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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment

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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment

February 19, 2014September 28, 2017 (R43061)
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Contents

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Tables

Summary

The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs. Congress has enacted many programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also undertaken broad efforts to improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. In addition, some policy makerspolicymakers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies.

Policy makersPolicymakers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts, economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and related policy issues. These issues include whether a shortage of scientists and engineers exists in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E degrees, mismatched skills and needs), and whether the federal government should undertake policy interventions to address such a putative shortage or to allow market forces to work in this labor market. Among the key indicators used by labor economists to assess occupational labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.

In 20122016, there were 6.29 million scientists and engineers (as defined in this report) employed in the United States, accounting for 4.89% of total U.S. employment. Science and engineering employment was concentrated in two S&E occupational groups, computer occupations (5657.6%) and engineers (2523.6%), with the rest accounted for by S&E managers (98.4%), physical scientists (43.8%), life scientists (4.1%), and those in mathematical occupations (2.4%). From 2008 to 20122012 to 2016, S&E employment increased by 352,370747,040, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 1.52.9%, while overall U.S. employment contracted at 0grew by 1.9% CAGR. Viewed only in aggregate, the increase in S&E employment masks the varied degrees of growth and decline in detailed S&E occupations.

In 20122016, the mean wage for all scientists and engineers was $87,33094,450, while the mean wage for all other occupations was $45,79049,630. Between 20082012 and 20122016, the nominal mean wages of the S&E occupational groups grew between 1.40% CAGR (life scientists) and 2.2% CAGR (physical scientists, S&E managers, mathematiciansmathematical occupations) and 2.5% CAGR (S&E managers). Inflation-adjusted wage growth for each of the S&E occupational groups was less than 0.61.4% CAGR, and in the case of life scientistsmathematical occupations was negative. Nominal wage growth for all occupations in the economy was 1.12.0%; real wages declined 0.5grew by 0.9%.

Compared to the overall workforce, the S&E occupational groups had significantly lower unemployment rates for the 2008-20122012-2016 period. In general, though, the professional occupations (of which the S&E occupations are a part) historically have had lower unemployment rates than the workforce as a whole. In 2012, the overall S&E unemployment rate of 3.6% was higher than for 2016, with the exception of life scientists, the unemployment rates for S&E occupational groups (2.0%-2.9%) were higher than other selected professional occupations, including lawyers (1.40.7%), physicians and surgeons (0.85%), dentists (1.50.4%), and registered nurses (2.6%)1.2%). Life scientists had an unemployment rate of 0.6%.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projects that the number of S&E jobs will grow by 953,200694,400 between 20122014 and 20222024, a growth rate (1.30% CAGR) that is somewhat faster than that of the overall workforce (1.00.6%). In addition, BLS projects that 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those projected to exit S&E occupations. The number of scientists and engineers needed to meet growth and net replacement needs between 20122014 and 20222024 is 2.30 million, including 1.21 million in the computer occupations and 544,300510,700 engineers.


The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment

Overview

Many congressional policy makerspolicymakers have an ongoing interest in whether the number of U.S. scientists and engineers is sufficient to meet the needs of U.S. employers, to spur economic growth and job creation through innovation, to maintain U.S. global technological leadership and industrial competitiveness, and to address other important national and societal needs.

To help ensure an adequate science and engineering (S&E) workforce, Congress has established and funded a variety of federal programs. These programs are intended to foster improved science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) skills among students; to incentivize students to pursue degrees in science and engineering through tools such as fellowships, assistantships, and traineeships; and to provide graduate and post-graduate research experiences at U.S. colleges and universities through the financing of university-based research. The 113115th Congress is considering a wide variety of legislation to promote STEM education.th Congress is considering legislation to create, reform, and provide funding for STEM education efforts, and may seek to reauthorize the America COMPETES Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-69) and the America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-358).1 In addition, Congress is considering changes to immigration policies, among them the number of visas and processes associated with F-1 visas, H-1B visas, L1L-1 visas, and legal permanent residency ("green cards"), to address U.S. S&E workforce needs.21

As Congress develops policies and programs and makes appropriations to help address the nation's needs for scientists and engineers, it may wish to consider past, current, and projected S&E workforce trends. Among the key factors that labor economists examine for evidence of labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates relative to other occupations.32 This report provides employment, wage, and unemployment information for the computer occupations, mathematical occupations, engineers, life scientists, physical scientists, and S&E management occupations, as follows:

  • The section on "Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment" provides a statistical snapshot of occupational employment, wage, and unemployment data for the S&E workforce in 20122014 (the latest year for which data are available).
  • The section on "Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment" provides a perspective on how S&E employment, wages, and unemployment changed during the period 2008-20122012-2016.
  • The section on "Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024" provides an analysis of projections by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for how the number employed in S&E occupations is expected to change during the 2012-20222014-2024 period, as well as how many openings will be created by workers exiting each occupation (replacement needs).

A final section, "Concluding Observations," provides stakeholder perspectives that Congress may wish to consider as it seeks to ensure that the United States has an adequate S&E workforce to meet the demands of the 21st century.

Methodology

Occupational Taxonomy

Most experts agree that there is no authoritative definition of which occupations comprise the science and engineering (S&E) workforce. Rather, the selection of occupations included in any particular analysis of the S&E workforce may vary. Some analysts, policy makerspolicymakers, and organizations may refer to the group in different ways (e.g., the scientific and technical workforce, the STEM workforce) and include varying sets of occupations. In 20012011, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), in defining the STEM occupations for a particular analysis, stated, "This is only one possible definition of STEM occupations; other definitions exist that may be better suited for other uses."4

3

The size of the S&E workforce varies substantially depending on which occupations are included in the definition. In its 20122016 Science and Engineering Indicators report, the National Science Board (NSB) stated, "In the most recent estimates, the U.S. S&E workforce (defined by occupation) totaled between 4.8 million and 6.4 million people."5 Previously, the NSB asserted that the S&E workforce could be as large as 21 million people if the definition included those with either an S&E degree or a degree in an S&E-related field such as health or technology.6

2013, estimates of the size of the S&E workforce ranged from approximately 6 million to more than 21 million depending on the definition used," further noting that "when defined by occupation, the S&E workforce totals between 6.2 million and 6.3 million people according to the most recent estimates."4

The policy debate about the adequacy of the U.S. S&E workforce has focused largely on the computer occupations, mathematical occupations, engineers, and physical scientists. For purposes of this report, these occupations, along with life scientists (a part of the natural sciences, with physics and chemistry) and S&E management occupations, are collectively referred to as the S&E workforce. Notably, this group does not include social scientists (e.g., economists, survey researchers, psychologists, sociologists, urban and regional planners, anthropologists, archeologists, geographers, historians, political scientists) or S&E-related technicians. As defined this way, the size of the S&E workforce in 20122016 was approximately 6.29 million.

5

This report uses a modified version of the Standard Occupation Classification (SOC) system76 to categorize scientists and engineers. The report taxonomy includes six S&E occupational groups, each composed of closely related detailed occupations:

  • Computer Computer occupations—computer and information research scientists; computer systems analysts; computer programmers; software developers, applications; software developers, systems software; database administrators; network and computer systems administrators; computer user support specialists; computer network support specialists; information security analysts; web developers; computer network architects; and computer occupations, all other.
  • MathematicalMathematical occupations—actuaries; mathematicians; operations research analysts; statisticians; and mathematical science occupations, all other.
  • EngineersEngineersaerospace, agricultural, biomedical, chemical, civil, computer hardware, electrical, electronics (except computer), environmental, health and safety (except mining safety engineers and inspectors), industrial, materials, mechanical, mining and geological (including mining safety engineers), nuclear, and petroleum engineers; engineers, all other; and marine engineers and naval architects.
  • LifeLife scientistsanimal scientists; food scientists and technologists; soil and plant scientists; biochemists and biophysicists; microbiologists; zoologists and wildlife biologists; biological scientists, all other; conservation scientists; foresters; epidemiologists; medical scientists (except epidemiologists); and life scientists, all other.
  • PhysicalPhysical scientistsastronomers; physicists; atmospheric and space scientists; chemists; materials scientists; environmental scientists and specialists (including health); geoscientists (except hydrologists and geographers); hydrologists; and physical scientists, all other.
  • Science and engineering managerscomputer and information systems managers, architectural and engineering managers,87 and natural sciences managers.

A description of the detailed occupations is provided in the Appendix.

Data Sources

This report relies on federal government employment, wage, and unemployment data from the following sources:

  • The Occupational Employment StatisticsStatistics (OES),98 a survey of non-farmnonfarm establishments conducted by the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics and state workforce agencies, is the source of employment and wage data for the 2008-20122012-2016 period. The survey provides employment and wage estimates annually for over 800 occupations. According to BLS, "employees" are all part-time and full-time workers who are paid a wage or salary. The survey does not cover the self-employed, owners and partners in unincorporated firms, household workers, or unpaid family workers. For this report, the wage statistic used is the occupational "mean wage," an average wage calculated by summing the wages of all the employees in a given occupation and then dividing the total wages by the number of employees.
  • The Current Population Survey (CPS),109 a monthly survey of households conducted for BLS by the Department of Commerce's Bureau of the Census, is the source of the unemployment data in this report. CPS data are also used to supplement OES data in BLS employment projections (discussed below).
  • BLS's Employment Projections,1110 a biennial product of BLS, provide occupational employment and industry employment projection data for 10-year periods. The latest projections, covering the 2012-20222014-2024 period, were published in December 20132015. According to BLS, for most industries, the OES survey provides data for the occupational staffing patterns—the distribution of wage and salary employment by occupation in each industry—and Current Employment Statistics (CES)1211 data provide information on total wage and salary employment in each non-farmnonfarm industry. While OES data include only wage and salary, non-farmnonfarm employment, the employment data in the projections also include agricultural industry employment and the self-employed (derived from CPS data) to arrive at base year employment levels for each occupation.13

Timeframe

12 Time Frame

The "Current Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment" section provides information on changes in employment, wages, and unemployment for the period 2008 to 20122012 to 2016. The "Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024" section relies entirely on the most recent Bureau of Labor Statistics biennial employment projections for the 2012-2022 timeframe2014-2024 time frame.

Methodological Limitations

It is important to note that a wide range of factors can affect the size and occupational composition of the U.S. S&E workforce. Among these factors are global and domestic economic conditions; the development and market adoption of new technologies; capital cost and availability; the level of public and private funding for research and development; changes in scientific, technological, and market opportunities; the size, knowledge, and skills of the U.S.-born labor force; the size, knowledge, and skills of the foreign-born labor force in the United States; and changes in business practices regarding the use of foreign-based science and engineering capabilities. This report does not attempt to attribute changes in the U.S. S&E workforce to any of these factors specifically.

In addition, a variety of factors may affect the comparability of OES data over time:

Although the OES survey methodology is designed to create detailed cross-sectional employment and wage estimates for the U.S., States, metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, across industry and by industry, it is less useful for comparisons of two or more points in time. Challenges in using OES data as a time series include changes in the occupational, industrial, and geographical classification systems, changes in the way data are collected, changes in the survey reference period, and changes in mean wage estimation methodology, as well as permanent features of the methodology.14

13

In its examination of current trends, CRS chose the 2008-20122012-2016 time period, in part, to enhance comparability of data across the period by reducing inconsistencies resultingthat may result from changes in the OES occupational classification system, and in part to provide a current perspective on trends in the S&E occupations. The OES survey used the same occupational categories (based on the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification) throughout the 2012-2016throughout the 2008-2012 period.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics makes a number of estimates in developing its employment projections. These estimates include "the future size and composition of the population, as well as on the trends in labor force participation rates of different age, gender, race, and ethnic groups, a total of 136 separate categories," "the rate of growth and demand composition of real GDP, the labor productivity growth rate, and the inflation rate," expectations regarding the federal budget surplus or deficit, historical staffing patterns, shifts in product mix, changes in technology and business practices, and retirement rates.1514 If these estimates do not accurately reflect future performance, occupational employment projections may be over- or underestimated. Other factors may affect occupational projections as well, including changes to immigration laws and patterns, trade laws and practices, regulatory regimes, and social and educational patterns; wars and disasters; revolutionary advances in technology; and shifts in consumer tastes. The BLS evaluates the accuracy of its projections regularly and publishes these evaluations in its Monthly Labor Review.1615


Selected S&E Occupational Data

Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment

This section provides a snapshot of the S&E workforce in 20122016, using employment, wages, and unemployment data.

