U.S. Naturalization Policy

January 16, 2014 – April 15, 2024 R43366

U.S. Naturalization Policy
April 15, 2024
Naturalization is the process that grants U.S. citizenship to lawful permanent residents (LPRs)
who fulfill requirements established by Congress and enumerated in the Immigration and
Holly Straut-Eppsteiner
Nationality Act (INA). In general, U.S. immigration policy gives all LPRs the opportunity to
Analyst in Immigration
naturalize, and doing so is voluntary. To qualify for citizenship, LPRs in most cases must have
Policy
resided continuously in the United States for five years, show they possess good moral character,

demonstrate understanding of the English language, and pass a U.S. government and history
examination, which is part of their naturalization interview. The INA waives some of these

requirements for certain older applicants, those with mental or physical disabilities, and those
who have served in the U.S. military.
Naturalization is often viewed as a milestone for immigrants and a measure of their civic and socioeconomic integration into
the United States. Naturalized immigrants gain important rights and benefits, including the right to vote, security from
deportation in most cases, access to certain public-sector jobs, and the ability to travel with a U.S. passport. U.S. citizens are
also advantaged over LPRs for sponsoring relatives to immigrate to the United States. In FY2023, 878,500 new U.S. citizens
naturalized.
In recent years, some observers have expressed concern over USCIS processing backlogs for naturalization applications.
Although there continues to be a backlog of naturalization applications, since FY2020 the agency has reduced the number of
applications pending completion by more than half. As of the end of FY2023, USCIS had approximately 408,000 pending
naturalization applications, down from 550,000 at the end of FY2022; 840,000 at the end of FY2021; and 943,000 at the end
of FY2020.
In FY2023, 823,702 LPRs submitted naturalization applications. The number of individuals who have recently applied for
citizenship remains well below the estimated population of 9 million LPRs who were eligible to naturalize in 2023. The
percentage of foreign-born individuals who are naturalized varies by several factors, including country of origin. Immigrants
from Honduras, Guatemala, Venezuela, Mexico, El Salvador, and Brazil have the lowest percentages of naturalized foreign
born, while those from Vietnam, the Philippines, Russia, Jamaica, and Pakistan have the highest.
Research on determinants of naturalization suggests that the propensity to naturalize is positively associated with length of
U.S. residence, educational attainment, and income. Those who immigrate as refugees and asylees and those who immigrate
through employment-based visas are more likely to naturalize than those who immigrate as relatives of U.S. residents.
Immigrants from countries with less democratic or more oppressive political systems are more likely to naturalize than those
from more democratic nations.
Access to naturalization may be of interest to Congress. The Biden Administration has prioritized naturalization promotion.
Some contend, and empirical research has demonstrated, that current filing fees pose barriers to naturalization for some
eligible LPRs. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), a fee-funded agency, relies on these fees to cover its
operating costs. USCIS has generally set naturalization fees below the full cost of providing naturalization services. In its
new fee schedule effective April 1, 2024, USCIS has discounted the fee to naturalize for those who file online and introduced
a 50% fee reduction for individuals who meet certain income thresholds.
Support for English language acquisition and civics education to meet the statutory requirements for naturalization is another
potential area of interest. Congress appropriates annual grant funding to USCIS to support these initiatives; some Members
have expressed interest in augmenting support for language and civics instruction to promote naturalization. Others contend
that English language proficiency and civics education are the responsibility of immigrants and not the federal government.
Congressional Research Service

link to page 35 link to page 36 U.S. Naturalization Policy

Appendixes
Appendix. Selected Links to Naturalization Information and Application Materials ................... 31

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 32

Congressional Research Service

link to page 7 U.S. Naturalization Policy

Introduction
Naturalization is the process by which an immigrant1 attains U.S. citizenship after he or she
fulfills requirements established by Congress and outlined in the Immigration and Nationality Act
(INA). U.S. immigration policy gives all lawful permanent residents (LPRs) who meet the
naturalization requirements the opportunity to become U.S. citizens.
Applying for citizenship is voluntary and represents an important milestone for immigrants.
Naturalization and citizenship are generally viewed as a measure of immigrants’ socioeconomic,
political, and civic integration into the United States.2 The policy manual of U.S. Citizenship and
Immigration Services (USCIS) of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) states
United States citizenship is a unique bond that unites people around civic ideals and a belief
in the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution. The promise of citizenship
is grounded in the fundamental value that all persons are created equal and serves as a
unifying identity to allow persons of all backgrounds, whether native or foreign-born, to
have an equal stake in the future of the United States.3
Naturalization requirements include U.S. residence (typically five years), good moral character,
demonstrated English proficiency, and a basic knowledge of U.S. civics and history.4 (See the
“Naturalization Requirements” section.) As of 2023, an estimated 9 million LPRs may be eligible
to naturalize based on meeting residence and age requirements.5
Naturalized immigrants gain certain rights and benefits available only to U.S. citizens, including
the right to vote in elections, security from deportation, access to certain public-sector jobs,
access to federal means-tested benefits, and the ability to travel abroad on a U.S. passport.6 U.S.
citizens can also sponsor a broader range of relatives to immigrate to the United States.
In recent years, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, USCIS has struggled with backlogs
of pending cases, including naturalization applications, leading to increased processing times. The
agency has since made efforts to address its backlogs and reduce processing times. USCIS had
408,000 pending applications at the end of FY2023, down from 943,000 at the end of FY2020. In
FY2022, 969,380 new U.S. citizens naturalized, the highest annual number since FY2008. In
FY2023, USCIS reported 878,500 naturalizations.
This report reviews the requirements for naturalization and the rights and benefits that come with
it. It examines the naturalization process, discusses recent trends regarding who, among the
roughly 1 million immigrants who become LPRs each year, ultimately becomes a U.S. citizen,
and discusses recent naturalization-related policy issues.

1 Immigrant refers to a foreign national admitted to the United States as a lawful permanent resident (LPR). See INA
§101(a)(15); 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(15). In this report, immigrant and LPR are used interchangeably.
2 Irene Bloemraad, Becoming a Citizen: Incorporating Immigrants and Refugees in the United States and Canada
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2006) (hereinafter, “Bloemraad 2006”); National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, The Integration of Immigrants into American Society (National
Academies Press, 2015) (hereinafter, “National Academies, 2015”).
3 DHS, USCIS, USCIS Policy Manual, Volume 12: Citizenship and Naturalization, Chapter 1.
4 INA §§312, 316; 8 U.S.C. §§1423, 1427. Good moral character is defined in INA §101(f), 8 U.S.C. §1101(f).
5 Sarah Miller and Bryan Baker, Estimates of the Lawful Permanent Resident Population in the United States and the
Subpopulation Eligible to Naturalize: 2023, DHS, Office of Homeland Security Statistics, October 2023 (hereinafter,
“Miller and Baker, 2023”).
6 DHS, USCIS, USCIS Policy Manual, Volume 12: Citizenship and Naturalization, Part A, Chapter 1.
Congressional Research Service

