Architect of the Capitol Appointment Procedure: Evolution and Recent Changes

February 16, 2010 – February 20, 2024 R41074

Architect of the Capitol: Evolution and
February 20, 2024
Implementation of the Appointment
Ida A. Brudnick
Procedure
Specialist on the Congress

According to its website, the Architect of the Capitol (AOC) is responsible “for the operations
and care of more than 18.4 million square feet of facilities, 570 acres of grounds and thousands of

works of art.”
Changes to the Architect’s appointment process have been periodically discussed for many years, and congressional interest
increased with the termination of the service of former Architect J. Brett Blanton on February 13, 2023.
The resulting Architect of the Capitol Appointment Act of 2023 was enacted within the National Defense Authorization Act
for Fiscal Year 2024 (H.R. 2670, P.L. 118-31) on December 22, 2023. The act places responsibility for the appointment of
the Architect within a congressional commission comprised of 12 Members. Under the new procedure, the appointment is
pursuant to a majority vote of the commission, as is reappointment or removal. The act continued the 10-year term for the
Architect and amended the existing law related to the appointment and service of the Deputy Architect.
Prior to this change, pursuant to the Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 1990, the Architect was appointed by the
President with the advice and consent of the Senate. Before the enactment of this law in 1989, the President appointed the
Architect for an unlimited term with no formal role for Congress.
The 1989 act first established a 10-year term for the Architect as well as a bicameral, bipartisan congressional commission to
recommend candidates to the President. As subsequently amended in 1995, this law provided for a commission consisting of
14 Members of Congress, including the Speaker of the House, the President pro tempore of the Senate, the House and Senate
majority and minority leaders, and the chair and ranking minority members of the Committee on House Administration, the
Senate Committee on Rules and Administration, and the House and Senate Committees on Appropriations. The Architect
was eligible to be reappointed.
Alan M. Hantman was the first Architect appointed under the 1989 appointment procedure. He declined to seek
reappointment and served from January 30, 1997, to February 4, 2007.
Stephen T. Ayers, who served as Acting Architect of the Capitol following Mr. Hantman’s retirement, was nominated by
President Obama on February 24, 2010, for a 10-year term. The nomination was referred to the Senate Committee on Rules
and Administration. The committee held a hearing on April 15, 2010, during which the chair and ranking member praised
Mr. Ayers for his work as acting Architect and congratulated him on the nomination. Mr. Ayers was confirmed by voice vote
in the Senate on May 12, 2010.
Upon Mr. Ayers’s retirement on November 23, 2018, Christine Merdon, the Deputy Architect of the Capitol/Chief Operating
Officer, became the Acting Architect of the Capitol. After her resignation in August 2019, Thomas J. Carroll served as
Acting Architect of the Capitol.
J. Brett Blanton was nominated to be Architect of the Capitol by President Trump on December 9, 2019. The nomination was
referred to the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration. The committee held a hearing on December 12, 2019, and
Mr. Blanton was confirmed by voice vote in the Senate on December 19, 2019. On February 13, 2023, Mr. Blanton was
informed by the White House that his appointment as Architect was terminated.
Chere Rexroat, the Chief Engineer, was initially named the Acting Architect. She was succeeded in February 2024 by Acting
Architect of the Capitol and Chief of Operations Joseph DiPietro.
For additional information and a comparison of appointments in the legislative branch, see CRS Report R42072, Legislative
Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions, by Ida A. Brudnick.
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Architect of the Capitol Appointment Procedure: Evolution and Recent Changes

he Office of the Architect of the Capitol (AOC) is responsible “for the operations and care of
more than 18.4 million square feet of facilities, 570 acres of grounds and thousands of works
T of art.”1 This includes the House and Senate office buildings, the Capitol, the Capitol Visitor
Center, the Library of Congress buildings, the Supreme Court building, the U.S. Botanic Garden,
the Capitol Power Plant, and other facilities. The AOC carries out its bicameral, nonpartisan
responsibilities using both its own staff and contracting authority for architectural, engineering, and
other professional services.
The appointment of the Architect has been a subject of periodic consideration in Congress for at
least 60 years. It is a topic that has received increased attention during periods in which there has
been a vacancy in the position and periods of congressional dissatisfaction with either the work of
the incumbent or the involvement of the President in what some Members view as an internal
legislative branch matter.
This report discusses the history of the selection of the Architect and contains tables on related
legislation introduced over the past 60 years.
For additional information and a comparison of appointments in the legislative branch, see CRS
Report R42072, Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions,
by Ida A. Brudnick.
Most Recent Change to the Appointment Process:
2023
The Architect of the Capitol Appointment Act of 2023 was enacted within the National Defense
Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024 (H.R. 2670, P.L. 118-31) on December 22, 2023.
The act places responsibility for the appointment of the Architect within a congressional
commission comprised of 12 Members.2 Under the new procedure, the appointment is pursuant to a
majority vote of the commission, as is reappointment or removal. The law continued the 10-year
term for the Architect. The act also amended the law related to the appointment and service of the
Deputy Architect.
Previously, pursuant to a law enacted in 1989, the position of Architect was filled through
appointment by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, following the forwarding
of recommendations to the President from a bicameral commission consisting of Members of
Congress. Pursuant to the 1989 act, the Architect was appointed for a 10-year term and could be
reappointed.