Employment

Figure 1. Compilation of S&E Occupational Employment, 20122016

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, May 20122016, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.

Notes: Chart does not include social scientists or S&E-related technicians. For additional information about which detailed occupations are included, see "Occupational Taxonomy."

In 20122016, the latest year for which Occupational Employment Statistics survey data are available, 6.29 million people were employed in the United States as scientists and engineers, accounting for 4.79% of total U.S. employment. Science and engineering employment was concentrated in two occupational groups—computer occupations and engineers—which together accounted for 81% of S&E jobs, with 5657.6% and 2523.6%, respectively. The remainder of S&E employment was accounted for by science and engineering managers (9%), physical8.4%), life scientists (4.1%), physical%), life scientists (43.8%), and mathematical occupations (2.4%). Employment totals and share of S&E occupational employment are presented in Figure 1.

(See Table 4 for more detailed 20122016 employment data on specific S&E occupations.)

Wages

Scientists and engineers have a mean annual wage that exceeds the mean annual wage for all occupations in the United States. In 20122016, the mean annual wage for all scientists and engineers was $87,33094,450; the mean annual wage for all occupations—professional and non-professional—was $45,790nonprofessional—was $49,630. S&E managers had the highest mean annual wage of all S&E occupational groups at $130,660144,270, followed by engineers, $90,96096,440; mathematical occupations, $84,940; physical scientists, $83,360; computer occupations, $80,02088,320; computer occupations, $87,870; physical scientists, $87,320; and life scientists, $77,62083,080. Scientists and engineers have lower mean annual wages than some other professionals, such as physicians and surgeons ($190,060210,170), dentists ($166,910178,670), and lawyers ($130139,880). (See Figure 2.)

Figure 2. Mean Annual Wages of S&E Occupational Groups and Other Selected Professional Occupations, 2012

2016

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, May 20122016 Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, httphttps://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.

Table 1 shows the 20122016 mean annual wage for each of the S&E occupational groups and individual S&E occupations, organized by S&E occupational group.

Table 1. Mean Annual Wages of S&E Occupations, 2012

2016

Occupational Group

Mean Annual Wage

Science and Engineering Managers

$130,660

144,270

Computer and Information Systems Managers

129,130

145,740

Architectural and Engineering Managers

133,240

143,870

Natural Sciences Managers

130,400

136,150

Computer Occupations

$80,020

87,870

Computer and Information Research Scientists

103,670

116,320

Computer Systems Analysts

Software Developers, Systems Software

83,800

110,590

Information Security Analysts

Software Developers, Applications

89,290

104,300

Computer Programmers

Network Architects

78,260

104,240

Software Developers, Applications

Information Security Analysts

93,280

96,040

Software Developers,Computer Systems Software

Analysts

102,550

91,620

Web Developers

Computer Occupations, All Other

66,100

88,880

Database Administrators

79,120

87,130

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

Computer Programmers

76,320

85,180

Computer Network Architects

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

94,000

84,500

Computer User Support Specialists

Web Developers

50,130

72,150

Computer Network Support Specialists

62,690

67,770

Computer Occupations, All Other

User Support Specialists

81,860

53,100

Mathematical Occupations

$84,940

88,320

Actuaries

106,680

114,120

Mathematicians

101,280

105,600

Operations Research Analysts

Statisticians

79,830

85,160

Statisticians

Operations Research Analysts

79,570

84,340

Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

63,250

77,550

Engineers

$90,690

96,440

AerospacePetroleum Engineers

104,810

147,030

AgriculturalComputer Hardware Engineers

77,370

118,700

BiomedicalAerospace Engineers

91,200

112,010

ChemicalNuclear Engineers

102,270

105,950

CivilChemical Engineers

84,140

105,420

Computer Hardware Engineers

Electronics Engineers, Except Computer

103,980

760

ElectricalMining and Geological Engineers, Including Mining Safety Engineers

91,810

103,010

ElectronicsMarine Engineers, except Computer

and Naval Architects

95,250

99,860

Environmental Engineers

Engineers, All Other

85,140

99,250

Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

Electrical Engineers

79,760

98,620

IndustrialMaterials Engineers

82,100

97,050

Marine Engineers and Naval Architects

Health and Safety Engineers, Except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

96,140

90,190

MaterialsBiomedical Engineers

87,490

89,970

Mechanical Engineers

84,770

89,800

Mining and Geological Engineers, Including Mining SafetyCivil Engineers

91,250

89,730

NuclearEnvironmental Engineers

107,140

88,530

PetroleumIndustrial Engineers

147,470

88,530

Engineers, All Other

Agricultural Engineers

9377,330

Life Scientists

$77,620

83,080

AnimalMedical Scientists

, Except Epidemiologists

73,400

95,000

Food Scientists and Technologists

Biochemists and Biophysicists

64,140

94,340

Soil and Plant Scientists

Life Scientists, All Other

63,290

83,150

Biochemists and Biophysicists

Biological Scientists, All Other

89,470

77,830

Microbiologists

Epidemiologists

73,250

77,720

Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists

Microbiologists

62,500

76,850

BiologicalAnimal Scientists, All Other

76,220

72,890

ConservationFood Scientists

and Technologists

63,590

71,270

Foresters

Soil and Plant Scientists

57,140

69,290

Epidemiologists

Conservation Scientists

71,400

65,130

Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists

Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists

87,830

64,890

Life Scientists, All Other

Foresters

74,740

60,300

Physical Scientists

$83,360

87,320

Astronomers

Physicists

102,550

121,770

Physicists

Astronomers

114,150

110,380

Atmospheric and Space Scientists

Geoscientists, Except Hydrologists and Geographers

90,010

106,390

Chemists

Materials Scientists

76,870

101,570

MaterialsPhysical Scientists

, All Other

89,740

98,460

Environmental Scientists and Specialists, Including Health

Atmospheric and Space Scientists

68,970

94,840

Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers

Hydrologists

106,780

83,740

Hydrologists

Chemists

78,920

80,820

PhysicalEnvironmental Scientists, All Other

and Specialists, Including Health

93,720

75,360

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, May 20122016, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, httphttps://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.

Unemployment

The 20122016 annual average unemployment rates for S&E occupational groups are shown in Figure 3, together with the annual average unemployment rates of other selected professional and related occupations.17 The annual averagerate for each S&E occupation is provided in Table 2. In 2016, the unemployment rates for the S&E occupations overall (3.6%) and for each of the S&E occupational groups (which range from 1.3% to 3.8%) were lower than the overall annual average unemployment rate for those 16 and over (7.3%) and lower than the annual average unemployment rate for the professional and related occupations group (4.2%).18 However, the annual average unemployment rates for most of the S&E occupational groupsS&E occupations range from 0.2% for biological scientists to 5.2% for web developers. The unemployment rate for every S&E occupation other than web developers was below the overall unemployment rate of 4.9%.16 However, the unemployment rates for most S&E occupations were higher than the rates for some other professional occupations—including lawyers (1dentists (0.4%), physicians and surgeons (0.8%), dentists (1.55%), lawyers (0.7%), and registered nurses (2.6%)—but lower in general than some, such as accountants and auditors (41.2%).

Figure 3Table 2. Annual Average Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups and Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2012

Source: CRS analysis of unpublished 2012 data from the Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The unemployment rate for each detailed S&E occupation is provided in Table 2.19 The unemployment rates for S&E occupations range from 0.3% for astronomers and physicists to 18.5% for mining and geological engineers (including mine safety engineers). The unemployment rate for mining and geological engineers is more than twice the rate of any other detailed S&E occupation.20

Table 2. Annual Average Unemployment Rate for S&E Occupational Groups and Detailed S&E Occupations, 2012

Unemployment Rate(Percentage)    

Occupation

Unemployment Rate (Percentage)

Rate for S&E Occupations, 2016

Occupation

Total, all occupations, 16 years and over

7.3

 

3.0

4.9

Science and Engineering Managers

3.0

 

Computer and information systems managers

Information Systems Managers

3.2

2.7

Architectural and engineering managers

Engineering Managers

2.3

3.9

Natural sciences managers

Sciences Managers

2.1

Computer Occupations

3.8

 

Computer and information research scientists

Information Research Scientists

2.2

Computer systems analysts

Systems Analysts

32.6

Information security analysts

Security Analysts

0.9

3.2

Computer programmers

Programmers

4.5

3.4

Software developers, applications and systems software

Developers, Applications and Systems Software

2.8

1.6

Web developers

Developers

45.2

Computer support specialists

Support Specialists

6.6

3.3

Database administrators

Administrators

3.6

1

Network and computer systems administrators

Computer Systems Administrators

4.1

1.4

Computer network architects

Network Architects

2.2

1.1

Computer occupations, all other

Occupations, All Other

3.2

0

Mathematical Occupations

1.3

 

Actuaries

Mathematicians

Operations research analysts

Research Analysts

13.3

Statisticians

1.4

Miscellaneous mathematical science occupations

Mathematical Science Occupations

1.3

Engineers

3.3

 

Aerospace engineers

Engineers

3.7

2.2

Agricultural engineers

Engineers

Biomedical engineers

Engineers

0.4

Chemical engineers

Engineers

2.7

4.2

Civil engineers

Engineers

3.4

1.5

Computer hardware engineers

Hardware Engineers

1.9

6

Electrical and electronics engineers

Electronics Engineers

3.4

1.7

Environmental engineers

Engineers

2.7

Industrial engineers, including health and safety

Engineers, Including Health and Safety

2.7

5

Marine engineers and naval architects

Engineers and Naval Architects

8.2

Materials engineers

Engineers

4.4

Mechanical engineers

Engineers

31.1

Mining and geological engineers, incl. mining safety engineers

Geological Engineers, Including Mining Safety Engineers

18.5

Nuclear engineers

Engineers

1.7

Petroleum engineers

Engineers

0.6

Engineers, all other

All Other

3.4

1.7

Life Scientists

2.9

 

Agricultural and food scientists

Food Scientists

3.7

Biological scientists

Scientists

3.0

0.2

Conservation scientists and foresters

Scientists and Foresters

2.1

Medical scientists

Scientists, Except Epidemiologists

2.2

0.4

Life scientists, all other

Scientists, All Other

Physical Scientists

3.3

 

Astronomers and physicists

Physicists

0.3

Atmospheric and space scientists

Space Scientists

Chemists and materials scientists

Material Scientists

5.5

2.8

Environmental scientists and geoscientists

Scientists and Geoscientists

2.6

3.4

Physical scientists, all other

Scientists, All Other

3.1

1.9    

Source: Current Population Survey, 20122016, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

Notes: Unemployment for occupations refers to the experienced unemployed (those with prior work experience), classified according to their last job. For occupations in which the total number of employed and unemployed totals less than 50,000 the unemployment rate is not shown;— indicate data are not available.

Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment

This section provides information on changes in employment, wages, and unemployment for the period 2008 to 20122012 to 2016.

Employment Trends

Aggregate S&E Employment

During the 2008-20122012-2016 period, aggregate S&E employment increased by 353,520747,040 jobs, rising from 5.86.2 million to 6.29 million, a compound annual growth rate of 1.5%.212.9%.17 The growth in the S&E occupations ran counter toexceeded growth in overall U.S. employment, which contracted at 0grew 1.9% CAGR during this same period. Growth rates for the S&E occupational groups and detailed occupations are provided in the following sections.

Science and Engineering Occupational Groups

Figure 43 illustrates the aggregate size and occupational composition of the S&E workforce from 2008 to 2012. Aggregate employment decreased somewhat from 2008 to 2010, led by reductions in the number of engineers employed. Modest growth in aggregate S&E employment returned in 2011 and 2012, led by increases in computer occupationsin 2012 and 2016. Aggregate S&E employment increased by 747,040 from 2012 to 2016, led by growth in the computer occupations (540,880), engineers (105,320), and mathematical occupations (46,700).