1

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Impacts of Naturalization
Rights and Benefits of Citizenship
The Constitution and laws of the United States give many of the same rights to both noncitizens
and U.S. citizens living in the United States. However, only U.S. citizens may
• vote in federal, state, and local elections; 7
• receive U.S. citizenship for their minor children born abroad;
• travel with a U.S. passport and receive diplomatic protection by the U.S.
government while abroad;
• meet the U.S. citizenship requirement for federal and many state and local civil
service employment and certain law enforcement jobs;
• receive the full range of federal public benefits and certain state benefits;
• participate on a jury; and
• run for elective office where citizenship is required.8
U.S. citizens may also sponsor a broader range of family members living abroad for legal
permanent residence (i.e., married minor and adult children, and siblings) than LPRs. U.S.
citizens may sponsor certain immediate relatives for legal permanent residence—spouses, minor
unmarried children, and parents—regardless of numerical limits established in the INA.9 As such,
their sponsored immediate relatives may immigrate to the United States without having to wait
for a numerically limited preference visa to become available. In contrast, LPRs must sponsor
relatives for LPR status within numerically limited family preference categories that often require
waiting years for a visa.10
Other benefits of naturalization include access to public benefits which may be restricted to only
U.S. citizens, or to LPRs with five to seven years of LPR status. Access to state and local public
benefits according to legal status varies by state.11
In addition, researchers have found that naturalization is associated with beneficial economic
outcomes for immigrants who become citizens. These include increased earnings and
homeownership and lower levels of poverty, even when controlling for other factors such as age,
education, sex, and race and ethnicity. 12

7 Some localities allow noncitizens to vote, for example, in local school board elections. See Kimia Pakdaman,
“Noncitizen Voting Rights in the United States,” Berkeley Public Policy Journal, Spring 2019,
https://bppj.berkeley.edu/2019/03/04/spring-2019-journal-noncitizen-voting-rights-in-the-united-states/.
8 DHS, USCIS, USCIS Policy Manual, Volume 12: Citizenship and Naturalization, https://www.uscis.gov/policy-
manual/volume-12-part-a-chapter-2.
9 INA §201(b)(2)(A), 8 USC §1151(b)(2)(A).
10 For further discussion, see CRS Report R43145, U.S. Family-Based Immigration Policy.
11 For more information, see CRS Report RL33809, Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy
Overview.
12 María E. Enchautegui and Linda Giannarelli, “The Economic Impact of Naturalization on Immigrants and Cities,”
Urban Institute, 2015, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/76241/2000549-The-Economic-Impact-of-
Naturalization-on-Immigrants-and-Cities.pdf (hereinafter, “Enchautegui and Giannarelli, 2015”). Manuel Pastor and
Justin Scoggins, “Citizen Gain: The Economic Benefits of Naturalization for Immigrants and the Economy,” Center for
the Study of Immigrant Integration, University of Southern California, December 2012 (hereinafter, “Pastor and
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service

2

link to page 8 link to page 8 link to page 17 link to page 17 link to page 17 U.S. Naturalization Policy

Citizenship is permanent and relieves one of the continuous residency requirements LPRs must
meet to maintain their legal status13 and to preserve their option to naturalize (see the “Continuous
Residence” section). Except for acts that bear on the integrity of the naturalization process itself,
citizenship through naturalization is as secure as citizenship acquired at birth (see the “Loss of
Citizenship” section).
Outcomes for the United States
The United States benefits from having eligible foreign-born persons naturalize and acquire U.S.
citizenship. By naturalizing, the foreign born are able to vote in public elections, participate in
jury duty, and run for elective office where citizenship is required. Symbolically and legally,
naturalization represents an individual’s commitment to his or her new country, sufficiently so
that Congress has sometimes introduced legislation to facilitate naturalization and discourage
dual citizenship (see the “Dual Citizenship” section).
In addition to greater civic participation and commitment, as mentioned above, empirical research
offers evidence of economic benefits to the foreign born who naturalize, including higher
earnings. These earnings gains from naturalization translate to greater city, state, and federal tax
revenues.14 Such impacts can be considerable when aggregated to the national level.15
Naturalization Requirements
To qualify for U.S. citizenship, LPRs must meet certain requirements.16 They must
• be at least 18 years of age;
• reside continuously in the United States for five years (three years for spouses of
U.S. citizens);
• be of good moral character;
• demonstrate the ability to read, write, speak, and understand English;
• pass an examination on U.S. government and history; and
• be willing and able to take the naturalization Oath of Allegiance.
USCIS is responsible for reviewing all naturalization applications to ensure applicants meet U.S.
citizenship eligibility requirements.17 This assessment includes security and criminal background
checks, a review of the applicant’s entire immigration history, an in-person interview, and English
language and civics exams. Applicants bear the burden of proof to demonstrate that they entered
the United States lawfully.18 Upon approval, they must take an oath of allegiance to the United

Scoggins, 2012”); Heidi Shierholz, “The Effects of Citizenship on Family Income and Poverty,” Briefing Paper,
Economic Policy Institute, February 24, 2010, https://www.epi.org/publication/bp256/.
13 Most non-U.S. citizens must report a change of address within 10 days of moving within the United States or its
territories. INA §265(a), 8 U.S.C. §1305.
14 Enchautegui and Giannarelli, 2015.
15 Pastor and Scoggins, 2012.
16 For more detailed information about these requirements for naturalization, see 8 C.F.R. §316.
17 INA §335, 8 U.S.C. §1446.
18 INA §318, 8 U.S.C. §1429.
Congressional Research Service

3

U.S. Naturalization Policy

States and renounce allegiance to any foreign state.19 Persons whose naturalization applications
have been denied may request a hearing before an immigration officer.20
Continuous Residence
To be naturalized, an applicant generally must have resided continuously for at least five years
within the United States after being lawfully admitted for permanent residence and prior to the
date he or she filed a naturalization application. For periods totaling at least half of that time, the
individual must have been physically present in the United States. The individual also must have
lived for at least three months within the State or district in which he or she filed the application.21
The period of continuous residence required for naturalization is broken by an absence of over a
year unless the LPR is employed abroad by the U.S. government, an international organization,
an American research institute, or an American company engaged in foreign trade. An absence of
between six months and one year presumptively breaks continuous residence unless the applicant
can establish that he or she did not abandon U.S. residence during that period.22 Spouses of U.S.
Armed Forces personnel stationed overseas who apply for naturalization may have their time
abroad counted as residence and physical presence in the United States and may complete the
naturalization process abroad. Similar provisions apply to children of U.S. Armed Forces
personnel.
Certain classes of LPRs either are exempt from the residency requirement or are subject to shorter
residency periods.23 Unmarried children under age 18 living with a citizen parent are exempt from
any residency requirement.24 The residency requirement for spouses of U.S. citizens is three years
instead of five years, and the physical presence requirement is one and a half years.25 Residency
requirements also are modified for other special classes.26
Good Moral Character
To be eligible for naturalization, applicants must demonstrate that they have been persons of good
moral character during the applicable statutory period (five years in most cases) preceding the
filing of their naturalization application.27 The definition of good moral character can be found

