012
(P.L. 112-74)
PY 2013PY2013
(P.L. 113-6)
$924,069,465PY2014
(P.L. 113-76)
$1,188,000,000
$924,069,000
$924,069,000
$825,913,862
$824,353,022
$781,375,289
10,066,414$818,169,000
11,647,403
9,059,768
11,777,698
12,455,574
11,711,479
10,504,766
Alaska
3,401,75310,363,134
Alaska
3,936,018
3,061,576
2,755,418
2,216,462
2,024,817
1,919,253
Arizona
15,410,3512,009,628
Arizona
17,830,637
13,869,309
15,982,731
15,326,190
16,510,641
15,938,449
Arkansas
10,427,80716,873,353
Arkansas
12,065,555
9,385,022
8,446,520
6,794,393
6,431,994
6,367,716
California
131,478,1606,814,031
California
186,622,034
145,161,310
136,875,948
117,952,080
123,857,750
118,211,133
Colorado
10,263,091119,122,833
Colorado
11,874,970
9,236,777
11,132,070
9,788,025
11,882,561
11,600,883
Connecticut
7,422,40612,414,406
Connecticut
11,034,723
8,583,204
8,869,254
8,060,872
8,794,724
8,152,502
Delaware
2,269,7469,398,657
Delaware
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
2,009,628
District of Columbia
3,430,967
3,969,821
3,087,869
2,779,082
2,402,872
2,323,591
2,074,840
Florida
25,652,6002,216,117
Florida
42,873,265
33,348,363
43,352,872
50,372,277
53,892,125
47,791,321
Georgia
20,223,50845,067,004
Georgia
31,361,665
24,394,229
28,251,785
24,305,197
25,482,266
25,123,453
Hawaii
2,404,09527,467,948
Hawaii
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,690,193
2,272,811
2,243,958
2,174,842
Idaho
2,290,4782,049,527
Idaho
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,950,667
3,428,419
4,027,145
3,623,538
Illinois
41,245,3773,414,748
Illinois
62,203,400
48,384,035
43,545,632
36,086,031
32,767,678
33,775,763
Indiana
20,463,63838,093,547
Indiana
23,677,573
18,417,265
19,697,136
16,043,006
15,457,182
15,696,820
Iowa
4,091,70417,756,443
Iowa
5,172,183
4,023,109
4,750,212
5,519,334
4,962,142
4,671,103
Kansas
6,155,0304,739,579
Kansas
7,121,714
5,539,524
5,930,458
5,248,975
5,511,824
5,304,061
Alabama
CRS-40
State
PY2008
(P.L. 110-161)
ARRA
(P.L. 111-5)
5,398,508
17,709,821
13,775,333
14,303,105
12,514,937
12,676,374
11,299,654
12,118,913
Alabama
Kentucky
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State
Louisiana
PY2009
(P.L. 111-8)
PY2010
(P.L. 110-351)
PY2011
(P.L. 112-5)
PY2012
(P.L. 112-74)
PY 2013
(P.L. 113-6)
Kentucky
14,567,756
17,709,821
13,775,333
14,303,105
12,514,937
12,676,374
11,299,654
Louisiana
17,295,855PY2013
(P.L. 113-6)
PY2014
(P.L. 113-76)
20,012,271
15,566,262
14,009,636
11,269,372
11,409,318
9,733,043
3,280,7859,327,194
4,293,710
3,339,802
3,476,520
2,887,584
2,831,274
2,888,765
Maryland
10,013,0083,244,888
Maryland
11,585,610
9,011,703
11,311,383
10,073,999
10,354,690
10,289,216
Massachusetts
21,466,58511,989,592
Massachusetts
24,838,038
19,319,917
17,387,925
15,988,686
15,009,154
12,803,985
Michigan
57,931,95114,507,221
Michigan
73,949,491
57,520,566
51,768,509
41,642,666
37,407,571
31,911,591
Minnesota
10,984,46130,072,831
Minnesota
17,789,172
13,837,056
14,264,509
11,474,392
10,523,152
9,841,004
Mississippi
15,536,7719,947,978
Mississippi
18,687,021
14,535,436
13,081,892
10,523,093
9,452,885
8,556,357
Missouri
19,654,6109,200,818
Missouri
25,400,077
19,757,091
17,781,382
14,549,044
15,108,428
13,072,955
Montana
2,269,74612,877,148
Montana
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,344,418
2,174,750
2,405,630
2,105,266
Nebraska
2,544,921
2,152,132
Nebraska
2,944,616
2,290,428
2,518,508
2,288,141
2,207,155
2,157,402