Figure 43. Aggregate S&E Employment, 2008-2012

2012 and 2016

by S&E Occupational Group Composition

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-20122012-2016, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, httphttps://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.

Table 3 provides employment data—20082012 employment, 20122016 employment, and changes in number employed, and the compound annual growth rates during the 2008 to 20122012 to 2016 period—for each S&E occupational group. The fastest growth rate among S&E occupational groups during this period was in mathematical occupations, which grew at 2.8%8.5% CAGR, while the largest increase in the number employed was in computer occupations, which added 258,450540,880 jobs. The slowest growth rate among S&E occupational groups during this period was in engineers which grew at 0.2for physical scientists, which contracted by 1.1% CAGR.

Table 3. Employment Change in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2012

2012-2016

Occupation

Employment, 2008

2012

Employment, 2012

2016

Employment Change,
Number

Employment Change,
Compound Annual Growth Rate

(Percentage)

All occupations

135,185,230

130,287,700

130,287,700

140,400,040

-4,897,530

10,112,340

-0.9%

1.9

All S&E occupations

5,835,390

6,187,760

6,188,910

934,800

353,520

747,040

1.5%

2.9

S&E managers

502,180

545,940

545,940

585,680

43,760

39,740

2.1%

1.8

Computer occupations

3,198,050

456,500

3,456,500

997,380

258,450

540,880

2.0%

3.7

Mathematical occupations

109,130

120,560

121,710

167,260

12,580

46,700

2.8%

8.5

Engineers

1,516,230

530,110

1,530,110

635,430

13,880

105,320

0.2%

1.7

Life scientists

250,250

260,040

260,040

286,400

9,790

26,360

1.0%

2.4

Physical scientists

259,550

274,610

274,610

262,650

15,060

-11,960

-1.1

1.4%

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-20122012-2016, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, httphttps://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.

Detailed S&E Occupations

Table 4 provides 2008-20122012-2016 employment data for each of the S&E occupations, organized by S&E group. The data indicate that there was substantial variation in the number of jobs gained and lost among the S&E occupations, as well as in their growth rates. With respect to the number employed, the occupation with the largest gain was software developers, applications, which added 92,180207,660 jobs, while the occupation experiencing the largest decrease was computer programmers, which lost 77,44045,590 jobs. Some have speculated that some of the losses in computer programmers may be due to reclassification of these positions as other computer occupations (e.g., software developers). The S&E occupation with the fastest growth rate was petroleum engineers with a 14.9% CAGR, adding 15,530 new jobs, while the occupation with the fastest decline was mathematical science occupations, all other, which experienced a -34.43% CAGR and a loss of 5,380 jobs. The three fastest declining occupations were all "other" categories—mathematical science occupations, all other; engineers, all other; and life scientists, all other. These declines may be due, in part, to assignation by employers of jobs previously classified in these residual classifications to other detailed and specific S&E occupations; if so, consequentially, some growth in the detailed occupations may be due, in part, to such re-assignations.

Among the computer occupations with comparable data across the 2008-2012 period,22 those with the fastest growth rates were software developers, applications (4.4% CAGR); network and computer systems administrators (1.7% CAGR); and software developers, systems software (0.6% CAGR). Nevertheless, it appears that the vast majority of job growth occurred in the occupational areas that were separated into more detailed occupational classifications in the 2012 survey. Comparing the aggregate of two 2012 detailed occupations—computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists—to the previously used classification, "computer support specialists," shows job growth of 148,090 (6.2% CAGR).23 Similarly, comparing three 2012 detailed occupations—information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects—to the previously used classification, "information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects," shows job growth of 148,090 (8.0% CAGR).24 Within the computer occupations group, these gains offset losses in other computer occupations, including computer programmers (-77,440, -5.3% CAGR); database administrators (4,180, -0.9% CAGR); and computer occupations, all other (-6,050, -0.8% CAGR).

Elevenoccupations with the fastest growth rates were mathematical scientists, all other (13.2% CAGR, 780 new jobs), and operations research analysts (12.1% CAGR, 39,970 new jobs). The occupation with the fastest decline was physical scientists, all other (-6.9% CAGR, loss of 6,270 jobs).

Among the computer occupations, those with the fastest growth rates were computer occupations, all other (8.9% CAGR); software developers, applications (7.9% CAGR); and information security analysts (7.5% CAGR). The only computer occupation that experienced a decline in employment was computer programmers, which fell by 3.8% CAGR.

Ten engineering occupations increased employment during this period, with the largest growth in mechanicalindustrial engineers (18,930, 2.036,420, 3.9% CAGR), petroleummechanical engineers (15,530, 14.933,250, 3.1% CAGR), and aerospacecivil engineers (12,620, 4.429,700, 2.8% CAGR). Employment gains in these and other engineering occupations were offset by declines in seveneight engineering occupations, including engineers, all other (-46,830, -7.8% CAGR); electronics engineers (-4,970, -0.9% CAGR); and civil engineers (-3,260, -0.3aerospace engineers (-11,910, -3.9% CAGR); computer hardware engineers (-6,630, -2.2% CAGR); and petroleum engineers (-3,630, -2.6% CAGR).

Growth in the mathematical occupations was led by operations research analysts (8,320, 3.339,970, 12.1% CAGR), statisticians (4,890, 5.4%), actuaries (3,120, 4.0% CAGR), and mathematicians (480, 4.1% CAGR). Mathematical science occupations, all other, declined (-5,380, -34.4% CAGR).

Among life scientists, the occupation biochemists and biophysicists had the largest employment growth (4,180, 4.4% CAGR), followed by food scientists and technologists (3,170, 6.8% CAGR), which also had the fastest growth rate. Employment declined in four life science occupations: medical scientists (-4,330, -1.1% CAGR); life scientists, all other (-3,090, -7.2% CAGR); foresters (-690, -1.7% CAGR); and animal scientists (-640, -6.4% CAGR).

The physical sciences occupations with the largest growth were environmental scientists and specialists (4,120, 1.3% CAGR); geoscientists (3,920, 3.0% CAGR), and physicists (3,010, 4.7% CAGR). Employment in two physical sciences occupations declined: material scientists (-1,680, ˗4.7% CAGR), and hydrologists (-710, -2.4% CAGR).

Employment grew in each of the S&E managers occupations. The largest growth was in computer and information systems managers (32,920, 2.8% CAGR). Natural science managers had the fastest growth rate (3.1%), adding 5,500 jobs. Architectural and engineering managers grew by 5,340, with a growth rate of 0.7%.

Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2008-2012

Employ-ment,2012 Employ-ment,2016          

350,320

157,070

3.0%

Occupational Group

Employ-ment,
2008

Employ-ment,
2012

7,870, 6.9% CAGR), and mathematical science occupations, all other (780, 13.2% CAGR). The remaining mathematical occupations declined: actuaries (-1,400, -1.7% CAGR) and mathematicians (-520, -4.3% CAGR).

Among life scientists, medical scientists, except epidemiologists, had the largest employment growth (13,450, 3.4% CAGR), followed by biological sciences, all other (4,030, 3.1% CAGR), and microbiologists (3,120, 4.0% CAGR). Employment declined in three life science occupations: life scientists, all other (-1,050, -3.1% CAGR); foresters (-1,050, -2.9% CAGR); and zoologists and wildlife biologists (-930, -1.3% CAGR).

The only physical sciences occupation with substantial growth was chemists (1,710, 0.5% CAGR). Environmental scientists and specialists, including health, remained essentially unchanged. Seven others physical sciences occupations declined, led by physical scientists, all other (-6,270, -6.9% CAGR), geoscientists, except hydrologists and geographers (-4,760, -3.6% CAGR), and physicists (-1,140, -1.6% CAGR).

Two S&E management occupations grew: computer and information systems managers (42,770, 3.3% CAGR) and natural sciences managers (6,220, 3.1% CAGR). The number of architectural and engineering managers declined (-9,250, -1.3% CAGR).

Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2012-2016

Occupational Group

Employ-ment Change, Number

Employ-ment Change, CAGR

Science and Engineering Managers

 

 

 

 

Computer and Information Systems Managers

276,820

309,740

309,740

352,510

32,920

42,770

2.83.3%

Architectural and Engineering Managers

182,300

187,640

187,640

178,390

5,340

-9,250

0.7-1.3%

Natural Sciences Managers

43,060

48,560

48,560

54,780

5,500

6,220

3.1%

Computer Occupations

 

 

 

 

Computer and Information Research Scientists

26,610

24,880

24,880

26,580

-1,730

1,700

-1.7%

Computer Systems Analysts

489,890

482,040

482,040

568,960

-7,850

86,920

-0.44.2%

Computer Programmers

Information Security Analysts

394,230

72,670

316,790

96,870

-77,440

24,200

-5.37.5%

Software Developers, Applications

Computer Programmers

494,160

316,790

586,340

271,200

92,180

-45,590

4.4-3.8%

Software Developers, Systems Software

Applications

381,830

586,340

391,700

794,000

9,870

207,660

0.67.9%

Database Administrators

Software Developers, Systems Software

115,770

391,700

111,590

409,820

-4,180

18,120

-0.91.1%

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

Web Developers

327,850

102,940

350,320

129,540

22,470

26,600

1.75.9%

Computer Support Specialistsa

Database Administrators

545,520

111,590

113,730

2,140

0.5%

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

 

 

 

Computer User Support Specialists

 

525,630

376,820
 

 

26,500

1.8%

Computer Network Support Specialists

 

167,980

 

 

Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architectsb

Computer Network Architects

137,890

230,410

19,180

3.3%

Computer User Support Specialists

525,630

602,840

77,210

3.5%

Computer Network Support Specialists

167,980

188,740

20,760

 

 

 

Information Security Analysts

 

72,670

 

 

Web Developers

 

102,940

 

 

Computer Network Architects

 

137,890

 

 

Computer Occupations, All Other

191,780

185,730

185,730

261,210

-6,050

75,480

-0.88.9%

Mathematical Occupations

 

 

 

 

Actuaries

18,220

21,340

21,340

19,940

3,120

-1,400

4.0-1.7%

Mathematicians

2,770

3,250

3,250

2,730

480

-520

-4.34.1%

Operations Research Analysts

60,860

69,180

69,180

109,150

8,320

39,970

3.312.1%

Statisticians

20,680

25,570

25,570

33,440

4,890

7,870

5.46.9%

Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

6,600

1,220

1,220

2,000

-5,380

780

-34.413.2%

Engineers

 

 

 

 

Aerospace Engineers

67,800

80,420

80,420

68,510

12,620

-11,910

4.4-3.9%

Agricultural Engineers

2,640

470

2,470

1,980

-170

490

-1.75.4%

Biomedical Engineers

15,220

18,810

18,810

20,590

3,590

1,780

5.42.3%

Chemical Engineers

30,970

32,190

32,190

31,990

1,220

-200

1.0-0.2%

Civil Engineers

261,360

258,100

258,100

287,800

-3,260

29,700

-0.32.8%

Computer Hardware Engineers

73,370

79,580

79,580

72,950

-6,630

6,210

-2.22.1%

Electrical Engineers

154,670

160,560

160,560

183,770

5,890

23,210

0.93.4%

Electronics Engineers, except Computer

139,930

134,960

134,960

132,100

-4,970

2,860

-0.95%

Environmental Engineers

52,590

50,850

50,850

52,280

-1,740

1,430

-0.80.7%

Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

25,190

23,490

23,490

25,410

-1,700

1,920

-1.72.0%

Industrial Engineers

214,580

220,130

220,130

256,550

5,550

36,420

0.63.9%

Marine Engineers and Naval Architects

6,480

880

6,880

8,120

400

1,240

1.54.2%

Materials Engineers

24,160

22,740

22,740

26,800

-1,420

4,060

-1.54.2%

Mechanical Engineers

233,610

252,540

252,540

285,790

18,930

33,250

2.03.1%

Mining and Geological Engrs.Engineers, incl. Mining Safety Engrs.