19 INA §337, 8 U.S.C. §1448.
20 INA §336, 8 U.S.C. §1447.
21 INA §316(a), 8 U.S.C. §1427(a).
22 INA §316(b), 8 U.S.C. §1427(b).
23 Residency requirements are not applied to children adopted by U.S. citizens (INA §320), those who served honorably
in the U.S. Armed Forces during peacetime for periods totaling at least one year (INA §328), or those who served
honorably during a designated period of military hostilities for any period of time (INA §329). Individuals whom
USCIS determines have made extraordinary contributions to national security may be naturalized without regard to
these residency requirements provided they have resided continuously in the United States for at least one year. This
clause is limited to five individuals per year (INA §316(f)). A similar rule applies to persons authorized to be
temporarily absent in order to perform ministerial or priestly functions of a bona fide religious organization (INA
§317).
24 INA §322, 8 U.S.C. §1433.
25 INA §319(a), 8 U.S.C. §1430(a).
26 INA §319(a), 8 U.S.C. §1430(a). For example, an individual’s absence from the United States due to his or her work
with the Chief of Mission or U.S. Armed Forces as a translator or interpreter, some of which work was done in Iraq or
Afghanistan, will not be considered a break in U.S. continuous residence for purposes of naturalization (P.L. 109-163,
§1059(e)).
27 In determining good moral character, the Attorney General is not limited to the applicant’s conduct and acts during
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service

4

U.S. Naturalization Policy

not in the INA but in case law interpretation. However, the INA bars a finding of good moral
character if a naturalization applicant, over the course of the applicable statutory period, commits
certain crimes or engages in certain illegal acts or what are generally considered immoral acts and
behaviors.28
Anyone convicted of murder at any time or of an aggravated felony on or after November 29,
1990, is statutorily barred from naturalization.29 Aggravated felonies according to the INA include
murder, rape, or sexual abuse of a minor; illegal trafficking in firearms or in a controlled
substance; supervising a prostitution business; receiving stolen property; and, fraud or deceit in
which the victims’ losses exceed $10,000, among other offenses.30
The USCIS naturalization examiner may go beyond what is specified in the INA to assess good
moral character. For example, failure to pay child support may be a significant factor. Although
adultery was removed as a statutory bar to naturalization in 1981, it may still be a basis for
denying an application under certain conditions.31 The INA prohibits naturalization of persons
opposed to government law, persons who favor totalitarian forms of governance,32 and deserters
from the Armed Forces.33
English Language Proficiency and Civics Knowledge
During applicants’ eligibility interviews for naturalization, they must pass English language and
civics tests. The law requires that persons wishing to be naturalized demonstrate an understanding
of English, specifically an ability to read, write, and speak words in ordinary usage in the English
language.34 The language requirement is waived for those who are at least 50 years old and have
lived in the United States as an LPR at least 20 years, or who are at least 55 years old and have
lived in the United States as an LPR for at least 15 years.35 Individuals for whom the language
requirement is waived may take the civics test in their native language.36

the five years preceding application but may also take into consideration behavior at any time prior to the applicable
statutory period. INA §316(e) and 8 C.F.R. 316.10(a)(2).
28 The INA and Code of Federal Regulations specifies examples of lack of good moral character as the following:
conviction of murder or an aggravated felony; committing crimes involving moral turpitude or two or more offenses for
which the aggregate sentence was five years or more; violating any controlled substance law of the United States, any
State, or any foreign country; habitual drunkenness; illegal gambling; prostitution; polygamy (marriage to more than
one person at the same time); lying to gain immigration benefits; failing to pay court-ordered child support or alimony
payments; confinement in jail, prison, or similar institution for which the total confinement was 180 days or more
during the past five years (or three years if applying based on marriage to a United States citizen); failing to complete
any probation, parole, or suspended sentence before applying for naturalization; terrorist acts; persecution of anyone
because of race, religion, national origin, political opinion, or social group. Drug convictions for a single instance of
simple marijuana possession of 30 grams or less are excepted. INA §101(f), 8 C.F.R. §316.10.
29 8 C.F.R. §316.10(b)(1).
30 INA §101(a)(43), 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(43).
31 8 C.F.R. §316.10(b)(3). For a comprehensive list and descriptions of conditional bars to establishing good moral
character, see USCIS Policy Manual, Volume 12, Part F, Chapter 5, https://www.uscis.gov/policy-manual/volume-12-
part-f-chapter-5.
32 INA §313, 8 U.S.C. §1424. See 8 C.F.R. §316.11 which states that naturalization applicants must demonstrate “a
depth of conviction that would lead to active support of the Constitution.”
33 INA §314, 8 U.S.C. §1425.
34 INA §312(a)(1), 8 U.S.C. §1423(a)(1).
35 INA §312(b)(2), 8 U.S.C. §1423(b)(2).
36 Individuals taking the test in their native language must bring an interpreter with them to the interview. See USCIS,
“Exceptions and Accommodations,” https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/exceptions-and-accommodations.
Congressional Research Service

5

U.S. Naturalization Policy

The civics test fulfills a statutory requirement for naturalized citizens to demonstrate an
understanding of the history, principles, and form of government of the United States.37 The exam
is an oral test administered by a USCIS officer during the eligibility interview. USCIS has
discretion over the test questions and periodically makes updates to the test. Applicants have two
opportunities to pass the test. They may retake a failed portion of the test between 60 and 90 days
from the date of the initial interview.38 The pass rate for the English and civics components of the
naturalization test was 95.7% in FY2022.39
Special consideration on the civics requirement is given to individuals who are over 65 years and
have lived in the United States for at least 20 years.40 These individuals may take a modified,
shorter version of the test. Both the language and civics requirements are waived for those unable
to comply because of physical or developmental disabilities or mental impairment.41
On December 1, 2020, USCIS implemented a new version of the civics test, which had been last
updated in 2008. The 2020 version had the same “pass” score of 60% but required individuals to
answer 12 of 20 questions, an increase in the number of questions to be answered from the prior 6
of 10 questions. It also increased the pool of all possible questions from 100 to 128. USCIS stated
that the revision was undertaken “as part of a decennial update to ensure that it remains an
instrument that comprehensively assesses applicants’ knowledge of American history,
government and civic values.”42
Some stakeholders argued that the new test format and questions would pose a barrier to
naturalization.43 In February 2021, President Joe Biden issued an executive order directing
agencies to comprehensively review naturalization processes, including the civics and English
language tests.44 Subsequently, USCIS rescinded the new exam and reverted to the previous
version from 2008, stating it had determined that the 2020 test “may inadvertently create potential
barriers to the naturalization process.”45
As part of the President’s 2021 executive order, in December 2022 USCIS announced the
Naturalization Test Redesign Initiative to test new formats for the English language speaking test
and civics exam.46 The proposed new speaking test would use picture prompts that applicants