1 Architect of the Capitol, “About Us,” available at https://www.aoc.gov/defining-aoc. The legal responsibilities of the
Architect of the Capitol are dispersed through several titles of the United States Code. References to AOC duties are
included in Title 2 (Congress), Title 5 (Government Organization and Employees), Title 36 (Patriotic Societies and
Observances), Title 40 (Public Buildings, Property, and Works), Title 41 (Public Contracts), and Title 42 (Public Health
and Welfare).
2 The commission includes the Speaker of the House, the Senate majority leader, the House and Senate minority leaders,
and the chair and ranking minority members of the Committee on House Administration, the Senate Committee on Rules
and Administration, and the House and Senate Committees on Appropriations.
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Congressional Involvement in the Architect
Appointment: Discussion Prior to the 1989 Act
Prior to 1989, the Architect was selected by the President for an unlimited term without any formal
involvement of Congress. Paul Rundquist, congressional scholar and former specialist at the
Congressional Research Service, noted in testimony before the Senate Rules and Administration
Committee in 1996 that “the fact that the Architect of the Capitol was a congressional agent
nominated by the President without confirmation by the Senate does not seem to have troubled
Congress until recent years.”3
Bills related to the qualifications and appointment of the Architect were periodically introduced
since at least the 1950s; however, little action was taken on these proposals until the 1980s.
Appendix A provides information on these bills.
Bills proposing a new appointment process took various approaches. Two changes ultimately
enacted in 1989 included requiring the advice and consent of the Senate and establishing a
commission to recommend names to the President.
Other bills introduced prior to 1989 proposed making the Architect a congressional appointee.
These included proposals to make the Architect subject to a joint appointment by the Speaker and
President pro tempore; to alternate appointment between the Speaker and President pro tempore;
and to establish a commission of Members to recommend candidates to the Speaker and President
pro tempore, with ratification by the chambers.
The introduced bills also varyingly addressed the term of office, eligibility for reappointment,
procedure for removal, and procedures following early vacancies.
Whereas some of these bills focused only on the Architect, many of the bills introduced from the
early 1970s forward also addressed the appointment of the other presidential appointees in the
legislative branch, including the Librarian of Congress, the Comptroller General and the Deputy
Comptroller,4 and the Director of the Government Publishing Office.5
Appointment Process: 1989-2023
Pursuant to a 1989 act, the Architect was to be “appointed by the President by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate for a term of 10 years.”6 This procedure was established by the
Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 1990, which also created a congressional commission
responsible for recommending at least three individuals to the President for the position of Architect
of the Capitol.7 The commission originally consisted of 10 Members (including the Speaker of the
House of Representatives, the President pro tempore of the Senate, the majority and minority
leaders of the House of Representatives and the Senate, and the chairs and the ranking minority

3 U.S. Congress, Senate Rules and Administration Committee, 104th Cong., 2nd sess., February 29, 1996 (unpublished).
Dr. Rundquist gave testimony before the Senate Rules and Administration Committee during a review of the operations of
various Senate officers and a study of criteria for the selection of a new AOC.
4 The Deputy Comptroller General position has been vacant since 1980.
5 This position was previously known as the Public Printer when the agency was known as the Government Printing
Office (changes to both names were made pursuant to P.L. 113-235, div. H, December 16, 2014, 128 Stat. 2537, 2538).
6 2 U.S.C. §1801(a)(1).
7 P.L. 101-163, November 21, 1989, 103 Stat. 1068, 2 U.S.C. §1801.
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members of the Committee on House Administration of the House of Representatives and the
Committee on Rules and Administration of the Senate).
In considering the FY1990 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, the Senate Appropriations
Committee proposed revising the process by having the President nominate the Architect for a 10-
year term, subject to the advice and consent of the Senate. Previously, the position did not require
Senate confirmation. In the report accompanying H.R. 3014, the Senate Appropriations Committee
stated the following:
These changes will conform the process of the appointment of the Architect more closely to
the appointment procedure followed for other officers of similar stature. The Committee
believes this will accord proper recognition to the importance of the functions of this office
and help to promote greater accountability in their performance.8
During the brief Senate debate on the provision, Senator Harry Reid, then-chairman of the
Legislative Branch Appropriations Subcommittee, declared that the committee’s amendment “better
reflects the institutional status of the Architect as an officer of the legislative branch and should
make the lines of accountability in the performance of his duties much less ambiguous.”9 Senator
Don Nickles, then-ranking member of the subcommittee, noted the fixed term of the Architect
would be similar to that of the Comptroller General, who is appointed for a single 15-year term.10
The legislative history does not appear to indicate why the shorter term was chosen for the
Architect.
In conference, House and Senate negotiators agreed to a compromise that reflected the absence in
the Senate proposal of any formal role for the House in the selection of a future Architect. The
compromise expanded the Senate’s language by providing for a bicameral congressional advisory
commission. The conference report does not provide additional information on this decision or any
other options considered.11 The compromise was accepted in both houses without debate and the
measure was signed into law on November 21, 1989.12
The commission was expanded in 1995 to include the chairs and ranking minority members of the
House and Senate Appropriations Committees.13