Engineers

6,900

7,640

7,640

6,940

740

-700

-2.42.6%

Nuclear Engineers

16,640

19,930

19,930

17,680

3,290

-2,250

4.6-3.0%

Petroleum Engineers

20,880

36,410

36,410

32,780

15,530

-3,630

14.9-2.6%

Engineers, All Other

169,240

122,410

122,410

123,390

-46,830

980

-7.80.2%

Life Scientists

 

 

 

 

Animal Scientists

2,760

120

2,120

470

-640

350

-6.43.9%

Food Scientists and Technologists

10,510

13,680

13,680

14,200

3,170

520

6.80.9%

Soil and Plant Scientists

10,790

12,410

12,410

14,690

1,620

2,280

3.64.3%

Biochemists and Biophysicists

22,230

26,410

26,410

29,200

4,180

2,790

4.42.5%

Microbiologists

15,750

18,550

18,550

21,670

2,800

3,120

4.20%

Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists

17,780

18,650

18,650

17,720

870

-930

-1.31.2%

Biological Scientists, All Other

28,290

31,080

31,080

35,110

2,790

4,030

2.43.1%

Conservation Scientists

15,830

18,460

18,460

20,470

2,630

010

3.92.6%

Foresters

10,160

9,470

9,470

8,420

-690

1,050

-1.72.9%

Epidemiologists

4,370

850

4,850

5,690

480

840

2.64.1%

Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists

99,750

95,420

95,420

108,870

-4,330

13,450

-1.13.4%

Life Scientists, All Other

12,030

8,940

8,940

7,890

-3,090

1,050

-7.23.1%

Physical Scientists

 

 

 

 

Astronomers

1,280

2,150

2,150

1,830

870

-320

13.8-3.9%

Physicists

14,810

17,820

17,820

16,680

3,010

-1,140

4.7-1.6%

Atmospheric and Space Scientists

8,860

10,190

10,190

9,800

1,330

-390

3.6-1.0%

Chemists

83,080

84,950

84,950

86,660

1,870

710

0.65%

Materials Scientists

9,650

7,970

7,970

750

-1,680

220

-40.7%

Environmental Scientists and Specialists, includingincl. Health

80,120

84,240

84,240

250

4,120

10

1.30.0%

Geoscientists, exceptExcept Hydrologists and Geographers

31,260

35,180

35,180

30,420

3,920

-4,760

-3.63.0%

Hydrologists

7,590

6,880

6,880

300

-710

580

-2.42%

Physical Scientists, All Other

22,900

25,230

25,230

18,960

2,330

-6,270

2.5-6.9%

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-20122012-2016, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.

a. See footnote 23.

b. See footnote 24.

Table 5 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment growth from 2008 to 20122012 to 2016. The list includes six engineeringfive computer occupations, three computerengineering occupations, and one mathematics occupation, and one S&E management occupation.

Table 5. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Growth, 2008-2012

2012-2016

Rank

S&E Occupation

Employment Growth

1

Software Developers, Applications

92,180

207,660

2

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

Analysts

22,470

86,920

3

Mechanical Engineers

Computer User Support Specialists

18,930

77,210

4

Petroleum Engineers

Computer Occupations, All Other

15,530

75,480

5

Aerospace Engineers

Computer and Information Systems Managers

12,620

42,770

6

Software Developers, Systems Software

Operations Research Analysts

9,870

39,970

7

Operations Research Analysts

Industrial Engineers

8,320

36,420

8

Computer HardwareMechanical Engineers

6,210

33,250

9

ElectricalCivil Engineers

5,890

29,700

10

Industrial Engineers

Web Developers

5,550

26,600

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-20122012-2016, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.

Table 6 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment losses. The occupation with the greatest employment loss is computer programmers. As mentioned earlier, some have speculated that some of the losses in computer programmers may be due to reclassification of these positions as other computer occupations (e.g., software developers).

The list includes five engineering occupations, two physical sciences occupations, one computer occupation, one mathematics occupation, and one S&E management occupation.

Table 6. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Losses, 2008-2012

2012-2016

Rank

S&E Occupation

Employment Growth

1

Computer Programmers

-77,440

45,590

2

Engineers, All Other

Aerospace Engineers

-46,830

11,910

3

Computer Systems Analysts

Architectural and Engineering Managers

-7,850

9,250

4

Computer Occupations, All Other

Hardware Engineers

-6,050

630

5

Mathematical Science OccupationsPhysical Scientists, All Other

-5,380

6,270

6

Electronics Engineers, except Computer

Geoscientists, Except Hydrologists and Geographers

-4,970

760

7

Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists

Petroleum Engineers

-4,330

3,630

8

Database Administrators

Electronics Engineers, Except Computer

-4,180

2,860

9

CivilNuclear Engineers

-3,260

2,250

10

Life Scientists, All Other

Actuaries

-3,090

1,400

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-20122012-2016, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.

Table 7 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest growth rates. The occupation with the fastest growth rate was petroleum engineers (14.9mathematical science occupations, all other (13.2% CAGR), adding 15,5301,220 jobs from 2008 to 2012, followed by astronomers (13.8% CAGR), and food scientists and technologists (6.8% CAGR)2012 to 2016, followed by operations research analysts (12.1% CAGR), and computer occupations, all other (8.9% CAGR). The list includes five computer occupations, three mathematics occupations, one engineering occupation, and one life sciences occupation.

Table 7. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Growth Rates, 2008-2012

2012-2016

Rank

S&E Occupation

Employment Growth rate

1

Petroleum Engineers

Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

14.913.2%

2

Astronomers

Operations Research Analysts

13.812.1%

3

Food Scientists and Technologists

Computer Occupations, All Other

6.88.9%

4

Statisticians

Software Developers, Applications

5.47.9%

5

Biomedical Engineers

Information Security Analysts

5.47.5%

6

Physicists

Statisticians

4.76.9%

7

Nuclear Engineers

Web Developers

4.65.9%

8

Biochemists and Biophysicists

Soil and Plant Scientists

4.43%

9

Software Developers, Applications

Computer Systems Analysts

4.42%

10

AerospaceMarine Engineers

and Naval Architects

4.42%

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-20122012-2016, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.

Table 8 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest growth rates. All 10 of these occupations have negative growth rates. This grouplist includes at least one occupation from each of the engineering, physical sciences, life sciences, mathematics, and computer occupational groups.

Table 8. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Growth Rates, 2008-2012

2012-2016

Rank

S&E Occupation

Employment Growth Rate

1

Mathematical Science OccupationsPhysical Scientists, All Other

-34.4

6.9%

2

Engineers, All Other

Agricultural Engineers

-7.8

5.4%

3

Life Scientists, All Other

Mathematicians

-7.2

4.3%

4

Animal Scientists

Astronomers

-6.4

3.9%

5

Computer Programmers

Aerospace Engineers

-5.3

3.9%

6

Materials Scientists

Computer Programmers

-4.7

3.8%

7

Hydrologists

Geoscientists, Except Hydrologists and Geographers

-2.4

3.6%

8

Foresters

Life Scientists, All Other

-1.7

3.1%

9

Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

Nuclear Engineers

-1.7

3.0%

10

Computer and Information Research Scientists

Foresters

-1.7

2.9%

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-20122012-2016, BLS, Department of Labor.

Wage Trends

Between 20082012 and 20122016, mean wages for each S&E occupational group grew at about the same pace as the overall mean wage for all occupations, and only somewhat faster than inflation. Figure 54 illustrates the nominal and inflation-adjusted compound annual growth rates for each S&E occupational group, as well as for all occupations. The nominal growth rate of mean wages for all occupations during this period was 2.0% CAGR, while the fastest growth rate in the S&E occupational groups was for physical scientists (2.23S&E managers (2.5% CAGR), followed by S&E managers (2.20% CAGR), and mathematical occupations (2.16% CAGR), engineers (2.12% CAGR), computer occupations (1.84% CAGR), and life scientists (1.4% CAGR). Adjusting for inflation, life scientists experienced a small decline (-0.2% CAGR) in mean wages between 2008 and 2012, while the other S&E occupational categories grew by less than 1%.

Figure 5. Nominal and Inflation-adjustedcomputer occupations (2.4% CAGR). All other S&E occupational groups had mean wage growth smaller than that of all occupations: life scientists (1.7% CAGR), engineers (1.5% CAGR), physical scientists (1.2% CAGR), and mathematic occupations (1.0% CAGR). Adjusted for inflation, mathematical occupations experienced a small decline (-0.1% CAGR) in mean wages between 2012 and 2016, while the other S&E occupational groups grew by less than 1.4% CAGR.

Figure 4. Nominal and Inflation-Adjusted Compound Annual Growth Rates
of Mean Wages in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2012

2012-2016

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-20122012-2016, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm, using BLS Consumer Price Index Inflation Calculator for May 2012 and May 2016, http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl.

Unemployment Trends

Table 9 provides unemployment rates for the S&E occupational groups, as well as all for all workers (16 years and over) and selected professional and related occupations for the years 2008-20122012-2016. This table provides a perspective on how the unemployment rates of S&E occupational groups compare to the overall unemployment rate and other selected professional and related occupations, as well as how these rates changed during this period.

Professional occupations (of which the S&E occupations are a part) historically have had lower unemployment rates than the overall workforce. As shown in Table 9, S&E occupational groups had significantly lower unemployment rates than those of the overall workforce for the 2008-20122012-2016 period. Nevertheless, during this period the S&E occupational groups generally had unemployment rates that were comparable or higher than the rates for many other selected professional occupations (e.g., lawyers, dentists, physicians and surgeons, registered nurses, accountants and auditors).

In 2008, the unemployment rates for each S&E occupational group and each selected professional occupation were below 3%. However, from 2008 to 2011, the unemployment rates for the S&E occupational groups grew faster than did the other selected professional occupations. Consequently, the separation between the unemployment rates of the S&E occupational groups and the other selected professional occupations grew during this period (see Table 9). In 2011, the unemployment rates for each of the selected professional occupations remained around or below 2% while the unemployment rates for each of the S&E occupational groups were above 3%. In 2012, the unemployment rate for all of the S&E occupational groups fell, some dropping below 3%.

Table 9. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups, the Overall Workforce, and Other Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2008-2012

2012-2016

4.9%

Engineersd 3.2%

 

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Total, 16 years and over

8.1%

7.4%

6.2%

5.3%

S&E Occupations

 

 

 

 

 

Computer Occupations

Physical Scientistsa

2.63.5%

53.3%

5.42.8%

4.12.6%

3.82.9%

Mathematical Occupations

S&E Managersb

1.63.1%

2.63.1%

1.47%

5.32.2%

1.32.8%

Engineers

Computer Occupations

2.63.8%

5.13.7%

4.52.7%

32.6%

3.32.6%

Life Scientists

Mathematical Occupationsc

1.0n/a 2.4%

3.9%

41.9%

2.4%

3.0% 2.4%d4%

2.92% 2.0%

PhysicalLife Scientists

e

2.19%

3.32.6%

2.34.0%

32.7%

3.30.6%

Selected Non-S&E Occupations

 

 

 

 

 

Lawyers

Accountants and auditors

1.94.2%

2.34.2%

1.53.6%

2.13.2%

1.42.5%

DentistsRegistered nurses

0.42.0%

1.22.6%

0.82.0%

0.72.1%

1.5%

Physicians and surgeonsLawyers

0.82.1%

0.81.4%

01.9%

0.61.2%

0.81.1%

Registered nursesPhysicians and surgeons

1.20.6%

2.10.8%

2.10.7%

2.00.4%

20.6%

Accountants and auditors

Dentists

2.50.7%

5.01.5%

5.00.9%

40.2%

4.20.1%

Source: CRS analysis of unpublished data for 2012-2016 from the Current Population Survey, BLS. a. According to CPS, unemployment data for atmospheric and space scientists are not available. For this table, this category includes all other physical sciences occupations. b. According to CPS, unemployment data for natural science managers are not available. For this table, this category includes computer and information systems managers and architectural and engineering managers. c. According to CPS, unemployment data for actuaries, mathematicians, and miscellaneous mathematical science occupations are not available. For this table, this category includes only operations research analysts and statisticians; data for statisticians was not available for 2012. d. According to CPS, unemployment data for agricultural engineers, biomedical engineers, marine engineers and naval architects, mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers are not available; unemployment data for materials engineers was unavailable for 2014 only. For this table, this category includes all other engineering occupations. e. According to CPS, unemployment data for life scientists, all other are not available. For this table, this category includes all other life sciences occupations. from the Current Population Survey, BLS.