37 INA §312(a)(2), 8 U.S.C. §1423(a)(2).
38 DHS, USCIS, “The 2020 Version of the Civics Test,” December 10, 2020, https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/
2020test.
39 Includes applicants who passed the initial exam (88%) and those who failed the initial exam and passed the reexam.
DHS, USCIS, “Naturalization Test Performance,” October 5, 2023, https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship-resource-center/
naturalization-related-data-and-statistics/naturalization-test-performance.
40 INA §312(b)(3), 8 U.S.C. §1423(b)(3).
41 INA §312(b), 8 U.S.C. §1423(b).
42 DHS, USCIS, “USCIS Announces a Revised Naturalization Civics Test,” news release, November 13, 2020, at
https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/uscis-announces-a-revised-naturalization-civics-test.
43 Simon Romero and Miriam Jordan, “New U.S. Citizenship Test Is Longer and More Difficult,” The New York Times,
December 3, 2020, at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/03/us/citizenship-test.html.
44 Executive Order 14012, “Restoring Faith in Our Legal Immigration Systems and Strengthening Integration and
Inclusion Efforts for New Americans,” 86 Federal Register 8278, February 5, 2021 (hereinafter, “Executive Order
14012, 2021”).
45 DHS, USCIS, “USCIS Reverts to the 2008 Version of the Naturalization Civics Test,” news release, February 22,
2021, at https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/uscis-reverts-to-the-2008-version-of-the-naturalization-civics-test.
Applicants who filed their Form N-400 between December 1, 2020, and February 28, 2021, and are scheduled for an
examination before April 19, 2021, may choose which version (2008 or 2020) they take. Applicants who filed on or
after March 1 or whose exams are scheduled on or after April 19, 2021, are to take the 2008 version.
46 DHS, USCIS, “Trial Testing of Redesigned Naturalization Test for Naturalization Applications,” 87 Federal
Register 76634-76637, December 15, 2022.
Congressional Research Service

6

link to page 31 link to page 9 U.S. Naturalization Policy

would describe using simple words and phrases. The civics test trial includes updated content and
a multiple-choice format. USCIS began a voluntary trial test of the new exam with community-
based organizations in June 2023 and may proceed with a second trial test at USCIS field offices
in 2024.47
The Naturalization Process
Application Procedures
The naturalization process begins when applicants file the USCIS Form N-400, Application for
Naturalization with USCIS along with filing fees (see the “Naturalization Fees” section).
Following formal acknowledgement of receipt of the application, USCIS instructs applicants to
attend a mandatory biometrics appointment to have their fingerprints, photograph, and signature
recorded. Individuals undergo a background check to establish eligibility; USCIS checks
fingerprints against federal databases to see whether the individual has been arrested or convicted
of a crime, deported, involved with terrorist activities, or has used other identities.48
USCIS then schedules interviews with the applicants. During the interview, applicants are
questioned about their application and background and tested on their English ability and civics
knowledge (see the “English Language Proficiency and Civics Knowledge” section).
Those who pass their interviews and exams become U.S. citizens upon taking the Oath of
Allegiance to the United States in a naturalization ceremony,49 which can occur either the same
day or in a ceremony at a later date. At the time of the naturalization ceremony, LPRs are
expected to bring several USCIS documents, including their Permanent Resident Card (green
card) which they must return to USCIS.50 After an LPR has taken the Oath, USCIS issues a Form
N-550, Certificate of Naturalization to document the individual’s new status as a U.S. citizen.51
Newly naturalized citizens are instructed to update their Social Security record at a local Social
Security Administration office. They are also encouraged to apply for a U.S. passport, register to
vote, and obtain certificates of citizenship for their children.52

47 DHS, USCIS, “Stakeholder Engagement: The Naturalization Test Redesign, Trial Test Updates,” May 31, 2023,
https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/outreach-engagements/NaturalizationTestRedesign-
TrialTestUpdates-May.pdf; CIS Ombudsman, “The CIS Ombudsman’s Webinar Series: Naturalization Test Redesign
Updates,” July 19, 2023, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2023-08/23_0719_cisomb_naturalization-test-
redesign-updates-final-508.pdf.
48 Michael T. Dougherty, “Annual Report 2020, Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman,” DHS, June 30,
2020, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/20_0630_cisomb-2020-annual-report-to-congress.pdf
(hereinafter, “Dougherty, 2020”).
49 See DHS, USCIS, “Naturalization Oath of Allegiance to the United States of America, https://www.uscis.gov/
citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/the-naturalization-interview-and-test/naturalization-oath-of-allegiance-to-the-united-
states-of-america.
50 USCIS Form N-445 provides specific documentation requirements.
51 INA §§338, 341, 8 U.S.C. §§1449, 1452, and C.F.R. §§338.1-338.5. In July 2013, USCIS announced it would begin
issuing redesigned certificates for citizenship and naturalization for individuals who request replacement certificates.
According to USCIS, the replacement certificates incorporate state-of-the-art technology to help deter counterfeiting,
prevent tampering, and facilitate quick and accurate authentication. See DHS, USCIS, “USCIS Redesigns Replacement
Citizenship and Naturalization Certificates,” press release, July 1, 2013.
52 DHS, USCIS, “Important Information for New Citizens,” Form M-767, August 2019.
Congressional Research Service

7

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Naturalization Oath of Allegiance
An individual seeking to become a naturalized citizen must take the Naturalization Oath of
Allegiance to the United States of America before citizenship can be granted:
I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance
and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, of whom or which I have
heretofore been a subject or citizen; that I will support and defend the Constitution and
laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will
bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I will bear arms on behalf of the United
States when required by law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces
of the United States when required by law; that I will perform work of national importance
under civilian direction when required by the law; and that I take this obligation freely,
without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; so help me God.53
In addition, naturalization applicants must renounce any hereditary titles or orders of nobility in a
foreign state.54 The oath of allegiance may be modified for conscientious objectors to military
service or for individuals preferring to affirm (instead of swear to) the substance of the oath.55
Applicants for naturalization may choose to have the oath administered in either an administrative
ceremony conducted by USCIS or an immigration judge (Department of Justice), or in a judicial
ceremony in the district of jurisdiction.56 They must appear in person in a public ceremony,57
which must be held as frequently as necessary to ensure timely naturalization.58
Children’s Citizenship and Naturalization59
The INA specifies different requirements for a child to obtain citizenship through his or her
parents, which may be obtained at birth or after birth and before the age of 18.
A child born in the United States automatically acquires U.S. citizenship regardless of the legal
status of his or her parents based on the principle of jus soli,60 codified in the Citizenship Clause
of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution and Section 301(a) of the INA.61