8 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Appropriations, Legislative Branch Appropriations, 1990, report to accompany
H.R. 3014, 101st Cong., 1st sess., S.Rept. 101-106 (Washington: GPO, 1989), pp. 37-38.
9 Sen. Harry Reid, “Legislative Branch Appropriations, 1990,” remarks in the Senate, Congressional Record, vol. 135,
September 6, 1989, p. 19591.
10 Sen. Don Nickles, “Legislative Branch Appropriations, 1990,” remarks in the Senate, Congressional Record, vol. 135,
September 6, 1989, p. 19593.
11 U.S. Congress, Making Appropriations for the Legislative Branch for the Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 1990, and
for other purposes, report to accompany H.R. 3014, H.Rept. 101-254 (Washington: GPO, 1989), p. 19.
12 “Conference Report on H.R. 3014, Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 1990,” Vote in the House, Congressional
Record, vol. 135, September 28, 1989, pp. 22270-22271; “Legislative Branch Appropriations, 1990 – Conference
Report,” Vote in the Senate, Congressional Record, vol. 135, November 9, 1989, p. 28052; and P.L. 101-163, 103 Stat.
1068, 2 U.S.C. §1801.
13 P.L. 104-19, July 27, 1995, 109 Stat. 220. The official record provides little additional information on the changes
considered in 1995. Additional membership on the commission was first agreed to in the conference report on H.R. 1158,
the Second Supplemental Appropriations and Rescissions Act, 1995, which was vetoed by President Clinton on June 7,
1995. The joint explanatory statement accompanying the conference committee report did not indicate why the provision
was added. Subsequently in the same Congress, the provision was included in the original version of H.R. 1944, the
Emergency Supplemental Appropriations for Additional Disaster Assistance, for Anti-terrorism Initiatives, for Assistance
in the Recovery from the Tragedy that Occurred at Oklahoma City, and Rescissions Act, 1995, which was introduced on
June 28. It passed the House the next day following the adoption of one amendment agreed to by voice vote and passed
the Senate without amendment on July 21. It became P.L. 104-19 on July 27, 1995.
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The commission process established in 1989 followed a similar process used for filling vacancies in
the position of Comptroller General, who leads the Government Accountability Office (GAO).14
The commission procedure for GAO, which also calls for a recommendation to the President of at
least three individuals, was established in 1980.
Appointments Considered Pursuant to the 1989 Law
Filling the First Vacancy After the 1989 Act: 1995-1997
Following the decision of George White, who served as Architect from January 27, 1971, until
November 21, 1995, not to seek reappointment under the new process, Alan Hantman was
nominated under the new procedure to a 10-year term by President Clinton on January 6, 1997.15
Following a hearing on January 28, 1997, the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration
favorably reported his nomination. Mr. Hantman was confirmed by the Senate by voice vote on
January 30, 1997.16 Declining to seek reappointment, Mr. Hantman retired on February 4, 2007,17
and Stephen T. Ayers, then-Deputy Architect, began service as the Acting Architect of the Capitol.18
Filling the Second Vacancy: 2007-2010
Mr. Ayers was confirmed and appointed as Architect three years later, in 2010. Between the
announcement that Mr. Hantman would retire and the nomination and confirmation of Mr. Ayers,
few congressional announcements were made regarding the status of the Architect vacancy and the
submission of the recommendations to the President.
During a hearing on the FY2008 appropriations request on April 24, 2007, before the House
Legislative Branch Appropriations Subcommittee, Acting Architect Stephen Ayers responded to a
question about the status from ranking member Representative Zach Wamp:
I did speak to the [Senate] Rules Committee about the selection process…. They have told
me that their executive recruiter is currently interviewing potential candidates, and I surmise
that they would give them that list of potential candidates in a month or two. So that is about
the extent of my knowledge of that.19

14 31 U.S.C. §703.
15 The 1989 act required Mr. White to be reappointed under the new procedure no later than the sixth anniversary of the
enactment of the law if he chose to remain in office. (P.L. 101-163, §319(b), November 21, 1989, 103 Stat. 1068.)
16 “Executive Calendar,” remarks in the Senate, Congressional Record, vol. 143, January 30, 1997, pp. 1304-1307, 1312.
From the retirement of Mr. White until the confirmation of Mr. Hantman, William L. Ensign served as Acting Architect
of the Capitol.
17 Obtained from “Alan M. Hantman, FAIA,” U.S. Architect of the Capitol, https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/
architects-of-the-capitol/alan-m-hantman-faia.
18 According to the biography provided by the AOC, Mr. Ayers “joined the Architect of the Capitol as an Assistant
Superintendent for the Senate Office Buildings. He served in several capacities over the next decade, including Deputy
Superintendent for the Senate Office Buildings, Superintendent of the Library Buildings and Grounds, Acting Deputy
Architect/Chief Operating Officer and Deputy Architect/Chief Operating Officer” (“Stephen T. Ayers, FAIA, LEED AP,”
U.S. Architect of the Capitol, https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/stephen-t-ayers-faia-leed-
ap). Pursuant to 2 U.S.C. §1804, the Deputy Architect “shall act as Architect of the Capitol during the absence or
disability of that official or whenever there is no Architect.”
19 U.S. Congress, House Appropriations Committee, Legislative Branch Appropriations for 2008, hearings, pt. 3, 110th
Cong., 1st sess., April 24, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2007), p. 300.
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Although the list of names was reportedly transmitted to President George W. Bush in summer
2007, the identity of the candidates was not publicly released by the commission.20
In its activities report on the 110th Congress (2007-2008), the Committee on House Administration
summarized congressional actions and indicated concern about the current process:
Although the commission forwarded three candidates [to the President], complex
circumstances prevented final selection and confirmation of the Architect. The Committee
anticipates completion of the appointment process in the 111th Congress, but in the meantime
is reviewing whether the process is simply broken and requires new legislation.21
The three-year period following the retirement of the former Architect was also noted in the
February 3, 2010, debate in the House on passage of H.R. 2843 (111th Congress), the Architect of
the Capitol Appointment Act.22
On February 24, 2010, President Obama nominated Stephen T. Ayers, who had been serving in an
acting capacity during the vacancy, to a 10-year term. The nomination was referred to the Senate
Committee on Rules and Administration, which held a hearing on April 15, 2010. The Senators in
attendance at the hearing praised Mr. Ayers and congratulated him on the nomination. Mr. Ayers
was confirmed by voice vote in the Senate on May 12, 2010.23
Mr. Ayers announced his intention to retire on November 23, 2018.
Filling the Third Vacancy After the 1989 Act: 2018-2019
Following Mr. Ayers’s retirement on November 23, 2018, Christine Merdon, the Deputy Architect
of the Capitol/Chief Operating Officer, became the Acting Architect of the Capitol. After her
resignation in August 2019, Thomas J. Carroll served as Acting Architect of the Capitol.
Reportedly, an executive search firm was hired to lead the search for a new Architect.24 The identity
of potential candidates was not publicly released by the commission.
J. Brett Blanton was nominated to be Architect of the Capitol by President Trump on December 9,
2019.25 The nomination was referred to the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration. The
committee held a hearing on December 12, 2019, and Mr. Blanton was confirmed by voice vote in
the Senate on December 19, 2019.
Filling the Fourth Vacancy After the 1989 Act and Enactment of New
Appointment Procedure: 2023
On February 13, 2023, Mr. Blanton was informed by the White House that his appointment as
Architect had been terminated. The termination followed allegations of misconduct addressed