Employment Projections, 2012-2022

2014-2024

This section provides an analysis of the Bureau of Labor Statistics occupational employment projections for the 2012-2022 period.

2014-2024 period. The data for this projection period were released in December 2015.

Scientists and Engineers in Aggregate

AnCRS analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics employment projections indicates that the science and engineering workforce will grow by 953,200 (14.3%) jobs between 2012 and 2022, a CAGR of 1.3%. This growth rate is somewhat is expected to grow from 6.9 million to 7.6 million jobs between 2014 and 2024, an increase of 694,400 (10.1%) jobs over the 10-year period (1.0% CAGR). This growth rate is higher than the growth rate projected for all occupations (1.00.6%) during this period.25

18

In addition to the job openings created by growth in the number of jobs in S&E occupations, BLS projects that an additional 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those who are expected to exit the S&E occupations during this period due to retirement, death, career change, etc. (i.e., net replacements). BLS projects a total of 2.30 million job openings in S&E occupations due to growth and net replacements during this period.

Science and Engineering Occupational Groups

Employment projections for science and engineering occupational groups are provided in Table 10, which includes. This table provides the following information for each group: 20122014 actual employment, 20222024 projected employment, the change in the number of jobs between 20122014 and 20222024, the total percentage increase in the number of jobs, the compound annual growth rate in the number of jobs, and the total job openings due to growth and net replacements.

Among the S&E occupational groups, computer occupations are projected to see the largest increase in the number employed (651,500488,400) and the largest number of job openings (1,240,100083,800). Computer occupations, which accounted for 55.256.8% of all S&E jobs in 20122014, are projected to account for 6870.3% of the total growth in S&E occupations between 20122014 and 20222024. (See Figure 65.) As a result, the share of all S&E jobs accounted for by computer occupations is projected to rise from 55.2% in 2012 to 56.9% in 2022to 58.0% in 2024.

Mathematical occupations are projected to have the fastest employment growth (2.45% CAGR), increasing their projected share of total S&E employment slightly from 2.2% in 2014 to 2.6% in 2024. S&E managers to 2.2% in 2022.

The occupational groups that are projected to account for a smaller share8.5% of total S&E job growth than their share of total 2012 S&E employment are:

  • Engineers—projected to account for 14.4% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 23.8% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 22.7%;
  • Physical scientists—projected to account for 3.8% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 5.9% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 5.6%; and
  • Life scientists—projected to account for 2.9% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 4.4% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 4.2%; and
  • S&E managers—projected to account for 7.0% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 8.7% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 8.5%.

Table 10. 2012-2022 Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups

during the 2014-2024 period, equal to their 8.5% share of S&E employment in 2014, leaving their projected share of 2024 S&E employment unchanged at 8.5%.

The occupational groups that are projected to account for a smaller share of total S&E job growth than their share of total 2014 S&E employment are as follows:

  • Engineers—projected to account for 9.3% of total S&E job growth during the 2014-2024 period, below their 23.7% share of S&E employment in 2014, thus reducing their projected share of 2024 S&E employment to 22.4%;
  • Physical Scientists—projected to account for 2.9% of total S&E job growth during the 2014-2024 period, below their 4.3% share of S&E employment in 2014, thus reducing their projected share of 2024 S&E employment to 4.2%; and Life Scientists—projected to account for 2.7% of total S&E job growth during the 2014-2024 period, below their 4.5% share of S&E employment in 2014, thus reducing their projected share of 2024 S&E employment to 4.3%. Table 10. Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups, Other Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2014-2024

    Numbers in thousands, except percent and CAGR

     

    Occupations

    Employment

    Change, 2012-2022

    2014-2024

    Job Openings Due to Growth and Net Replacements

     

    2012

    2014

    2022

    2024

    Number

    %

    CAGR

    Computer Occupations

    3,682916.1

    4,333.6

    404.7

    651.5

    488.4

    17.712.5%

    1.62%

    1,240.1

    1,083.8

    Mathematical Occupations

    130.5

    151.2

    164.7

    194.1

    34.2

    42.9

    26.228.4%

    2.45%

    67.7

    72.7

    Engineers

    1,589.6

    636.3

    1,726.4

    701.2

    136.8

    64.9

    8.64.0%

    0.84%

    544.3

    510.7

    Life Scientists

    294.3

    311.1

    322.0

    330.1

    27.7

    19.0

    9.46.1%

    0.96%

    104.7

    116.6

    Physical Scientists

    393.6

    296.7

    429.7

    316.6

    36.1

    20.0

    9.26.7%

    0.97%

    140.9

    92.7

    S&E Managers

    578.1

    585.7

    645.0

    644.9

    66.9

    59.2

    11.610.1%

    1.10%

    171.4

    167.6

    S&E Occupations, Total

    6,668.2

    897.1

    7,621.4

    591.6

    953.2

    694.4

    14.310.1%

    1.30%

    2,269.1

    2,044.1

    Selected Other Professional and Related Occupations

     

     

     

     

     

     

    Lawyers

    759.8

    778.7

    834.7

    822.5

    7443.8

    9.85.6%

    0.95%

    196.5

    157.7

    Dentists

    146.8

    151.5

    170178.2

    23.3

    26.7

    15.917.6%

    1.56%

    59.1

    57.6

    Physicians and Surgeons

    691.4

    708.3

    814.7

    807.6

    12399.3

    17.814.0%

    1.73%

    296.4

    290.0

    Registered Nurses

    2,711.5

    751.0

    3,238.4

    190.3

    526.8

    439.3

    19.416.0%

    1.85%

    1,052.6

    1,088.4

    Accountants and auditors

    1,275.4

    332.7

    1,442.2

    475.1

    166.7

    142.4

    13.110.7%

    1.20%

    544.2

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    498.0

    Total, All Occupations

    145,355.8

    150,539.9

    160,983.7

    328.8

    15,628.0

    9,788.9

    10.86.5%

    1.00.6%

    50,557.3

    46,506.9

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    Notes: Numbers for S&E occupational groups may not add due to rounding of component occupations.

    Figure 65. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Growth,
    2012-20222014-2024, by S&E Occupational Group

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    Notes: Numbers are rounded and may not add to 100%.

    Across all occupations (not just S&E occupations) the number needed to replace those exiting the workforce (34.9 million) is expected to be more36.7 million) is expected to be more than three times the number of new jobs created (9.8 million). For S&E occupations, the number needed to replace those exiting the workforce (1.3 million) is expected to be less than twice the number of new jobs created (15.60.7 million). ForAnd for certain S&E occupational groups, in contrast, the number of openings resulting from growth in the number employed is expected to exceed the number of openings resulting from those exiting the occupations (net replacements). For example, BLS projects an increase of 651,50042,900 jobs in the computermathematical occupations between 20122014 and 20222024. During the same period, BLS projects that there will be 588,60029,800 job openings in computermathematical occupations due to net replacement needs. Similarly, for the mathematics occupations, the increase in jobs (34,200) exceeds the number needed to replace those exiting the field (33,500). For certain other S&E occupational groups, however, net replacement needs greatly exceed the number of projected new jobs in the occupation as for the workforce as a whole. For engineering occupations, BLS projects that 75more than 87% of job openings in the 2012 to 20222014 to 2024 period will result from the need to replace those exiting the occupations (407,500445,800 job openings due to net replacement needs and 136,80064,900 due to increases in the number of engineering jobs). Figure 6 illustrates the composition of projected job openings by job growth and net replacements for each S&E occupational group for the 2014-2024 period. Figure 7 illustrates the share7 illustrates the composition of total projected S&E job openings (due to growth and net replacements) by S&E occupational group for the 2014-2024 period.

    Figure 7. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Openings (Job Growth plus Net Replacement Needs), 2012-20222014-2024, by S&E Occupational Group

    Figure 6. Composition of Job Growth, Net Replacements for S&E Occupational Groups, 2014-2024

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    Notes: Numbers are rounded and may not add to 100%.

    Detailed Science and Engineering Occupations

    The Bureau of Labor Statistics' projected job growth and projected total job openings (job growth plus net replacements) for the S&E occupations vary substantially during the 2012-20222014-2024 projection period. Table 11-Table 16 show the top 10 S&E occupations in terms of job growth, job losses, and job openings.

    Table 11 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the highest projected growth in jobs. Eight of the ten S&E occupations on this list are in the computer occupations. One of the remaining two occupations is computer and information systems managers. The only non-IT occupation in the top 10 is civil engineers.

    Table 11. S&E Occupations with the Highest Projected Growth in Jobs andJob Growth, Other Selected Occupations, 2012-2022

    2014-2024

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Average Annual Job Growtha

    1

    Software developers, applications

    13,530

    13,990

    2

    Computer systems analysts

    12,770

    11,860

    3

    Computer user support specialists

    11,080

    7,510

    4

    Software developers, systems software

    Computer and information systems managers

    8,280 5,370

    5

    Civil engineers

    Software developers, systems software

    5,130

    5,370

    6

    Computer and information systems managers

    Web developers

    5,090 3,950

    7

    Network and computer systems administrators

    4,290 3,020

    8

    Web developers

    Operations research analysts

    2,760

    2,850

    9

    Computer programmers

    Civil engineers

    2,3602,840

    10

    Information security analysts

    2,740 1,480

    Non S&E Selected Occupations with Highest Projected Growth

     

    1

    Personal Care Aides

    care aides

    58,080

    45,810
     

    2

    Registered Nurses

    nurses

    52,680

    43,930
     

    3

    Retail Salespersons

    Home health aides

    43,470

    34,840
     

    4

    Home Health Aides

    42,420

    Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food

    34,350
     

    5

    Combined food preparation/serving workers, incl. fast food

    42,190

    Retail salespersons

    31,420

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-20222014-2024 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.

    Table 12 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the smallest projected growth in jobs. The list includes occupations from computer, physical and life sciences, mathematics, and engineering occupations. The number of new jobs projected to be created in these 10 occupations total less than 300 per year.

    Among these occupations, BLS projects a loss of 3,020 per year during the projection period.

    Table 12. S&E Occupations with the Smallest Projected Growth in Jobs, 2012-2022

    Job Growth, 2014-2024

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Average Annual Job Growtha

    1

    Biological scientists, all other

    -20

    2

    Conservation scientists

    10

    Computer programmers

    (2,650)

    2

    Electronics engineers, except computer

    (190)

    3

    AgriculturalAerospace engineers

    10

    (160)

    4

    Animal scientists

    Nuclear engineers

    20

    (70)

    5

    Materials engineers

    20

    6

    Astronomers

    30

    7

    Mathematical science occupations, all other

    30

    Biological scientists, all other

    (20)

    6

    Mathematical science occupations, all other

    10

    7

    Agricultural engineers

    10

    8

    Materials scientists

    Astronomers

    40

    10

    9

    Epidemiologists

    Animal scientists

    50

    20

    10

    Foresters

    Materials scientists

    70

    20

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-20222014-2024 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.

    Table 13 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest projected job growth rates. Information security analysts (3.2%) and biomedical engineers (2.4Statisticians (2.9%) and operations research analysts (2.7% CAGR) are the fastest -growing S&E occupations. The remaining occupations on the list range from 1.94% to 2.4% CAGR, faster than the overall projected job growth rate for all occupations (1.00.6% CAGR). The list includes four computer occupations, four mathematical occupations, and two engineering occupationsone engineering occupation, and one management occupation.