53 8 C.F.R. §337.1. Language of the oath is closely based upon the statutory elements in INA §337(a). For more
information on the naturalization ceremony, see DHS, USCIS, “Naturalization Ceremonies,” May 22, 2023,
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/naturalization-ceremonies.
54 8 C.F.R. §337.1(d).
55 INA §337, 8 U.S.C. §1448. See also 8 C.F.R. §337.1.
56 8 C.F.R. §337.2. INA Section 310 confers upon the Attorney General and USCIS the authority to naturalize persons
as citizens of the United States unless applicants are subject to the exclusive oath administration authority of an eligible
court per INA Section 310(b), 8 U.S.C. §1421(b).
57 Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, USCIS temporarily suspended naturalization ceremonies in March 2019 but fully
resumed them, with some modifications, in June 2019. See U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS to
Celebrate Independence Day by Hosting Naturalization Ceremonies Across the Country,” July 1, 2020,
https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/uscis-to-celebrate-independence-day-by-hosting-naturalization-ceremonies-
across-the-country.
58 8 C.F.R. §337.2(a). Applicants may be granted an expedited oath under certain circumstances. 8 C.F.R. §337.3.
59 For more information about citizenship for children born abroad, see CRS Report R47223, U.S. Citizenship for
Children Born Abroad: In Brief.
60 Jus soli is the principle that a person acquires citizenship in a nation by virtue of his birth in that nation or its
territorial possessions. Black’s Law Dictionary 775 (5th Ed. 1979); entry for “jus soli.”
61 For additional information, see CRS Legal Sidebar LSB10214, The Citizenship Clause and “Birthright Citizenship”:
A Brief Legal Overview.
Congressional Research Service

8

link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 14 U.S. Naturalization Policy

For children born outside the United States, the INA enumerates a number of different
circumstances for citizenship acquisition depending on the citizenship status of the parent(s) and
the residence of the parent(s) and child, as specified in Table 1.
Table 1. Requirements for U.S. Citizenship Acquisition for Children Born
Outside the United States
Timing of
Relevant
Citizenship
Section of
Circumstances
Acquisition
Requirements
INA
Children born to
At birth
Child acquires automatic citizenship at birth if at least
INA §301(c)
two U.S. citizen
one of the parents resided in the United States or one of
parents
its outlying possessionsa prior to the child’s birth.
Children born to
At birth
Child acquires automatic citizenship at birth if the U.S.
INA §301(d)
one U.S. citizen
citizen parent was physically present in the United States
parent and one U.S.
or one of its outlying possessions for a continuous
national parentb
period of at least one year prior to the child’s birth.
Children born to
At birth
Child acquires automatic citizenship at birth if the U.S.
INA §301(g)
one U.S. citizen
citizen parent was physically present in the United States
parent and one
or one of its outlying possessions for five years prior to
noncitizen parentc
the child’s birth and at least two years after the parent’s
14th birthday.
Children lawful y
After birth;
Child acquires automatic citizenship if the fol owing
INA §320(a)
admitted for
before age 18
conditions are met: (1) at least one parent, including an
permanent
adoptive parent, is a U.S. citizen by birth or
residence and
naturalization; (2) the child is under 18 years of age; (3)
residing in the
the child is an LPR; and (4) the child is residing in the
United Statesd
United States in the legal and physical custody of the
citizen parent.e
Children residing
After birth;
Child may become a U.S. citizen if the fol owing
INA §322(a)
outside the United
before age 18
conditions are met: (1) at least one parent, including an
States
adoptive parent, is a U.S. citizen by birth or
naturalization; (2) the U.S. citizen parent has resided for
at least five years in the United States, of which at least
two years were after the parent’s 14th birthday; (3) the
child is under 18 years of age; (4) the child is residing
outside of the United States in the legal and physical
custody of the citizen parent; and (5) the child has been
lawful y admitted temporarily to the United States and
remains in lawful status.
Source: CRS analysis of the Immigration and Nationality Act.
a. Outlying possessions are American Samoa and Swains Island (INA §101(a)(29); 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(29)).
b. Individuals born in outlying possessions of the United States to parents who are noncitizen nationals are
considered U.S. nationals but not U.S. citizens (INA §308; 8 U.S.C. §1408). Children born in an outlying
possession of the United States receive automatic citizenship under INA Section 301(e) if at least one U.S.
citizen parent was physically present in the United States or one of its outlying possessions for a continuous
period of one year prior to the child’s birth.
c. These provisions apply to children born abroad in wedlock; the INA enumerates additional requirements
for children born out-of-wedlock to one U.S. citizen parent and one noncitizen parent. See INA §§309(a),
309(c), 8 FAM 304, and CRS Report R47223, U.S. Citizenship for Children Born Abroad: In Brief.
d. Children generally become LPRs as derivative beneficiaries of a parent who receives LPR status (e.g.,
through family-sponsored or employment-based preference categories.) For more information, see CRS
Report R42866, Permanent Legal Immigration to the United States: Policy Overview.
Congressional Research Service

9

link to page 7 U.S. Naturalization Policy

e. These provisions apply only for children born on or after February 27, 2001, per the Child Citizenship Act
of 2000 (P.L. 106-395). For children born earlier, the law in effect at the time the fourth condition was met
before reaching age 18 is the relevant law to determine whether they acquired citizenship.
In 2020, special provisions for the residence requirement under INA Section 320(a) were made
for the children of U.S. military members and government employees under the Citizenship for
Children of Military Members and Civil Servants Act.62 Under this law, a child born outside of
the United States acquires automatic citizenship, even if the child is residing outside the United
States, in cases where the child is an LPR and is in the legal and physical custody of his or her
U.S. citizen parent who is
• stationed and residing outside of the United States as a member of the U.S.
Armed Forces;
• stationed and residing outside of the United States as an employee of the U.S.
government; or
• the spouse residing outside the United States who is married to a U.S. Armed
Forces member or U.S. government employee who is stationed outside the
United States.63
Military Naturalizations64
The INA contains provisions facilitating the naturalization of foreign-born military personnel of
most branches of the U.S. Armed Forces and recently discharged members.65 Currently, LPRs,
noncitizen nationals (from American Samoa), and persons from Micronesia, the Marshall Islands,
and Palau may enlist in the U.S. Armed Forces. Requirements and qualifications (see
“Naturalization Requirements”) for military naturalizations are similar to general naturalization
requirements, but military personnel are exempt from residence and physical presence
requirements.66 Military naturalization applicants are exempt from naturalization filing fees.67
The INA distinguishes between naturalization during peacetime and wartime service.68 For
current or past peacetime military service, under INA Section 328, naturalization applicants are
not required to meet the naturalization residence requirements if they apply while still serving or