20 John McArdle, “Finalists for AOC’s Top Job Delivered to President Bush,” Roll Call, August 13, 2007.
21 U.S. Congress, House Committee on House Administration, Report on the Activities of the Committee on House
Administration During the One Hundred Tenth Congress, 110th Cong., 2nd sess., H.Rept. 110-924, 2008, p. 18.
22 Congressional Record, February 3, 2010, pp. H480-H482. No further action was taken on H.R. 2843 in the 111th
Congress.
23 Congressional Record, May 12, 2010, p. S3662.
24 Katherine Tully-McManus, “Ready to manage a world-famous building and grapple with a billion-dollar backlog? This
job’s for you,” Roll Call, January 10, 2019.
25 See White House, “President Donald J. Trump Announces Intent to Nominate Individuals to Key Administration
Posts,” press release, December 9, 2019, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/president-donald-j-
trump-announces-intent-nominate-individuals-key-administration-posts-23/, and PN1324, 116th Cong., December 19,
2019, https://www.congress.gov/nomination/116th-congress/1324.
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during a hearing of the Committee on House Administration on February 9, 2023,26 and in an
inspector general report issued on October 26, 2022.27 Numerous Members of Congress, including
leadership of the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration and the Committee on House
Administration, had called for his resignation.
Although pursuant to 2 U.S.C. §1804, the Deputy Architect of the Capitol was to act as the
Architect of the Capitol during a vacancy, at the time of Mr. Blanton’s termination as Architect, the
deputy position also was vacant.
Chere Rexroat, the Chief Engineer, became the Acting Architect of the Capitol.28 She was
succeeded as Acting Architect in February 2024 by Joseph DiPietro, who is also the Chief of
Operations.29
As stated above, the Architect of the Capitol Appointment Act of 2023 was enacted within the
National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024 (H.R. 2670, P.L. 118-31) on December 22,
2023, while the Acting Architect continued to lead the agency.
Legislation Introduced Between 1989 and 2023 to
Change the Appointment Process
Between the enactment of the 1989 law and the 2023 law, a few bills were introduced to change the
process of appointing the Architect.
These proposals aimed to shift the Architect appointment responsibility from the President to
specified Members of Congress. As with earlier bills, statements in the Congressional Record by
bill sponsors cited an interest in using the appointment process to protect the prerogatives of, and
ensure accountability to, the legislative branch. Some discussions also addressed the appropriate
role of the House of Representatives, which does not play a formal role in the confirmation of
presidential nominees.
The only change enacted between 1989 and 2023, as stated above, occurred in 1995, when the
commission charged with recommending names to the President expanded to include the chairs and
ranking minority members of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees.30
Table 1 compares the Members involved in appointment under the 1989 law, bills introduced
between the enactment of the two laws, and the 2023 law. These bills are also discussed below.