Nevada
4,529,5272,394,620
Nevada
7,570,212
5,888,382
7,654,897
8,303,837
9,104,832
9,407,590
New Hampshire
2,269,7468,865,521
New Hampshire
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,253,475
2,024,817
1,919,253
New Jersey
16,249,2722,200,035
New Jersey
20,834,103
16,205,512
20,938,294
20,362,826
20,322,861
21,422,496
New Mexico
5,389,26325,513,414
New Mexico
6,235,678
4,850,334
4,365,301
4,775,669
4,918,291
4,195,688
New York
54,654,8014,625,925
New York
71,526,360
55,635,768
51,835,670
46,253,787
45,892,839
46,093,646
North Carolina
19,061,80352,011,703
North Carolina
25,070,698
19,500,888
25,351,154
24,598,968
23,736,834
26,575,543
North Dakota
2,269,74628,871,997
North Dakota
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
48,535,6942,009,628
56,158,510
43,682,103
39,313,893
31,915,350
29,136,945
25,942,472
7,526,02926,270,342
8,708,036
6,773,423
6,970,582
6,877,913
6,676,111
5,982,158
Oregon
13,022,7776,258,954
Oregon
15,068,081
11,720,493
13,707,810
11,026,583
10,760,018
9,901,654
Pennsylvania
32,746,69110,543,691
Pennsylvania
40,647,780
31,617,301
31,871,328
29,506,561
28,346,353
27,854,861
Puerto Rico
36,693,98233,509,103
Puerto Rico
42,456,987
33,024,567
29,722,110
23,908,509
21,476,993
18,321,559
Maine
Ohio
Oklahoma
CRS-41
State
Rhode Island
PY2008
(P.L. 110-161)17,265,863
Rhode Island
5,611,097
4,364,513
4,531,698
3,767,218
3,687,520
3,676,868
3,743,023
24,712,293
19,222,108
17,299,897
13,916,063
12,754,206
12,151,961
12,574,365
Maine
Ohio
Oklahoma
South Carolina
c11173008
ARRA
(P.L. 111-5)
CRS-48
.
State
South Dakota
ARRA
(P.L. 111-5)
PY2009
(P.L. 111-8)
PY2010
(P.L. 110-351)
PY2011
(P.L. 112-5)
PY2012
(P.L. 112-74)
PY 2013
(P.L. 113-6)
3,357,319
5,611,097
4,364,513
4,531,698
3,767,218
3,687,520
3,676,868
South Carolina
21,357,908
24,712,293
19,222,108
17,299,897
13,916,063
12,754,206
12,151,961
South Dakota
2,269,746PY2013
(P.L. 113-6)
PY2014
(P.L. 113-76)
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
Tennessee
19,653,7052,009,628
Tennessee
25,099,116
19,522,993
18,716,506
16,288,215
15,784,120
15,045,025
Texas
70,870,13716,496,140
Texas
82,000,708
63,783,091
57,404,782
52,833,195
55,664,646
52,525,623
Utah
4,379,35152,492,802
Utah
5,067,154
3,941,414
3,547,273
4,121,624
5,347,985
4,562,251
Vermont
2,269,7464,304,671
Vermont
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
Virginia
9,462,2112,009,628
Virginia
12,982,612
10,098,341
13,127,843
13,540,444
13,020,339
12,509,940
20,263,00813,392,465
Washington
23,445,432
18,236,698
17,997,280
15,992,583
16,959,549
16,388,794
4,618,02916,309,501
5,343,318
4,156,224
3,924,261
4,315,932
4,577,244
3,904,748
Wisconsin
11,934,4383,957,765
Wisconsin
13,808,812
10,740,989
13,963,286
13,099,180
12,342,748
12,133,146
Wyoming
2,269,74613,562,824
Wyoming
2,918,025
2,269,744
2,269,744
2,028,651
2,024,817
1,919,253
907,898,2492,009,628
1,167,210,000
907,897,792
907,897,792
811,460,369
809,926,844
767,701,222
2,310,174803,851,042
2,970,000
2,310,173
2,310,173
2,064,785
2,060,883
1,953,438
13,861,0422,045,423
17,820,000
13,861,035
13,861,035
12,388,708
12,365,295
11,720,629
Washington
12,272,535
West Virginia
State Total
Outlying Areas Total
Native Americans
Source: Congressional Research Service presentation of U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training AdministrationDOL, ETA, State Statutory Formula Funding,
http://www.doleta.gov/budget/statfund.cfm.