62 P.L. 116-133.
63 INA §320(c), 8 U.S.C. §1431(c).
64 For more information, see CRS Infographic IG10035, Expedited Naturalization through Military Service and CRS In
Focus IF12089, U.S. Citizenship Through Military Service and Options for Military Relatives.
65 Qualifying branches include Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and certain National Guard
organizations that are recognized as reserve components of the U.S. Armed Forces. 8 C.F.R. §328.1. Under 10 U.S.C.
§504(b)(1), only citizens and noncitizen nationals of the United States; lawful permanent resident aliens; and certain
nationals of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Palau who are admissible as
nonimmigrants under the Compacts of Free Association with those nations, are eligible to enlist in the Armed Forces.
However, under 10 U.S.C. §504(b)(2), the Secretary of any U.S. Armed Force may authorize the enlistment of an alien
“if the Secretary determines that such person possesses a critical skill or expertise that is vital to the national interest
and that the person will use in the primary daily duties of that person as a member of the armed forces.” 10 U.S.C.
§504(b)(3)(B) further specifies requirements for background investigations and security screenings and limits the
Secretary to 1,000 such enlistments in a calendar year per military department unless “the Secretary of Defense submits
to Congress written notice of the intent of that Secretary concerned to authorize more than 1,000 such enlistments in a
calendar year; and a period of 30 days has elapsed after the date on which Congress receives the notice.”
66 INA §§328, 329, 8 U.S.C. §§1439, 1440.
67 INA §328(b)(4), 8 U.S.C. §1439(b)(4) and 8 U.S.C. §1440e.
68 Wartime service refers to a designated period in which the Armed Forces of the United States are or were engaged in
military operations involving armed conflict with a hostile foreign force. INA §329(a), 8 U.S.C. §1440(a).
Congressional Research Service

10

link to page 16 U.S. Naturalization Policy

within six months of discharge.69 The applicant must have served honorably70 in the U.S. Armed
Forces for at least one year and must be an LPR.
For current or past wartime military service during periods of designated military hostilities,71
under INA Section 329, naturalization applicants are also not required to meet the naturalization
residency requirements, but there are no conditions regarding the timing of the applicability of
this exemption.72 During a period of military hostilities, members of the Armed Forces who serve
honorably for any period of time may qualify for naturalization. Those who have separated from
military service must have been discharged under honorable conditions.73 Applicants are not
required to be LPRs, as long as they were physically present in the United States74 at the time of
their enlistment or reenlistment.75 An Armed Forces statute separately determines citizenship and
residency criteria for enlistment.76
Posthumous citizenship is available for individuals whose death resulted from injury or disease
incurred on active duty with the U.S. Armed Forces during specified periods of military
hostilities. Surviving spouses and children of deceased servicemembers who qualify for
posthumous citizenship may be eligible for certain immigration benefits under the INA.77
As of July 2002, noncitizens serving honorably in the U.S. Armed Forces on or after September
11, 2001, may apply to naturalize under Section 329 requirements for service during hostilities.78
Military naturalizations increased substantially following the executive order, growing more than
four-fold, from FY2002 to FY2004 (Figure 1).

69 INA §328, 8 U.S.C. §1439.
70 To certify honorable service, the servicemember must submit USCIS Form N-426, which requires attestation from a
certifying official from DOD or the Coast Guard. For more information on the services’ policies for processing Form
N-426, see U.S. Government Accountability Office, Military Naturalizations: Federal Agencies Assist with
Naturalizations, but Additional Monitoring and Assessment are Needed, GAO-22-105021, September 2022, pp. 21-23.
71 Wartime military service refers to a designated period of military hostilities, defined under INA §329(a) as a period
during which the President designates by executive order a period in which the U.S. Armed Forces are or were engaged
in military operations involving armed conflict with a hostile foreign force. Such designated periods include Sept. 1,
1939-Dec. 31, 1946; June 25, 1950-July 1, 1955; Feb. 28, 1961-Oct. 15, 1978; Aug. 2, 1990-April 11, 1991; and Sept.
11, 2001-present.
72 INA §329, 8 U.S.C. §1440.
73 Citizenship obtained through military service may be revoked if the individual obtaining it separates from the
military under “other than honorable conditions” before completing five years of honorable service. INA §§328(f),
329(c), 340.
74 In this case, the United States includes the Canal Zone, American Samoa, and Swains Island.
75 INA §329(a), 8 U.S.C. §1440(a). If such naturalization applicants are LPRs, they are not required to be present in the
United States at the time subsequent to their enlistment.
76 10 U.S.C. §504(b).
77 INA §329A, 8 U.S.C. §1440-1, and USCIS Policy Manual, Chapter 8—Posthumous Citizenship.
78 INA §329. In Executive Order 13269, President George W. Bush officially designated the period beginning on
September 11, 2001, as a “period of hostilities,” which triggered immediate naturalization eligibility for active-duty
U.S. military servicemembers. This executive order signed on July 3, 2002, also covers veterans of selected past wars
and conflicts.
Congressional Research Service

11

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Figure 1. Military Naturalizations, FY2000-FY2023

Source: FY2000-FY2022: DHS, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics 2022, Table 20. FY2023: DHS, USCIS,
“Completing an Unprecedented 10 Mil ion Immigration Cases in Fiscal Year 2023, USCIS Reduced Its Backlog for
the First Time in Over a Decade,” February 9, 2024.
Military naturalizations also increased sharply from FY2007 to FY2010—from 3,808 to 9,122—
facilitated by DOD and USCIS initiatives. In 2008, DOD authorized the Military Accessions Vital
to the National Interest (MAVNI) program based on 10 U.S.C. §504(b)(2). MAVNI allowed the
Armed Forces to recruit certain lawfully present79 foreign nationals whose skills—either in
medical specialties or in certain languages—were deemed vital to the national interest. During the
period MAVNI was active from 2008-2017, qualified applicant categories included refugees,
holders of Temporary Protected Status (TPS), beneficiaries of the Deferred Action for Childhood
Arrivals (DACA) program, and a range of nonimmigrant categories. Approved MAVNI
applicants who then met the conditions for expedited naturalization through military service, as
described above, could immediately apply for U.S. citizenship. In 2009, USCIS implemented the
Naturalization at Basic Training Program, which offered enlistees the option to naturalize upon
graduation from basic training.80
Military naturalizations declined after FY2016. That year, DOD renewed MAVNI through
FY2017, but implemented additional background investigation and security review requirements
for noncitizen recruits.81 A report from the Government Accountability Office states, “According
to DOD officials, due to backlogs in the background check process, these new recruits were
delayed in beginning their service, and officials stated that it may take DOD up to a year to
complete enhanced requirements for certain recruits.”82 DOD’s 2017 guidance also required
completion of basic training and six months of active duty service (inclusive of basic training) to

79 The statute itself does not require lawful presence.
80 DHS, USCIS, Annual Report 2012, Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman, June 25, 2012, p. 23.
81 Under Secretary of Defense, Memorandum for Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Air
Force, “Military Accessions Vital to the National Interest Pilot Program Extension,” September 30, 2016.
82 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Enforcement: Actions Needed to Better Handle, Identify, and
Track Cases Involving Veterans, GAO-19-416, June 2019, p. 21, https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-19-416.pdf.
Congressional Research Service