26 See U.S. Congress, Committee on House Administration, The Looking Ahead Series: The Architect of the Capitol’s
Strategic Plan for the 118th Congress, hearings, 118th Cong., 1st sess., February 9, 2023, https://cha.house.gov/
committee-activity/hearings/looking-ahead-series-architect-capitols-strategic-plan-118th-congress.
27 See Architect of the Capitol, Office of Inspector General, J. Brett Blanton, Architect of the Capitol, Abused His
Authority, Misused Government Property and Wasted Taxpayer Money, Among Other Substantiated Violations, October,
26, 2022, available at https://www.oversight.gov/report/AOC/J-Brett-Blanton-Architect-Capitol-Abused-His-Authority-
Misused-Government-Property-and.
28 See “Chere Rexroat,” U.S. Architect of the Capitol, https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/organizational-structure/office-chief-
engineer/CEng.
29 See “Joseph DiPietro,” U.S. Architect of the Capitol, https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/organizational-structure/office-
chief-operations/ChOps.
30 P.L. 104-19, July 27, 1995, 109 Stat. 220.
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109th Congress (2005-2006)
During the 109th Congress, one bill (H.R. 4446) was introduced to establish a uniform appointment
process and 10-year term of service for the Architect, the Comptroller General, and the Librarian of
Congress. This proposal provided for joint appointment by four Members, including the Speaker,
the majority leader of the Senate, and the minority leaders of the House of Representatives and
Senate. No further action was taken.
110th Congress (2007-2008)
A bill (H.R. 6656), which would provide for a 12-member congressional appointing panel, was
introduced in the 110th Congress and referred to two committees, although no further action was
taken.
111th Congress (2009-2010)
In the 111th Congress, two measures (H.R. 2185 and H.R. 2843) were introduced to remove the
President from the Architect appointment process and shift it to the congressional leaders and chairs
and ranking members of specific congressional committees. Under both measures, the Architect
would still be appointed for a 10-year term.
Under H.R. 2185, which was introduced on April 30, 2009, and referred to the Committee on House
Administration and Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, the Architect would be
appointed by a 12-member congressional appointing panel. No further action was taken during the
111th Congress.
Under H.R. 2843, as reported, the Architect would be appointed jointly by the same 14-member
panel that currently is responsible for recommending candidates to the President. This bill was
reported by the Committee on House Administration (H.Rept. 111-372), and the Committee on
Transportation and Infrastructure was discharged from further consideration of the bill. The House
agreed to the bill, as amended to include 18 rather than 14 Members of Congress (see Table 1), by
voice vote. It was received in the Senate and referred to the Committee on Rules and
Administration, and no further action was taken during the 111th Congress.
118th Congress (2022-2023)
During the vacancy caused by the termination of Mr. Blanton’s appointment, identical legislative
provisions to alter the appointment process were included in an introduced House bill, as well as in
Senate floor amendments—the latter of which resulted in enactment of the provision.
H.R. 3196, the Architect of the Capitol Appointment Act of 2023, was introduced on May 10, 2023.
It was referred to the Committee on House Administration, which held a markup and ordered the
bill reported on September 28, 2023.
Additionally, S.Amdt. 220 to S. 2226, a Senate floor amendment to the Senate FY2024 National
Defense Authorization Act (NDAA), filed by Senator Klobuchar (for herself and Senator Fischer)
on July 12, 2023, included the Architect appointment provision as proposed in H.R. 3196, though
the amendment was not offered to the bill.
The Architect appointment provision was included, however, in S.Amdt. 935, a full-text substitute
“managers’ package” offered by Senator Schumer on behalf of Senator Reed, which incorporated
the text of 51 different filed amendments to the bill. Senate passage of S. 2226, as amended, on July
27, 2023, included the provision.
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The Senate offered the S. 2226 text, as passed, as a Senate amendment to the House FY2024
NDAA (H.R. 2670), which did not previously include the Architect appointment provision, also on
July 27, 2023. The Senate and House agreed to the conference report on December 13 and 14,
2023, respectively. H.R. 2670 was enacted on December 22, 2023, with the identical Architect
appointment provision.
Table 1. Members Included in the Commission Recommending Individuals as
Architect Under the 1989 Law, in Legislation Subsequently Introduced, and in the
2023 Law
H.R.
3196;
S.Amdt.
220 and
S.Amdt.
935 to
H.R.
S. 2226;
H.R.
2843,
and H.R.
2843,
111th
2670
H.R.
H.R.
H.R.
111th
Cong., as
(P.L.
4446,
6656,
2185,
Cong.,
Passed
118-31)
109th
110th
111th
as
by the
118th

1989 law
Cong.
Cong.
Cong.
reported
House
Cong.
Speaker
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
President pro
Tempore
1

1
1

House Majority
Leader
1

1
1

Senate Majority
Leader
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
House Minority
Leader
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Senate Minority
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Leader
Chair and Ranking
Member
Committee on
2

2
2
2
2
2
House
Administration
Chair and Ranking
Member
Committee on
2

2
2
2
2
2
Senate Rules and
Administration
Chair and Ranking
Member
Committee on
2

2
2
2
2
2
House
Appropriations
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H.R.
3196;
S.Amdt.
220 and
S.Amdt.
935 to
H.R.
S. 2226;
H.R.
2843,
and H.R.
2843,
111th
2670
H.R.
H.R.
H.R.
111th
Cong., as
(P.L.
4446,
6656,
2185,
Cong.,
Passed
118-31)
109th
110th
111th
as
by the
118th

1989 law
Cong.
Cong.
Cong.
reported
House
Cong.
Chair and Ranking
Member
Committee on
2

2
2
2
2
2
Senate
Appropriations
Chair and Ranking
Member
Committee on

2

House Committee
on Transportation
and Infrastructure
A Member of the
Senate to be
designated by the
majority leader of
the Senate, and a

2

Member of the
Senate to be
designated by the
minority leader of
the Senate
Total Number
of Members of
14
4
12
12
14
18
12
Congress
Source: CRS survey of legislation.
Removal of the Architect
The Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 1990, which established the prior appointment
procedure, did not address the possibility of the removal of an Architect. The Architect, then,
presumably served at the pleasure of the President.31
A few of the bills introduced over the last 50 years providing for appointment by Members of
Congress have contained provisions specifically addressing removal. H.R. 8616 (94th Congress)
proposed that the Architect could be removed by concurrent resolution. S. 2205 (94th Congress)
provided for removal by resolution in either the House or Senate.