Note: The program year for Youth ActivitiesFunds appropriated for a given fiscal year correspond to funding for a program year. The program year is July 1 through June 30, although funds may be made
available on April 1, pursuant to Section 189(g)(1)(B) of the
Workforce Investment Act. Funds for the program are available for two program years, including funds
appropriated under ARRA. ARRA funds were available for two
program years—PY2009 and PY2010, which extended through June 30, 2011. For purposes of the
summer youth component, youth may participate in summer activities
from May 1 through September 30, though it would appear that youth could participate only
through the end of June in 2011.
a.
c11173008
CRS-49
ARRA appropriated $1.2 billion for the Youth Activities program. Section 801 of ARRA permitted DOL to use 1% ($12 million) of funds for administration,
management, and oversight of the program.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
.
Author Contact Information
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara
Specialist in Social Policy
afernandes@crs.loc.gov, 7-9005
c11173008
Congressional Research Service
50CRS-42
ARRA appropriated $1.2 billion for the Youth Activities program. Section 801 of ARRA permitted DOL to use 1% ($12 million) of funds for administration,
management, and oversight of the program.
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
Appendix B. Definitions of Terms Used in WIA
Youth Programs
•
Advanced training refers to an occupational skills employment/training program,
not funded under Title I of WIA, that does not duplicate training received under
Title I. It includes only training outside of the one-stop, WIA, and partner system
(i.e., training following exit). This measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth
measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B,
February 17, 2006.)
•
Advanced training/occupational skills training refers to an organized program of
study that provides specific vocational skills that lead to proficiency in
performing actual tasks and technical functions required by certain occupational
fields at entry, intermediate, or advanced levels. Such training should (1) be
outcome-oriented and focused on a long-term goal as specified in the Individual
Service Strategy, (2) be long-term in nature and commence upon program exit
rather than being short-term training that is part of services received while
enrolled in ETA-funded youth programs, and (3) result in attainment of a
certificate (defined below). This measure is used as part of WIA youth common
measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B,
February 17, 2006.)
•
Basic skills goal refers to a measurable increase in basic education skills,
including reading comprehension, math computation, writing, speaking,
listening, problem solving, reasoning, and the capacity to use those skills. This
measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth measures. (Training and
Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
•
Certificate refers to a document awarded in recognition of an individual’s
attainment of measureable technical or occupational skills necessary to gain
employment or advance within an occupation. These technical or occupational
skills are based on standards developed or endorsed by employers. Certificates
awarded by workforce investment boards are not included in this definition.
Work readiness certificates are also not included in this definition. A certificate is
awarded in recognition of an individual’s attainment or technical or occupational
skills by specified entities, such as a professional, industry, or employment
organization, Job Corps Centers, etc. This measure is used as part of WIA youth
Common Measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05,
Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
•
Credential refers to a nationally recognized degree or certificate or state/locally
recognized credential. Credentials include, but are not limited to, a high school
diploma, GED, or other recognized equivalents, post-secondary
degrees/certificates, recognized skill standards, and licensure or industryrecognized certificates. States should include all state education agencyrecognized credentials. In addition, states should work with local workforce
investment boards to recognize successful completion of the training services
listed above that are designed to equip individuals to enter or re-enter
employment, retain employment, or advance into better employment. This
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
measure is used as part of WIA youth statutory measures. (Training and
Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
•
Deficient in basic literacy skills may be defined at the state or local level. The
definition must include criteria to determine that an individual (1) computes or
solves problems, reads, writes, or speaks English at or below the 8th grade level
on a generally accepted standardized test or would receive a comparable score on
a criterion-referenced test; or (2) is unable to compute or solve problems, read,
write, or speak English at a level necessary to function on the job, in the
individual’s family, or in society. If the definition is established at the state level,
the policy must be included in the state plan. (20 C.F.R. 664.205).
•
Ever in foster care refers to a person who is in foster care or has been in the
foster care system (as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
•
Individual with a disability refers to an individual with any disability as defined
in section 3 of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The act defines
“disability” with respect to an individual as (1) a physical or mental impairment
that substantially limits one or more major life activities of such individual; (2)
having a record of such an impairment; or (3) being regarded as having such an
impairment. “Being regarded as having such an impairment” refers to whether
the individual establishes that he or she has been subjected to an action
prohibited under the Americans with Disabilities Act because of an actual or
perceived physical or mental impairment, whether or not the impairment limits or
is perceived to limit a major life activity.