12

U.S. Naturalization Policy

qualify for an honorable service determination, a requirement that was later vacated.83 Following
the new security screening requirements, the services suspended MAVNI in 2017.
In 2018, the John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 (P.L. 115-
232), codified new security standards at 10 U.S.C. §504(b)(3)(A), which states that no person
enlisting under MAVNI “may report to initial training until after the Secretary concerned has
completed all required background investigations and security and suitability screening as
determined by the Secretary of Defense regarding that person.” The same year, USCIS ended the
Naturalization at Basic Training Program.84
Annual military naturalizations decreased to 3,670 in FY2019 and 2,588 in FY2020. They
increased in FY2021 (4,462) and FY2022 (5,412), before more than doubling in FY2023 to
approximately 12,000 military naturalizations.
Dual Citizenship
Dual citizenship refers to an individual’s possession of citizenship for two countries at the same
time. Each country has its own citizenship laws that define the nationality status of its citizens.85
Because such laws generally do not coincide, persons may have dual nationality by automatic
operation of different laws rather than by choice. For example, a child born in a foreign country
to U.S. citizen parents may be both a U.S. citizen and a citizen of the country of birth. Likewise, a
child born in the United States to foreign-born parents not only acquires U.S. citizenship at birth
but may also acquire the citizenship of his or her parents. For a variety of reasons, a number of
countries such as Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil have facilitated dual citizenship by passing laws
permitting their expatriates the right to naturalize in other countries without losing citizenship
from their countries of origin.86
The United States has no authority to prohibit another country from continuing to treat an
individual as its citizen. However, the United States considers that person, upon naturalization, to
have renounced other citizenships and to be only a U.S. citizen.
Loss of Citizenship
U.S. citizens may lose their citizenship in two ways: voluntarily, through expatriation, or
involuntarily, through denaturalization.

83 See Patricia Kime and Richard Sisk, “Judge Strikes down Minimum Service Requirement for Troops Applying for
US Citizenship,” Military.com, August 26, 2020, https://www.military.com/daily-news/2020/08/26/judge-strikes-
down-minimum-service-requirement-troops-applying-us-citizenship.html.
84 Vera Bergengruen, “The US Army Promised Immigrants a Fast Track for Citizenship. That Fast Track Is Gone,”
BuzzFeed News, March 5, 2018, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/verabergengruen/more-bad-news-for-
immigrant-military-recruits-who-were.
85 U.S. Department of State, “Dual Nationality,” 2021, https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/legal/travel-legal-
considerations/Advice-about-Possible-Loss-of-US-Nationality-Dual-Nationality/Dual-Nationality.html.
86 Scholars contend that many countries have become more tolerant of dual citizenship since World War II. See Peter J.
Spiro, At Home in Two Countries: The Past and Future of Dual Citizenship (New York: NYU Press, 2016). Empirical
research suggests that such legal changes in other countries have contributed to increasing levels of naturalization by
reducing the penalty for naturalizing in the United States. See Francesca Mazzolari, “Dual Citizenship Rights: Do they
Make More and Richer Citizens?,” Demography, vol. 46, no. 1 (2009), pp. 169-191.
Congressional Research Service

13

link to page 18 U.S. Naturalization Policy

Expatriation
A U.S. citizen may lose citizenship through expatriating acts, including
• voluntary naturalization in a foreign country after age 18;
• making a formal declaration of allegiance to a foreign country after age 18;
• serving in the armed forces of a foreign country engaged in hostilities against the
United States;
• serving in the armed forces of a foreign country as an officer;
• holding an office under the government of a foreign country if foreign nationality
is acquired or if a declaration of allegiance is required;
• renunciation of citizenship before a U.S. diplomatic or consular officer abroad;
• formal written renunciation of citizenship during a state of war if the Attorney
General approves the renunciation as not contrary to the national defense; and
• conviction of treason, seditious conspiracy, or advocating violent overthrow of
the government.87
The Supreme Court has held that expatriating acts alone are not sufficient for expatriation unless
undertaken with intent to relinquish U.S. citizenship.88 This restriction also has been enacted in
statute.89 The requisite intent to relinquish need not be expressed but may be inferred from the
circumstances.90
Unlike citizenship revocation (see the “Revocation” section), expatriation or loss of nationality
does not have a retrospective effect. Hence, loss of citizenship through expatriation does not
affect that of “derivative” citizens—spouses and children—who acquired their citizenship by
virtue of their relationship with a “principal” citizen.91
Revocation
A naturalized citizen may be denaturalized (i.e., have his or her citizenship revoked) on the basis
that the citizenship was procured illegally, by concealment of material fact, or by willful
misrepresentation.92 Various acts occurring after naturalization are considered evidence of
misrepresentation or suppression at the time of naturalization. For example, if a naturalized
citizen joins certain political or terrorist organizations within five years of becoming a citizen,
and membership in that group would have precluded eligibility for naturalization under the INA,
then the joining of the organization is held to be prima facie evidence raising a rebuttable
presumption93 that naturalization was obtained by concealing or misrepresenting how attached to

87 INA §349, 8 U.S.C. §1481.
88 Vance v. Terrazas, 444 U.S. 252 (1980).
89 INA §349(a), 8 U.S.C. §1481(a).
90 For example, Richards v. Sec’y of State, 752 F.2d 1431 (9th Cir. 1985); Terrazas v. Haig, 653 F.2d 285 (7th Cir.
1981).
91 Perkins v. Elg, 307 U.S. 325, 59 S. Ct. 884, 83 L. Ed. 1320 (1939).
92 INA §340(a), 8 U.S.C. §1451(a).
93 A rebuttable presumption is an assumption made by a court that is taken to be true unless someone comes forward to
contest it and prove otherwise.
Congressional Research Service

14

U.S. Naturalization Policy

the United States the citizen was when naturalized.94 Naturalized citizens may have their
citizenship revoked because of less than honorable discharge from the U.S. armed services.95
Citizenship revocation must be initiated by a U.S. district attorney and must occur in the district
where the naturalized citizen resides.96 If a naturalized citizen is convicted of knowingly
procuring naturalization in violation of law, the court in which that conviction is obtained has
jurisdiction to revoke that person’s citizenship.97 In both cases, the court in which the revocation
occurs must cancel the certificate of naturalization and notify the Attorney General of that action.
The holder of the certificate of naturalization must return it to the Attorney General.98
The effect of denaturalization is to divest a person of their status as a U.S. citizen and to return
them to their former immigration status as a noncitizen. Once final, the denaturalization is
effective as of the original date of the certificate of naturalization.99
Derivative citizens may also lose their citizenship under these circumstances. If a principal
immigrant’s citizenship is revoked based on “procurement by concealment of a material fact or by
willful misrepresentation,” derivative citizens (i.e., their naturalized family members) also lose
their citizenship regardless of where they are living.100 If citizenship is revoked because of
membership in a subversive organization101 or less than honorable discharge from the Armed
Forces,102 derivative citizens lose their citizenship only if they are living abroad.103
In February 2020, the Department of Justice (DOJ) announced the establishment of a
Denaturalization Section within its Office of Immigration Litigation dedicated to citizenship
revocation investigations and litigation. DOJ stated that its Office of Immigration Litigation had a
95% success rate in denaturalization cases and that “the growing number of referrals anticipated
from law enforcement agencies motivated the creation of a standalone section.... ”104 In 2021,
President Biden issued an executive order that directed federal agencies to review
denaturalization policies and practices “to ensure these authorities are not used excessively or
inappropriately.”105 A December 2022 DOJ policy lists as priorities for revocation of
naturalization cases against individuals who pose a threat to national security, engaged in war
crimes or human rights violations, or committed serious felonies not disclosed during the
naturalization process.106