31 It has long been recognized that “the power of removal [is] incident to the power of appointment.” Ex Parte Hennen, 38
U.S. (13 Pet.) 230, 259 (1839).
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In the 117th and 118th Congresses, following allegations of misconduct by the then-Architect, bills
were introduced to establish procedures for removal by Congress, either by impeachment or joint
resolution.
On December 20, 2022, S. 5319 (117th Congress) was introduced in the Senate. It was referred to
the Committee on Rules and Administration, but no further action was taken during the 117th
Congress. It would have provided for removal by impeachment or by joint resolution (only for
permanent disability, inefficiency, neglect of duty, malfeasance, or a felony or conduct involving
moral turpitude).
A similar bill, S. 97 (118th Congress), was introduced on January 26, 2023, and referred to the
Committee on Rules and Administration.
The appointment-related proposals considered in 2023, and enacted in P.L. 118-31, also contained
provisions authorizing the newly established commission to remove the Architect “from office at
any time upon a majority vote of the members of the commission.”
Evaluation of the 1989-2023 Bicameral Congressional
Commission Process in Choosing the Architect
The appointment procedure in law from 1989 until 2023 raised a number of potential issues for
consideration. These issues, which are discussed below, included the length of the former
commission’s work and the potential for extended vacancies in the position; the operation of the
former commission; and what would happen if an incumbent sought reappointment as Architect
(although this never happened during that period).
While this discussion pertains to the prior appointment process, it may have some applicability for
the current vacancy.
Time Frame for Filling a Vacancy
Although the former commission could have transmitted names whenever there was a vacancy, it
was not clear from either the statute or the legislative history exactly when the commission was to
proceed. The act did not address the possibility of the bicameral congressional commission
beginning its work before an incumbent’s departure. In addition, the statute was silent on any time
frame for the commission’s forwarding of recommendations following a retirement, presidential
action on the commission’s recommendation, or congressional action once a nomination had been
received.
From the retirement of George White until the Senate confirmation of Alan Hantman, 436 days
elapsed.
Some 1,193 days elapsed from the retirement of Alan Hantman until the Senate confirmation of his
successor, Stephen T. Ayers. This period included a change in presidential Administration.
The Senate confirmation of J. Brett Blanton occurred 391 days after the retirement of Mr. Ayers.
Internal Operations of the Commission
The statute provided no guidance on how the commission should operate. If the commission had
rules of procedure or criteria for choosing potential nominees during any of the vacancies, they
were not made public nor would they have been binding from one vacancy to another. The statute
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establishing a commission to recommend individuals to serve as Comptroller General similarly
does not address commission procedure.
Potential questions related to commission procedures included
• who was to preside over its meetings;
• where and how meetings were to be called;
• how many members of the commission constituted a quorum;
• what constituted agreement by Members of the commission regarding nominees,
including whether nominees needed approval of a majority or all of the Members.
In contrast, P.L. 118-31 states that appointment is made “upon a majority vote of a
congressional commission”; and
• how the commission was to receive administrative or financial support (i.e., any
staffing expenses, travel expenses, or other expenses related to the search and
evaluation of candidates).
When former Architect Alan Hantman was chosen, press reports were the only source of
information that he was among the candidates whose names were forwarded to President Clinton
for consideration.32 One press account indicated that “Hantman is the ‘primary choice’ of the 14-
Members of Congress appointed to find the Capitol’s tenth Architect.”33 This same press account
reported the following: “According to a letter from the chairman of the Senate Rules and
Administration Committee Chairman John Warner (R-VA), Hantman was the first choice of the
Members ‘by a substantial margin.’”34 The account quotes an aide as reporting that “all 14
commission members voted either by ballot or proxy for the nominees,” although the votes were
not published.35
As stated above, following Mr. Hantman’s term of office, the commission reportedly forwarded a
list of names to President Bush in August 2007.36 President Bush did not forward a nomination to
the Senate prior to the end of his term. This period also encompassed the end of the 110th Congress,
with resultant changes in membership of the commission at the start of the 111th Congress. The
1989 act does not address a change in the membership of the commission while there is a vacancy
in the position.
Limited information regarding the commission’s operations to fill the third vacancy was made
publicly available.
Process for the Reappointment of an Incumbent Architect
There were also unresolved questions that may have arisen if an incumbent Architect had decided to
seek reappointment under the 1989-2023 process, although this circumstance never occurred.
For example, it is not clear if or when the commission would have formed or if the incumbent
Architect would have needed to be chosen again among at least two other potential candidates.

32 Juliet Eilperin, “Rockefeller Center Architect Top Pick For Capitol Position,” Roll Call, September 23, 1996, pp. A-1,
A-28.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
35 Ibid.
36 “Finalists for AOC’s Top Job Delivered to President Bush,” by John McArdle, Roll Call, August 13, 2007.
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Discussion Regarding the Qualifications of the
Architect
Many of the introduced bills and congressional hearings related to appointment have addressed the
fact that not all of those who have held the position of Architect of the Capitol have been trained
architects.37 Some proposed legislation in the 1950s and 1960s would have required all future
nominees to be trained architects.38 Alternatively, at least one bill—introduced in 1968 during a
period of congressional concern over plans for the expansion of the west front of the Capitol—
sought to change the title of the office to “Superintendent of the Capitol Buildings and Grounds” to
reflect the fact the then-Architect did not have this training.39
When Architect White announced his retirement in 1995, concerns were voiced within Congress,
the media, and professional groups about the necessary qualifications for any successor. There was
considerable discussion about the necessity of the new Architect being a licensed architect and the
type of professional management training and experience needed for the position.
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) expressed its preference for a licensed architect with
experience in management, procurement, and historic restoration. In 1995, the AIA sent
congressional leaders a list of nine potential Architect nominees for consideration.40 The following
year, Raj Barr-Kumar, the president-elect and a fellow of the American Institute of Architects,
described the process by which the AIA arrived at these names and qualifications and
responsibilities it identified in a February 29, 1996, hearing of the Senate Rules and Administration
Committee.41
To fill the second Architect vacancy after the 1989 act, the AIA again urged the selection of a
licensed architect.42 Others, including some Members of Congress, emphasized a background in
management because the job responsibilities, particularly with the opening of the Capitol Visitor
Center, are broader than building design and construction and include some duties not necessarily
associated with typical architectural practice.
This discussion continued during the third vacancy, and the AIA again expressed its preference for a
licensed architect.43 The qualifications listed by JDG Associates, the executive search firm, listed