Low-income individual means an individual who:
(1) receives, or is a member of a family that receives, cash payments through a
federal, state, or local income-based public assistance program;
(2) received an income, or is a member of a family that received a total family
income (excluding unemployment compensation and certain other payments), for
the six-month period prior to applying for youth employment and training
activities, that, in relation to family size, did not exceed the higher of the poverty
line, for an equivalent period, or 70% of the lower living standard income level,
for an equivalent period;
(3) is a member of a household that receives food stamps105 (or has been
determined to be eligible for food stamps within the six-month period prior to
applying for youth employment and training activities);
(4) qualifies as a homeless individual, as defined by the McKinney-Vento
Homeless Assistance Act; or
(5) is a foster child on behalf of whom state or local government payments are
made.
In cases permitted by DOL in regulations, an individual with a disability, whose
own income meets the standards specified in the first two criteria but who is a
member of a family whose income does not meet such requirements, may qualify
(WIA Section (101)(25)).
105
The Food Stamp program was recently renamed the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP).
Congressional Research Service
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Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
•
Occupational skills goal refers to a measurable increase in primary occupational
skills encompassing the proficiency to perform actual tasks and technical
functions required by certain occupational fields at entry, intermediate, or
advanced levels. Secondary occupational skills entail familiarity with and use of
set-up procedures, safety measures, work-related terminology, record keeping
and paperwork formats, tools, equipment and materials, and breakdown and
clean-up routines. This measure is used as part of WIA statutory youth measures.
(Training and Employment Guidance Letter 17-05, Attachment B, February 17,
2006.)
•
Out-of-school youth means a youth eligible for services under Youth Activities
who is a school dropout; or an eligible youth who has received a secondary
school diploma or its equivalent but is basic skills deficient, unemployed, or
underemployed (WIA Section (101)(33) and 20 C.F.R. 664.300).
•
Offender means any adult or juvenile who (1) is or has been subject to any stage
of the criminal justice process, for whom services under this act may be
beneficial; or (2) requires assistance in overcoming artificial barriers to
employment resulting from a record of arrest or conviction (WIA Section
(101)(27)).
•
Pregnant or parenting youth is an individual who is under 22 years of age and
pregnant, or a youth (male or female) who is providing custodial care for one or
more dependents under age 18 (as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
•
Requires additional assistance refers to an individual who needs help in
completing an educational program or securing and holding employment. The
term may be defined at the state or local level. If the definition is established at
the state level, the policy must be included in the state plan (20 C.F.R. 664.210).
•
School dropout refers to an individual who is no longer attending any school and
has not received a high school diploma or its equivalent. A youth’s dropout status
is determined at the time he or she registers for youth activities. An individual
who is not in school at the time of registration and is subsequently placed in an
alternative school may be considered an out-of-school youth.
•
Supportive services means services such as transportation, child care, dependent
care, housing, and needs-related payments that are necessary to enable an
individual to participate in services provided by the Youth Activities program and
other programs authorized under Title I of WIA. In addition, supportive services
for youth also includes linkages to community services, referrals to medical
services, and assistance with uniforms or other appropriate work attire and workrelated tools, including such items as eyeglasses and protective eye gear (Section
101(46) of WIA, and as defined in WIASRD Data Book, Appendix B).
•
Work readiness skills goal refers to a measurable increase in work readiness
skills, including world-of-work awareness, labor market knowledge, occupational
information, values clarification and personal understanding, career planning and
decision making, and job search techniques (resumes, interviews, applications,
and follow-up letters). They also encompass survival/daily living skills such as
using the phone, telling time, shopping, renting an apartment, opening a bank
account, and using public transportation; and include positive work habits,
attitudes, and behaviors such as punctuality, regular attendance, presenting a neat
Congressional Research Service
45
Vulnerable Youth: Employment and Job Training Programs
appearance, getting along and working well with others, exhibiting good conduct,
following instructions and completing tasks, accepting criticism from supervisors
and co-workers, showing initiative and reliability, and assuming the
responsibilities involved in maintaining a job. This category also entails
developing motivation and adaptability, obtaining effective coping and problemsolving skills, and acquiring an improved self image. This measure is used as part
of WIA statutory youth measures. (Training and Employment Guidance Letter
17-05, Attachment B, February 17, 2006.)
Author Contact Information
Adrienne L. Fernandes-Alcantara
Specialist in Social Policy
afernandes@crs.loc.gov, 7-9005
Congressional Research Service
46