    Table 13. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Projected Job Growth Rates, 2012-2022

    2014-2024

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR)

    Projected Average Annual Job Growtha

    1

    Information security analysts

    Statisticians

    3.2%

    2,740

    2.9%

    1,010

    2

    Biomedical engineers

    Operations research analysts

    2.4%

    520

    2.7%

    2,760

    3

    Operation research analysts

    Web developers

    2.4%

    1,950

    2.4%

    3,950

    4

    Statisticians

    Biomedical engineers

    2.4%

    740

    2.1%

    510

    5

    Actuaries

    Computer systems analysts

    2.3%

    630

    1.9%

    11,860

    6

    Petroleum engineers

    Mathematicians

    2.3%

    980

    1.8%

    70

    7

    Computer systems analysts

    Software developers, applications

    2.2%

    12,770

    1.7%

    13,530

    8

    Mathematicians

    Actuaries

    2.1%

    80

    1.7%

    440

    9

    Software developers, applications

    Information security analysts

    2.1%

    13,990

    1.7%

    1,480

    10

    Software developers, systems software

    Computer and information systems managers

    1.9%

    8,280

    1.4%

    5,370

    Non S&E Occupations with Fastest Projected Growth

     

     

    1

    Industrial-organizational psychologists

    4.6%

    90

     

    Personal care aides

    4.1%

    58,080

     

    Home health aides

    4.0%

    42,420

     

    Insulation workers, mechanical

    3.9%

    1,350

     

    Interpreters and translators

    3.9%

    2,930

    All Occupations

    1.0%

    1,562,800

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022Wind turbine service technicians

    7.7%

    480

    2

    Occupational therapy assistants

    3.6%

    1,410

    3

    Physical therapist assistants

    3.5%

    3,190

    4

    Physical therapist aides

    3.3%

    1,950

    5

    Home health aides

    3.3%

    34,840

    All Occupations

    0.6%

    978,890

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2014-2024 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.

    Table 14 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest projected job growth rates, ranging from -0.18% to 0.41% CAGR, well below the overall projected job growth rate of 1.00.6% CAGR. The list includes sevensix engineering occupations, two physical sciences occupations, one biological sciences occupationsoccupation, and one computer occupation.

    Table 14. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Projected Job Growth Rates, 2012-2022

    2014-2024

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR)

    Projected Average Annual Job Growtha

    1

    Biological scientists, all other

    -0.1%

    -20

    Computer programmers

    -0.8%

    (2,650)

    2

    MaterialsNuclear engineers

    0.1%

    20

    -0.4%

    (70)

    3

    Conservation scientists

    Aerospace engineers

    -0.2%

    (160)

    4

    Electronics engineers, except computer

    -0.1%

    (190)

    0.1%

    10

    4

    Electronics engineers, except computer

    0.3%

    480

    5

    Computer occupations, all others

    Biological scientists, all other

    -0.1%

    (20)

    6

    Astronomers

    0.0%

    10

    0.4%

    780

    6

    Engineers, all others

    0.4%

    510

    7

    AgriculturalIndustrial engineers

    0.4%

    10

    0.1%

    210

    8

    MechanicalElectrical engineers

    0.4%

    1,160

    9

    Chemical engineers

    0.4%

    150

    0.1%

    180

    9

    Physical scientists, all other

    0.1%

    30

    10

    IndustrialMaterials engineers

    0.4%

    1,010

    0.1%

    30

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-20222014-2024 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.

    Table 15 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the most projected job openings (jobs growth plus net replacements). This category shows where the most job opportunities are projected to be. Six of the ten occupations are computer occupations and another is computer and information systems managers. The other three occupations on the list are engineering occupations—civil, mechanical, and industrial engineeringengineers.

    Table 15. S&E Occupations with the Most Projected Job Openings, 2012-2022

    2014-2024

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Average Annual Job Openingsa

    1

    Software developers, applications

    21,850

    23,800

    2

    Computer systems analysts

    20,960

    19,160

    3

    Computer user support specialists

    19,690

    15,050

    4

    Software developers, systems software

    13,470

    10,790

    5

    Civil engineers

    12,010

    10,670

    6

    Computer programmers

    Mechanical engineers

    11,810

    10,250

    7

    Network and computer systems administrators

    Computer and information systems managers

    10,050

    9,480

    8

    Mechanical engineers

    Computer programmers

    9,970

    8,100

    9

    Computer and information systems managers

    Network and computer systems administrators

    9,710

    7,940

    10

    Industrial engineers

    7,540

    7,280

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-20222014-2024 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.

    Table 16 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fewest projected job openings. This list includes occupations from the life sciences, engineering, physical sciences, and mathematical fieldsengineering, and mathematics.

    Table 16. S&E Occupations with the Fewest Projected Job Openings, 2012-2022

    2014-2024

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Average Annual Job Openingsa

    1

    Mathematical science occupations, all other

    70

    2

    Agricultural engineers

    80

    Astronomers

    40

    2

    Mathematical science occupations, all other

    40

    3

    Astronomers

    Agricultural engineers

    90

    70

    4

    Animal scientists

    120

    120

    5

    Epidemiologists

    Mathematicians

    160

    130

    6

    Mathematicians

    Materials scientists

    170

    180

    7

    Materials scientists

    Epidemiologists

    260

    220

    8

    Marine engineers and naval architects

    260

    9

    Hydrologists

    290

    10

    Mining and geological engineers, incl. mining safety engineers

    300

    Hydrologists

    260

    9

    Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers

    270

    10

    Marine engineers and naval architects

    290

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-20222014-2024, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-20222014-2024 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.

    Concluding Observations

    Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs (e.g., treating and preventing diseases, ensuring access to affordable energy, protecting and restoring the environment). The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Congress has enacted many programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also undertaken broad efforts improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. Some policy makerspolicymakers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies.

    While there is a broad consensus on the important role of scientists and engineers to the United States, policy makerspolicymakers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts, economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and related policy issues. In particular, there are varying perspectives about whether a shortage of scientists and engineers exists in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E degrees, a mismatch of worker skills and employer needs), and whether the federal government should undertake policy interventions to address a putative shortage or allow market forces to work in this labor market.

    Perspectives on the Adequacy of the U.S. S&E Workforce

    Here are some general ways in which their views may be expressed:

    • There is a shortage. There is a shortage (or a looming shortage) of scientists and engineers (or alternatively, an inadequate supply of workers with degrees in science and engineering fields), and this may result in the loss of U.S. scientific, engineering, technological, and industrial leadership, with consequent effects on areas such as economic growth, job creation, standard of living, and national security.26
    • 19
    • There is not a shortage. Assertions of a broad shortage of scientists and engineers are not supported by the data when considering indicators such as employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.27
    • 20
    • More scientists and engineers are needed regardless of the existence of a shortage. Historically, federal policies, programs, and investments have contributed to the development of the United States' scientific and engineering workforce. Regardless of whether demand currently exceeds supply, increasing the number of U.S. scientists and engineers will increase U.S. innovation, economic performance, and job creation. Even if there is not a shortage of scientists and engineers, jobs in many occupations require a higher level of STEM knowledge than ever before.2821 Students who earn S&E degrees gain thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and STEM knowledge that will enable them to be successful not only in S&E occupations, but also in S&E-related careers and in non-S&E fields where they can apply their S&E knowledge and skills.2922
    • Government interventions in the S&E labor market to address perceived shortages may introduce inefficiencies. Federal government efforts to increase the number of scientists and engineers by incentivizing the pursuit of degrees in S&E disciplines and/or increasing immigration quotas may result in less efficient operation of the S&E labor market. For example, too many students may be educated in S&E for the number of jobs available and graduates who find S&E jobs may receive lower salaries.30
    • 23
    • Workforce projections are unreliable for predicting shortages. Long-term projections for S&E occupations are unreliable.3124 Relying on such projections may result in the preparation of too many or too few students with S&E degrees or in mismatches between the students' education and market needs. Among the difficulties in making long-term projections are unexpected changes in the mix of industrial output or employment due to technological or market changes, factor substitution (e.g., substitution of capital for labor) due to changes in prices, changes in retirement behavior, the availability of foreign labor, labor market demographics, and government policies.32
    • 25
    • There may be shortages in certain industries, occupations, or fields. Shortages may exist in some S&E occupations or for certain employers, for example in new and emerging S&E fields (e.g., nanotechnology); cyclical industries (e.g., aerospace); in fields where foreign scientists and engineers may not be employed due to export control laws; and for employers otherwise limited, in general or for specific purposes, to using only U.S. citizens.
    • The labor market will resolve such needs. If markets are allowed to operate freely (i.e., without government interventions), any short-term "shortages" will be resolved as wages equilibrate demand and supply, as the labor supply increases (e.g., as more students earn S&E degrees) in response to market signals, or through substitution of alternative inputs.33
    • 26
    • The potential adverse consequences of even discrete shortages require government interventions. These shortages should be met with federal efforts to increase supply or the United States may face the loss of technological leadership in new and emerging fields, lower economic performance, and diminished national security.34
    • 27
    • Industry assertions of shortages are driven by a desire to reduce costs and/or increase current knowledge. Industry assertions of S&E shortages are driven primarily by a desire to lower their labor costs through increased supply by providing a continuous stream of young, lower-cost recent college graduates through education, training, and immigration. These new hires can replace older, higher-cost workers with less current knowledge.35
    • 28
    • The real issue is a skills mismatch, not a shortage of people. The difficulty employers have in meeting their S&E workforce needs (in particular their information technology workforce needs) results primarily from a mismatch between the specific skills—or combinations of knowledge, skills, and experience—needed by employers and those held by S&E workers.36
    • 29
    • Expanding immigration can help address the shortage. Immigration policies directed at increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers in the United States puts the creativity of the world's best and brightest to work for the U.S. economy and reduces the loss of U.S.-educated foreign nationals with S&E degrees (i.e., returning to their countries of origin, working in countries other than the United States or their countries of origin).37
    • 30
    • Expanding immigration will dampen the market signals that would otherwise drive more U.S. students into science and engineering. Visa and immigration policies directed at increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers in the United States may, by increasing the overall supply of scientists and engineers, depress wages, increase unemployment, and reduce career opportunities for U.S. scientists and engineers; discourage American students from pursuing S&E degrees and careers; and cloud labor market signals (e.g., wage growth, unemployment rates) to students considering pursing S&E degrees and careers.38
    • 31
    • U.S. students lag those of other nations in STEM knowledge; federal efforts to improve STEM education are needed. U.S. students lag foreign students in STEM knowledge, and this may result in fewer and/or less-talented U.S. scientists and engineers, lower economic growth, and reduced economic competitiveness.3932 Federal policies and programs can help to build a stronger K-12 STEM education system.
    • International assessments do not reflect the adequacy of U.S. student STEM knowledge. Standardized tests used to compare the STEM knowledge of U.S. K-12 students to those of other nations do not appropriately reflect the STEM knowledge of U.S. students, the adequacy of their preparation to pursue S&E degrees and occupations, or their future capabilities as scientists and engineers.40

    33Perspectives on Ways to Foster Development of the S&E Workforce

    These disparate perspectives contribute to a variety of opinions on the roles the federal government should play in fostering the development of the S&E workforce, including the merits of federal policies focused on:

    • increasing the number of students pursuing S&E degrees;
    • increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers admitted to the United States;
    • increasing the number and share of underrepresented minorities and women in science and engineering;
    • improving K-12 STEM education; and
    • improving career information and counseling for high school students.

    As Congress considers approaches to bolstering U.S. competitiveness and scientific, engineering, technological, and industrial leadership, it may wish to consider these perspectives and opinions.

    Appendix. S&E Occupational Descriptions and Entry-Level Education Requirements

    Occupation

    Description

    Entry-level Education

    Computer Occupations

    Computer and Information Research Scientists

    Conduct research into fundamental computer and information science as theorists, designers, or inventors. Develop solutions to problems in the field of computer hardware and software.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Computer Programmers

    Create, modify, and test the code, forms, and script that allow computer applications to run. Work from specifications drawn up by software developers or other individuals. May assist software developers by analyzing user needs and designing software solutions. May develop and write computer programs to store, locate, and retrieve specific documents, data, and information.