37 For a comparison to statutory qualifications in other positions, see the Appendix in CRS Report RL33886, Statutory
Qualifications for Executive Branch Positions, by Henry B. Hogue.
38 S. 1847 (86th Cong.), S. 1806 (88th Cong.), S. 1658 (89th Cong.).
39 H.R. 19127 (90th Cong.). Rep. Kupperman, “Introduction of Bill to Change the Title of the Office of the ‘Architect of
the Capitol’ to ‘Superintendent of the Capitol Building and Grounds,’” remarks in the House, Congressional Record, vol.
114, July 31, 1968, p. 24430.
40 American Institute of Architects, “Suggested Candidates for Appointment as Architect of the Capitol,” April 2, 1995.
41 U.S. Congress, Senate Rules and Administration Committee, FY1997 Senate Budget, 104th Cong., 2nd sess., February
29, 1996 (unpublished).
42 American Institute of Architects, “Tell the President to Choose an Architect,” The Angle, vol. 5, no. 22, October 11,
2007. American Institute of Architects, “The Architect of the Capitol Should Be An Architect,” December 4, 2008;
American Institute of Architects, “Make the Next Architect of the Capitol A Licensed Professional Architect,” Issue
Brief, February 2008.
43 Ned Cramer, “The Architect of the Capitol Should Be an Architect,” Architect, March 2019; Katherine Tully-
McManus, “Ready to manage a world-famous building and grapple with a billion-dollar backlog? This job’s for you,”
Roll Call, January 10, 2019; William Bates and Jane Frederick, “Lawmakers should consider experience, diversity in
choosing the next Architect of the Capitol,” The Hill, May 19, 2019.
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“Architectural training and licensure a plus.”44 Mr. Blanton is “a Licensed Professional Engineer in
Civil Engineering and a Certified Energy Manager.”45

44 Katherine Tully-McManus, “Ready to manage a world-famous building and grapple with a billion-dollar backlog? This
job’s for you,” Roll Call, January 10, 2019; JDG Associates, Ltd., “The United States Congress Architect of the Capitol,”
p. 4.
45 See https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/j-brett-blanton.
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Appendix A. Legislation to Alter the Architect of the
Capitol Appointment Process
Table A-1. Proposals to Alter the Appointment of the Architect: 1959-Present
Term of
Date of
Congressional
Office (if
Bill
Introduction
Action (if any)
Process
specified)
S. 1847,
April 30, 1959

joint appointment by Speaker of the House
term expires
86th Cong.
and President pro tempore of the Senate
first day of
odd-numbered
Congresses
S. 1800,
June 26, 1963

joint appointment by Speaker and President
term expires
88th Cong.
pro temporea
first day of
odd-numbered
Congresses
S. 1658,
April 1, 1965

joint appointment by Speaker and President
term expires
89th Cong.
pro tempore
first day of
odd-numbered
Congresses
H.R. 17102,
October 12,

appointment alternating between Speaker

92nd Cong.
1972
and President pro tempore
H.R. 63,
January 3, 1973

appointment alternating between Speaker

93rd Cong.
and President pro tempore
S. 1278,
March 19, 1973
appointment alternating between Speaker

93rd Cong.
and President pro tempore
H.R. 8616,
July 14, 1975

commission of 10 Members (including the
5 years
94th Cong.
Speaker, President pro tempore, majority
and minority leaders of the House and
Senate, and the chair and ranking minority
members of the Committee on House
Administration and the Senate Committee
on Rules and Administration) nominate
candidates, and the Speaker and President
pro tempore, fol owing confirmation by a
majority vote in each house, shall appoint
S. 2205,
July 29, 1975

appointed by the Speaker and majority
7 years
94th Cong.
leader of the Senate after considering
recommendations from the majority and
minority leadersb
S. 2760,
May 22, 1980
Passed Senate
President nominates subject to advice and

96th Cong.
11/24/1980
consent of the Senate
S.Rept. 96-818
H.R. 3014,
November 21,
P.L. 101-163
commission of 10 Members (including the
10 years
101st Cong.
1989
Speaker, President pro tempore, majority
and minority leaders of the House and
Senate, and the chair and ranking minority
members of the Committee on House
Administration and the Senate Committee
on Rules and Administration) recommends
candidates to the President for nomination
with consent of the Senate
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Term of
Date of
Congressional
Office (if
Bill
Introduction
Action (if any)
Process
specified)
H.R. 1944,
June 28, 1995
P.L. 104-19
added chair and ranking minority members

104th Cong.
of the House and Senate Appropriations
Committees to commission established by
P.L. 101-163, increasing the number of
Members of the commission to 14
H.R. 4446,
December 6,

appointed jointly by 4 Members, including
10 years
109th Cong.
2005
the Speaker, the Senate majority leader, and
the House and Senate minority leaders
H.R. 6656,
July 30, 2008

appointed jointly by 12 Members, including
10 years
110th Cong.
the Speaker, the Senate majority leader, the
House and Senate minority leaders, and the
chair and ranking minority members of the
Committee on House Administration, the
Senate Committee on Rules and
Administration, and the House and Senate
Committees on Appropriations
H.R. 2185,
April 30, 2009

appointed jointly by 12 Members, including
10 years
111th Cong.
the Speaker, the Senate majority leader, the
House and Senate minority leaders, and the
chair and ranking minority members of the
Committee on House Administration, the
Senate Committee on Rules and
Administration, and the House and Senate
Committees on Appropriations
H.R. 2843,
June 12, 2009
Reported by
appointed jointly by 18 Members, including
10 years
111th Cong.
Committee on
the Speaker, the President pro tempore, the
House
House and Senate majority and minority
Administration
leaders, a Member of the Senate to be
(12/10/2009)
designated by the majority leader of the
H.Rept. 111-372
Senate, a Member of the Senate to be
designated by the minority leader of the
Passed House
Senate, and the chair and ranking minority
(2/3/2010)
members of the Committee on House
Administration, the House Committee on
Transportation and Infrastructure, the
Senate Committee on Rules and
Administration, and the House and Senate
Committees on Appropriations
H.R. 3196
May 10, 2023
Reported by
appointed jointly by 12 Members, including
10 years
118th Cong.
Committee on
the Speaker, the Senate majority leader, the
House
House and Senate minority leaders, and the
Administration
chair and ranking minority members of the
(9/28/2023)
Committee on House Administration, the
Senate Committee on Rules and
Administration, and the House and Senate
Committees on Appropriations
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Architect of the Capitol Appointment Procedure: Evolution and Recent Changes

Term of
Date of
Congressional
Office (if
Bill
Introduction
Action (if any)
Process
specified)
S. 2226
July 11, 2023
Agreed to in the
appointed jointly by 12 Members, including
10 years
118th Cong.
(original
Senate on
the Speaker, the Senate majority leader, the
measure
7/27/2023,
House and Senate minority leaders, and the
reported by the postponed, and
chair and ranking minority members of the
Committee on
incorporated
Committee on House Administration, the
Armed Services text into H.R.
Senate Committee on Rules and
without the
2670 as an
Administration, and the House and Senate
AOC language); amendment.
Committees on Appropriations
see S.Amdt.
220 and
S.Amdt. 935
H.R. 2670
April 18, 2023
AOC provision
appointed jointly by 12 Members, including
10 years
118th Cong.
(introduced
incorporated as
the Speaker, the Senate majority leader, the
and referred to
part of the
House and Senate minority leaders, and the
the Committee
Senate
chair and ranking minority members of the
on Armed
amendment to
Committee on House Administration, the
Services
H.R. 2670
Senate Committee on Rules and
without the
(7/27/2023);
Administration, and the House and Senate
AOC language)
included when
Committees on Appropriations
enacted as
P.L. 118-31 on
12/22/2023
Source: CRS survey of legislation.
Notes: This table includes all legislation identified by CRS as of the date of this report. Additional bil s wil be
added if identified.
a. Under S. 1806 (88th Congress), which was introduced the day after S. 1800, the Architect would have been
unable to “evaluate, review, give preliminary approval to, or otherwise pass judgment” on construction or
renovation of the Capitol buildings and grounds.
b. S. 2206, 94th Congress, was introduced the same day and addressed the appointment of the Comptrol er
General and Deputy Comptrol er General.
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Appendix B. Architects of the Capitol Since 1793
Since 1793, 12 persons have held the position currently known as the Architect of the Capitol.46 Of
these, two served for more than three decades and two others served for more than two decades.
As stated above, since the 1989 act and continued in the 2023 revisions, any subsequent
appointments would be for a term of 10 years, with the possibility of reappointment.
Table B-1 lists the individuals who have served as Architect, including names, dates of service, and
links to biographical information. This table does not include information on Acting Architects.
Table B-1. Architects of the Capitol
Name
Dates of Service
Biographical Information
Wil iam Thornton
1793
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/dr-
wil iam-thornton
Benjamin Latrobe
1803-1811
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
1815-1817
benjamin-henry-latrobe
Charles Bulfinch
1818-1829
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
charles-bulfinch
Thomas Walter
1851-1865
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
thomas-ustick-walter
Edward Clark
1865-1902
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
edward-clark
El iott Woods
1902-1923
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
elliott-woods
David Lynn
1923-1954
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
david-lynn
J. George Stewart
1954-1970
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/j-
george-stewart
George White
1971-1995
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
george-m-white-faia
Alan Hantman
1997-2007
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
alan-m-hantman-faia
Stephen T. Ayers
2010-2018
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/
stephen-t-ayers-faia-leed-ap
J. Brett Blanton
2020-2023a
https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-the-capitol/j-
brett-blanton
Sources: U.S. Architect of the Capitol, Architects of the Capitol since 1793, https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/
architects-of-the-capitol; and Wil iam Allen, History of the United States Capitol (Washington: GPO, 2001). List does
not include Acting Architects.
a. Mr. Blanton’s nomination was confirmed by the Senate on December 19, 2019, but he was sworn in as
Architect on January 16, 2020.

46 The term Architect of the Capitol also refers to some of the early occupants of the office who were known as
Commissioner, Surveyor of Public Buildings, or Superintendent of the Capitol. For more information, see William Allen,
History of the United States Capitol (Washington: GPO, 2001), pp. 27, 50-51, 398, and 400-401.
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Author Information

Ida A. Brudnick

Specialist on the Congress

Acknowledgments
Portions of this report were previously authored by Mildred Amer, formerly a Specialist on the Congress. The
listed author has updated the report and may be contacted with any questions.

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in its
entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to copy
or otherwise use copyrighted material.

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