    Bachelor's degree

    Computer User Support Specialists

    Provide technical assistance to computer users. Answer questions or resolve computer problems for clients in person, or via telephone or electronically. May provide assistance concerning the use of computer hardware and software, including printing, installation, word processing, electronic mail, and operating systems.

    Some college, no degree

    Computer Network Support Specialists

    Analyze, test, troubleshoot, and evaluate existing network systems, such as local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), and Internet systems or a segment of a network system. Perform network maintenance to ensure networks operate correctly with minimal interruption.

    Associate's degree

    Computer Systems Analysts

    Analyze science, engineering, business, and other data processing problems to implement and improve computer systems. Analyze user requirements, procedures, and problems to automate or improve existing systems and review computer system capabilities, workflow, and scheduling limitations. May analyze or recommend commercially available software.

    Bachelor's degree

    Database Administrators

    Administer, test, and implement computer databases, applying knowledge of database management systems. Coordinate changes to computer databases. May plan, coordinate, and implement security measures to safeguard computer databases.

    Bachelor's degree

    Information Security Analysts

    Plan, implement, upgrade, or monitor security measures for the protection of computer networks and information. May ensure appropriate security controls are in place that will safeguard digital files and vital electronic infrastructure. May respond to computer security breaches and viruses.

    Bachelor's degree

    Web Developers

    Design, create, and modify websites. Analyze user needs to implement website content, graphics, performance, and capacity. May integrate Web sites with other computer applications. May convert written, graphic, audio, and video components to compatible Web formats by using software designed to facilitate the creation of Web and multimedia content.

    Associate's degree

    Computer Network Architects

    Design and implement computer and information networks, such as local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN), intranets, extranets, and other data communications networks. Perform network modeling, analysis, and planning. May also design network and computer security measures. May research and recommend network and data communications hardware and software.

    Bachelor's degree

    Network and Computer Systems Administrators

    Install, configure, and support an organization's local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), and Internet systems or a segment of a network system. Monitor network to ensure network availability to all system users and may perform necessary maintenance to support network availability. May monitor and test website performance to ensure Web sites operate correctly and without interruption. May assist in network modeling, analysis, planning, and coordination between network and data communications hardware and software. May supervise computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists. May administer network security measures.

    Bachelor's degree

    Software Developers, Applications

    Develop, create, and modify general computer applications software or specialized utility programs. Analyze user needs and develop software solutions. Design software or customize software for client use with the aim of optimizing operational efficiency. May analyze and design databases within an application area, working individually or coordinating database development as part of a team. May supervise computer programmers.

    Bachelor's degree

    Software Developers, Systems Software

    Research, design, develop, and test operating systems-level software, compilers, and network distribution software for medical, industrial, military, communications, aerospace, business, scientific, and general computing applications. Set operational specifications and formulate and analyze software requirements. May design embedded systems software. Apply principles and techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis.

    Bachelor's degree

    Computer Occupations, All Other

    All computer occupations not listed separately. Excludes Computer and Information Systems Managers; Computer Hardware Engineers; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Computer Science Teachers, Postsecondary; Multimedia Artists and Animators; Graphic Designers; Computer Operators; and Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairs.

    Bachelor's degree

    Mathematical Occupations

    Actuaries

    Analyze statistical data, such as mortality, accident, sickness, disability, and retirement rates and construct probability tables to forecast risk and liability for payment of future benefits. May ascertain insurance rates required and cash reserves necessary to ensure payment of future benefits.

    Bachelor's degree

    Mathematicians

    Conduct research in fundamental mathematics or in application of mathematical techniques to science, management, and other fields. Solve problems in various fields using mathematical methods.

    Master's degree

    Operations Research Analysts

    Formulate and apply mathematical modeling and other optimizing methods to develop and interpret information that assists management with decision making, policy formulation, or other managerial functions. May collect and analyze data and develop decision support software, service, or products. May develop and supply optimal time, cost, or logistics networks for program evaluation, review, or implementation.

    Bachelor's degree

    Statisticians

    Develop or apply mathematical or statistical theory and methods to collect, organize, interpret, and summarize numerical data to provide usable information. May specialize in fields such as bio-statistics, agricultural statistics, business statistics, or economic statistics. Includes mathematical and survey statisticians.

    Master's degree

    Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

    All mathematical scientists not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    Engineers

    Aerospace Engineers

    Perform engineering duties in designing, constructing, and testing aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. May conduct basic and applied research to evaluate adaptability of materials and equipment to aircraft design and manufacture. May recommend improvements in testing equipment and techniques.  

    Bachelor's degree

    Agricultural Engineers

    Apply knowledge of engineering technology and biological science to agricultural problems concerned with power and machinery, electrification, structures, soil and water conservation, and processing of agricultural products.

    Bachelor's degree

    Biomedical Engineers

    Apply knowledge of engineering, biology, and biomechanical principles to the design, development, and evaluation of biological and health systems and products, such as artificial organs, prostheses, instrumentation, medical information systems, and heath management and care delivery systems.

    Bachelor's degree

    Chemical Engineers

    Design chemical plant equipment and devise processes for manufacturing chemicals and products, such as gasoline, synthetic rubber, plastics, detergents, cement, paper, and pulp, by applying principles and technology of chemistry, physics, and engineering.

    Bachelor's degree

    Civil Engineers

    Perform engineering duties in planning, designing, and overseeing construction and maintenance of building structures, and facilities, such as roads, railroads, airports, bridges, harbors, channels, dams, irrigation projects, pipelines, power plants, and water and sewage systems. Includes architectural, structural, traffic, ocean, and geo-technical engineers.

    Bachelor's degree

    Computer Hardware Engineers

    Research, design, develop, or test computer or computer-related equipment for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use. May supervise the manufacturing and installation of computer or computer-related equipment and components.

    Bachelor's degree

    Electrical Engineers

    Research, design, develop, test, or supervise the manufacturing and installation of electrical equipment, components, or systems for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use.

    Bachelor's degree

    Electronics Engineers, Except Computers

    Research, design, develop, or test electronic components and systems for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use employing knowledge of electronic theory and materials properties. Design electronic circuits and components for use in fields such as telecommunications, aerospace guidance and propulsion control, acoustics, or instruments and controls.

    Bachelor's degree

    Environmental Engineers

    Research, design, plan, or perform engineering duties in the prevention, control, and remediation of environmental hazards using various engineering disciplines. Work may include waste treatment, site remediation, or pollution control technology.

    Bachelor's degree

    Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

    Promote worksite or product safety by applying knowledge of industrial processes, mechanics, chemistry, psychology, and industrial health and safety laws. Includes industrial product safety engineers.

    Bachelor's degree

    Industrial Engineers

    Design, develop, test, and evaluate integrated systems for managing industrial production processes, including human work factors, quality control, inventory control, logistics and material flow, cost analysis, and production coordination.

    Bachelor's degree

    Marine Engineers and Naval Architects

    Design, develop, and evaluate the operation of marine vessels, ship machinery, and related equipment, such as power supply and propulsion systems.

    Bachelor's degree

    Materials Engineers

    Evaluate materials and develop machinery and processes to manufacture materials for use in products that must meet specialized design and performance specifications. Develop new uses for known materials. Includes those engineers working with composite materials or specializing in one type of material, such as graphite, metal and metal alloys, ceramics and glass, plastics and polymers, and naturally occurring materials. Includes metallurgists and metallurgical engineers, ceramic engineers, and welding engineers.

    Bachelor's degree

    Mechanical Engineers

    Perform engineering duties in planning and designing tools, engines, machines, and other mechanically functioning equipment. Oversee installation, operation, maintenance, and repair of equipment such as centralized heat, gas, water, and steam systems.

    Bachelor's degree

    Mining and Geological Engineers

    Conduct sub-surface surveys to identify the characteristics of potential land or mining development sites. May specify the ground support systems, processes and equipment for safe, economical, and environmentally sound extraction or underground construction activities. May inspect areas for unsafe geological conditions, equipment, and working conditions. May design, implement, and coordinate mine safety programs.

    Bachelor's degree

    Nuclear Engineers

    Conduct research on nuclear engineering projects or apply principles and theory of nuclear science to problems concerned with release, control, and use of nuclear energy and nuclear waste disposal.

    Bachelor's degree

    Petroleum Engineers

    Devise methods to improve oil and gas extraction and production and determine the need for new or modified tool designs. Oversee drilling and offer technical advice.

    Bachelor's degree

    Engineers, All Other

    All engineers not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    Life Scientists

    Animal Scientists

    Conduct research in the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Food Scientists and Technologists

    Use chemistry, microbiology, engineering, and other sciences to study the principles underlying the processing and deterioration of foods; analyze food content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, and protein; discover new food sources; research ways to make processed foods safe, palatable, and healthful; and apply food science knowledge to determine best ways to process, package, preserve, store, and distribute food.

    Bachelor's degree

    Soil and Plant Scientists

    Conduct research in breeding, physiology, production, yield, and management of crops and agricultural plants or trees, shrubs, and nursery stock, their growth in soils, and control of pests; or study the chemical, physical, biological, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to plant or crop growth. May classify and map soils and investigate effects of alternative practices on soil and crop productivity.

    Bachelor's degree

    Biochemists and Biophysicists

    Study the chemical composition or physical principles of living cells and organisms, their electrical and mechanical energy, and related phenomena. May conduct research to further understanding of the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. May determine the effects of foods, drugs, serums, hormones, and other substances on tissues and vital processes of living organisms.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Microbiologists

    Investigate the growth, structure, development, and other characteristics of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Includes medical microbiologists who study the relationship between organisms and disease or the effects of antibiotics on microorganisms.

    Bachelor's degree

    Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists

    Study the origins, behavior, diseases, genetics, and life processes of animals and wildlife. May specialize in wildlife research and management. May collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of present and potential use of land and water habitats.

    Bachelor's degree

    Biological Scientists, All Other

    All biological scientists not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    Conservation Scientists

    Manage, improve, and protect natural resources to maximize their use without damaging the environment. May conduct soil surveys and develop plans to eliminate soil erosion or to protect rangelands. May instruct farmers, agricultural production managers, or ranchers in best ways to use crop rotation, contour plowing, or terracing to conserve soil and water; in the number and kind of livestock and forage plants best suited to particular ranges; and in range and farm improvements, such as fencing and reservoirs for stock watering.

    Bachelor's degree

    Foresters

    Manage public and private forested lands for economic, recreational, and conservation purposes. May inventory the type, amount, and location of standing timber, appraise the timber's worth, negotiate the purchase, and draw up contracts for procurement. May determine how to conserve wildlife habitats, creek beds, water quality, and soil stability, and how best to comply with environmental regulations. May devise plans for planting and growing new trees, monitor trees for healthy growth, and determine optimal harvesting schedules.

    Bachelor's degree

    Epidemiologists

    Investigate and describe the determinants and distribution of disease, disability, or health outcomes. May develop the means for prevention and control.

    Master's degree

    Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists

    Conduct research dealing with the understanding of human diseases and the improvement of human health. Engage in clinical investigation, research and development, or other related activities. Includes physicians, dentists, public health specialists, pharmacologists, and medical pathologists who primarily conduct research.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Life Scientists, All Other

    All life scientists not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    Physical Scientists

    Astronomers

    Observe, research, and interpret astronomical phenomena to increase basic knowledge or apply such information to practical problems.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Physicists

    Conduct research into physical phenomena, develop theories on the basis of observation and experiments, and devise methods to apply physical laws and theories.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Atmospheric and Space Scientists

    Investigate atmospheric phenomena and interpret meteorological data, gathered by surface and air stations, satellites, and radar to prepare reports and forecasts for public and other uses. Includes weather analysts and forecasters whose functions require the detailed knowledge of meteorology.

    Bachelor's degree

    Chemists

    Conduct qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses or experiments in laboratories for quality or process control or to develop new products or knowledge.

    Bachelor's degree

    Materials Scientists

    Research and study the structures and chemical properties of various natural and synthetic or composite materials, including metals, alloys, rubber, ceramics, semiconductors, polymers, and glass. Determine ways to strengthen or combine materials or develop new materials with new or specific properties for use in a variety of products and applications. Includes glass scientists, ceramic scientists, metallurgical scientists, and polymer scientists.

    Bachelor's degree

    Environmental Scientists and Specialists, including Health

    Conduct research or perform investigation for the purpose of identifying, abating, or eliminating sources of pollutants or hazards that affect either the environment or the health of the population. Using knowledge of various scientific disciplines, may collect, synthesize, study, report, and recommend action based on data derived from measurements or observations of air, food, soil, water, and other sources.

    Bachelor's degree

    Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers

    Study the composition, structure, and other physical aspects of the Earth. May use geological, physics, and mathematics knowledge in exploration for oil, gas, minerals, or underground water; or in waste disposal, land reclamation, or other environmental problems. May study the Earth's internal composition, atmospheres, oceans, and its magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces. Includes mineralogists, crystallographers, paleontologists, stratigraphers, geodesists, and seismologists.

    Bachelor's degree

    Hydrologists

    Research the distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and surface waters; and study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, movement through the earth, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere.

    Master's degree

    Physical Scientists, All Other

    All physical scientists not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    S&E Managers

    Architectural and Engineering Managers

    Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as architecture and engineering or research and development in these fields.

    Bachelor's degree

    Computer and Information Systems Managers

    Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as electronic data processing, information systems, systems analysis, and computer programming.

    Bachelor's degree

    Natural Sciences Managers

    Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as life sciences, physical sciences, mathematics, statistics, and research and development in these fields.

    Bachelor's degree

    Source: Occupational Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_stru.htm; Employment Projections, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor, http://data.bls.gov/projections/occupationProj.

    Footnotes

    1.

    For additional information about P.L. 110-69 and P.L. 111-358, see CRS Report R42430, America COMPETES 2010 and the FY2013 Budget, by [author name scrubbed].

    2; Standard Occupational Classification, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor, https://www.bls.gov/soc/home.htm.

    Author Contact Information

    [author name scrubbed], Specialist in Science and Technology Policy ([email address scrubbed], [phone number scrubbed])

    Footnotes

    1
    .

    For additional information, see CRS Report R42530, Immigration of Foreign Nationals with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Degrees , by [author name scrubbed], and CRS Report R43735, Temporary Professional, Managerial, and Skilled Foreign Workers: Policy and Trends, by [author name scrubbed].

    32.

    See, for example, Carolyn M. Veneri, "Can Occupational Labor Shortages Be Identified Using Available Data?," Monthly Labor Review, March 1999, p. 18.

    43.

    For purposes of the BLS analysis, the authors defined the STEM occupation group as consisting of 97 occupations, including computer and math sciences, architecture and engineering, life and physical sciences, managerial and post-secondary teaching occupations associated with these functional areas, and two sales occupations that require scientific or technical education at the postsecondary level—sales engineers and wholesale and engineering manufacturing sales representatives of technical and scientific products. Ben Cover, John Jones, and Audrey Watson, "Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Occupations: A Visual Essay," Monthly Labor Review, May 2011, p. 3.

    54.

    National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 20122016, January 2012, p. 3-102016, pp. 3-5, 3-14.

    65.

    National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, January 2008, p. 3-8CRS analysis of May 2016 Occupational Employment Statistics data produced by the Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, available at https://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.

    76.

    The Standard Occupational Classification system is a federal system that defines over 840 detailed occupations, and groups them into 461 broad occupations, 97 minor groups, and 23 major groups. Detailed occupations in the SOC with similar job duties, and in some cases skills, education, and/or training, are grouped together. The system is used by federal statistical agencies for the purpose of collecting, calculating, and disseminating data. First established in 1977, the SOC system has been revised periodically; the latest revision is the 2010 SOC.

    87.

    Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) employment figures for the occupation group "architectural and engineering managers" are reported as a single number, thus the architectural managers are included in this group, though data on architect and other architectural-related occupations are not otherwise included in this report.

    98.

    Occupational Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes.

    109.

    Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/cps.

    1110.

    Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/emp.

    1211.

    The Current Employment Statistics survey provides industry employment data used by BLS in making its biennial 10-year projections. The CES survey does not collect occupational information.

    1312.

    Telephone conversation with Michael Wolf, economist, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, March 4, 2013.

    1413.

    BLS website, Occupational Employment Statistics, Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.bls.gov/oes/oes_ques.htm.

    1514.

    BLS website, Employment Projections, Projections Methodology, http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_projections_methods.htm.

    1615.

    For links to past evaluations of BLS projections, see http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_pub_projections_eval.htm. For the latest evaluation, see "Evaluating the 1996–2006 employment projections," by Ian D. Wyatt, Monthly Labor Review, September 2010, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/09/art3full.pdf.

    17.

    Science and engineering occupations are part of the larger category of "Professional and Related Occupations" used in the Current Population Survey.

    18.

    Mathematical occupations was the only S&E occupational group with a higher unemployment rate (5.3%) than the professional and related occupations group (4.3%).

    19Evaluation of BLS employment, labor force and macroeconomic projections to 2006, 2008, and 2010," by Kathryn J. Byun, Richard Henderson, and Mitra Toossi, Monthly Labor Review, November 2015, https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2015/article/evaluation-of-bls-employment-labor-force-and-macroeconomic-projections-1.htm. 16.

    The occupational classification system used in the Current Population Survey is based on the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification System but differs somewhat from those used by in the Occupational Employment Statistics survey.

    20.

    CPS does not publish unemployment rates for occupations with an employment base of less than 50,000.

    2117.

    A compound annual growth rate (CAGR) is a calculated growth rate which, if applied year after year to a beginning amount reaches a specified final amount.

    22.

    Several changes were made in the occupational classifications used in the Occupational Employment Statistics survey over the 2008-2012 period in the computer occupations. For the most part, these changes involved minor changes in titles and definitions, and the splitting of some occupations into two or more occupations. According to BLS, these changes could have both direct and indirect effects on the way that employers classify particular jobs. For a more detailed explanation of these effects, please contact the author of this report.

    23.

    The definitions for computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists are broadly comparable to the previously used occupational classification "computer support specialists."

    24.

    The definitions for information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects are broadly comparable to the previously used occupational classification "information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects."

    2518.

    CRS analysis of BLS 2012-20222014-2024 employment projections, http://www.bls.gov/emp.

    2619.

    See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11463; U.S. Department of Energy, Secretary Chu, Intel President Discuss Need for More U.S. Engineers, September 1, 2011, http://energy.gov/articles/secretary-chu-intel-president-discuss-need-more-us-engineers; Shirley Ann Jackson, President, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, The Quite Crisis: Falling Short in Producing American Scientific and Technical Talent, Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST), 2002; and Vinton G. Cerf, "How to Fire Up U.S. Innovation," Wall Street Journal, April 12, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704461304576216911954533514.html; and Rodney C. Atkins, Senior Vice President, Systems and Technology Group, IBM, "America Desperately Needs More STEM Students. Here's How to Get Them," Forbes, July 9, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/2012/07/09/america-desperately-needs-more-stem-students-heres-how-to-get-them.

    2720.

    See, for example, testimony of Ralph Gomory, President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part I, 110th Cong., June 12, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); testimony of Michael Teitelbaum, Vice President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and Harold Salzman, Senior Research Associate, The Urban Institute, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); Robert J. Samuelson, "Sputnik Scare, Updated" Washington Post, August 26, 2005, p. A27, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/25/AR2005052501812.html; and Michael Teitelbaum, "The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: An Unconventional Portrait," Pan-Organizational Summit on the U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce, Government-Industry-University Research Roundtable, National Research Council, 2003, pp. 1-7, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10727.

    2821.

    See, for example, U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee, Chairman's Staff, STEM Education: Preparing for the Jobs of the Future, April 2012, http://www.jec.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?a=Files.Serve&File_id=6aaa7e1f-9586-47be-82e7-326f47658320.

    2922.

    See, for example, Vern Ehlers, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008).

    3023.

    See, for example, Leonard Lynn, Case Western Reserve University, and Hal Salzman, Rutgers University, "Dynamics of Engineering Labor Markets: Petroleum Engineering and Responsive Supply," presentation at "U.S. Engineering in the Global Economy," sponsored by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Cambridge, MA, September 26, 2011, http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/salzman/dynamics.pdfhttps://rucore.libraries.rutgers.edu/rutgers-lib/45742/.

    3124.

    See, for example, Office of Technology Assessment, Demographic Trends and the Scientific and Engineering Workforce, OTA-TM-SET-35, December 1985, http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk2/1985/8507/8507.PDF.

    3225.

    See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Is a Great Labor Shortage Coming? Replacement Demand in the Global Economy, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 12541, Cambridge, MA, September 2006, http://www.nber.org/papers/w12541.

    3326.

    See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Does Globalization of the Scientific/Engineering Workforce Threaten U.S. Economic Leadership?, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 11457, Cambridge, MA, June 2005, http://www.nber.org/papers/w11457.pdf.

    3427.

    See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007.

    3528.

    See, for example, various writings of Norm Matloff, Professor of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/matloff.html.

    3629.

    See, for example, Tom Kucharvy, Solutions to STEM Skills Mismatch, Beyond IT, February 25, 2012, http://beyond-it-inc.com/GKEblog/solutions-to-stem-skills-mismatch.html; and "Statistic of the Month: Investigating the Skills Mismatch," Center on International Education Benchmarking, July 31, 2012, http://www.ncee.org/2012/07/statistic-of-the-month-investigating-the-skills-mismatch.

    3730.

    See, for example, Vivek Wadhwa, Anna Lee Saxenian, Richard Freeman, and Alex Salever, Losing the World's Best and Brightest: America's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, March 2009, http://www.kauffman.org/uploadedFiles/ResearchAndPolicy/Losing_the_World%27s_Best_and_Brightest.pdfwhat-we-do/research/immigration-and-the-american-economy/losing-the-worlds-best-and-brightest-americas-new-immigrant-entrepreneurs-part-v; The White House, "Fact Sheet: Fixing Our Broken Immigration System So Everyone Plays by the Rules," press release, January 29, 2013, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/01/29/fact-sheet-fixing-our-broken-immigration-system-so-everyone-plays-rules; and Robert D. Atkinson, Eight Ideas for Improving the America COMPETES Act, Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March 2010, http://www.itif.org/files/2010-america-competes.pdf.

    3831.

    See, for example, Ross Eisenbrey, Vice President, Economic Policy Institute, "Op-Ed: America's Genius Glut," New York Times, February 7, 2013; Remarks of Brian Keane, Founder and CEO, Ameritas Technologies, and Neeraj Gupta, Founder and CEO, Systems in Motion, at Senate briefing on "Understanding the Impact of the H-1B Program: On the Economy, Employers and Workers," March 14, 2013, http://www.epi.org/files/2013/Keane_H-1B_briefing_14_March_2013.pdf; and Stan Sorscher, Labor Representative, Society of Professional Engineering Employees in Aerospace, Flooding the STEM Labor Market, March 3, 2013, http://www.ifpte.org/downloads/issues/2013-3-3%20Flooding%20the%20STEM%20labor%20market.pdf.

    3932.

    U.S. Department of Education, "Secretary Arne Duncan's Remarks at OECD's Release of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 Results," press release, December 7, 2010, http://www.ed.gov/news/speeches/secretary-arne-duncans-remarks-oecds-release-program-international-student-assessment; Paul E. Peterson, Ludger Woessmann, Eric A. Hanushek, and Carlos X. Lastra-Anadon, Globally Challenged: Are U.S. Students Ready to Compete, Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, PEPG Report No. 11-03, August 2011, http://www.hks.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/PEPG11-03_GloballyChallenged.pdf; and Brandon Wright, "What do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance," Thomas B. Fordham Institute, January 24, 2013, http://www.edexcellence.net/commentary/education-gadfly-weekly/2013/january-24/what-do-international-tests-really-show-about-us-performance.html.

    4033.

    Martin Carnoy and Richard Rothstein, What Do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance, Economic Policy Institute, January 15, 2013, http://www.epi.org/publication/us-student-performance-testing.