94 INA §340(c), 8 U.S.C. §1451(c).
95 INA §329(c), 8 U.S.C. §1440(c).
96 INA §340(a), 8 U.S.C. §1451(a). If the naturalized citizen does not reside in any judicial district in the United States
at the time of the suit, proceedings may be instituted in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia or in the
U.S. district court in which such person last had his or her residence. The naturalized citizen against whom such action
is taken has 60 days in which to respond to the action.
97 INA §340(e), 8 U.S.C. §1451(e).
98 INA §340(f), 8 U.S.C. §1451(f).
99 Ibid.
100 INA §340(d), 8 U.S.C. §1451(d).
101 INA §340(c), 8 U.S.C. §1451(c).
102 INA §329(c), 8 U.S.C. §1440(c).
103 INA §340(d), 8 U.S.C. §1451(d).
104 DOJ, “The Department of Justice Creates Section Dedicated to Denaturalization Cases,” press release, February 26,
2020, https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/department-justice-creates-section-dedicated-denaturalization-cases.
105 Executive Order 14012, 2021
106 DOJ, Justice Manual, Title 4: Civil, 4-7.200 “Revocation of Naturalization.”
Congressional Research Service

15

link to page 21 link to page 21 U.S. Naturalization Policy

Naturalization Trends
The number of persons applying to naturalize annually has generally increased over the past four
decades (Figure 2). Naturalization application volume peaked in FY1997 and FY2007. These
increases have been attributed to legislative and demographic factors. Legislatively, the
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 resulted in approximately 2.8 million unauthorized
immigrants becoming LPRs between 1986 and 1989 who then became eligible to naturalize in the
mid-1990s. Four years later, the Immigration Act of 1990 increased the limits on legal
immigration to the United States, among other provisions, which also resulted in increased
numbers of persons applying for naturalization by the mid-1990s.107 USCIS has also attributed
the 2007 surge in naturalization application volume to several factors including a green card
replacement program,108 a broad-based increase in USCIS fees that took effect in July 2007, and
grassroots campaigns to increase naturalizations prior to the 2008 elections.109 Naturalization
application numbers generally tend to increase in advance of general elections (e.g., as seen in
FY2012, FY2016, and FY2020 in Figure 2) and planned fee increases.

107 Some have speculated that part of the 1997 increase in naturalization application volume stemmed from greater
eligibility restrictions for means-tested benefits and other federal assistance enacted through the Personal
Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). Other research suggests that the social
context of state-level immigrant receptivity plays a more important role in the decision to naturalize than state-level
welfare benefit levels. See Jennifer Van Hook, Susan K. Brown, and Frank D. Bean, “For Love or Money? Welfare
Reform and Immigrant Naturalization,” Social Forces, vol. 85, no. 2 (December 2006), pp. 643-666. GAO attempted to
address this question, but encountered methodological difficulties. See General Accounting Office, Welfare Reform:
Public Assistance Benefits Provided to Recently Naturalized Citizens, GAO IHEHS-99-102, June 1999.
108 In the early 1990s, the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), predecessor agency to DHS, instituted a green
card replacement program to curb the increasing prevalence of document fraud. At that time, the INS estimated that 1.5
million LPRs in the United States would have to replace their existing green cards (I-151 cards), which would all expire
in 1996, with new biometric LPR cards. Because the cost of replacing a green card was nearly the same as that to
naturalize, many LPRs reportedly chose to naturalize instead.
109 DHS, USCIS, USCIS Ombudsman’s Annual Report 2009, p. 3.
Congressional Research Service

16

link to page 22

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Figure 2. Naturalization Applications Filed and Denied, and Persons Naturalized,
FY1983-FY2023

Sources: FY1983-FY2022: DHS, 2022 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, Table 20, FY2023: DHS, USCIS,
“Number of Service-wide Forms By Quarter, Form Status, and Processing Time July 1, 2023 - September 30,
2023” and “Completing an Unprecedented 10 Mil ion Immigration Cases in Fiscal Year 2023, USCIS Reduced Its
Backlog for the First Time in Over a Decade,” February 9, 2024.
Figure 3 shows the proportion of naturalizations by newly naturalized citizens’ region of birth for
each decade beginning in 1970. After representing the largest proportion of persons naturalized in
the 1970s, naturalizations of European nationals have declined over time, while naturalizations of
African and South American nationals have increased. By the 2010s, European, African, and
South American nationals represented similar proportions of naturalizations. Since the 1980s,
Asia and North America (which includes Mexico and Central America) have consistently
represented the largest proportions of persons naturalizing by region of birth.
Congressional Research Service

17

link to page 23

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Figure 3. Proportion of Persons Naturalized, by Region of Birth
By decade, FY1970-FY2022

Sources: 1970: Immigration and Naturalization Service 1975 Annual Report. 1971-1980: 1980 Statistical Yearbook of
the Immigration and Naturalization Service. 1981-1990: 1990 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization
Service. 1991-2000: 2000 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service. 2001-2010: DHS, 2010
Yearbook of Immigration Statistics. 2011-2019: DHS, 2019 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics. 2020-2022: DHS, 2022
Yearbook of Immigration Statistics.
Notes: FY2020-FY2022 represents a three-year period.
Despite increasing numbers of naturalization applications filed in recent years, the number of
naturalizations has not kept pace with the overall growth of the foreign-born population. The
naturalized percentage of the foreign born peaked in 1950 (74.5%), reflecting high naturalization
rates among refugees after World War II.110 After 1950, it declined, reaching its lowest point of
40.3% in 2000. The naturalized proportion of the foreign born increased to 53.1% in 2022
(Figure 4).111

110 Guillermina Jasso and Mark R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People: Immigrants in the United States (New York:
Russell Sage Foundation, 1990), p. 102.
111 In 1920, the Census Bureau began asking all foreign-born persons whether they had naturalized, and almost half
(49%) reported that they had. Prior decennial censuses in 1900 and 1910 asked only adult men their citizenship status.
Historically, certain immigrant groups have been excluded from naturalization. Until the Immigration and Nationality
Act was enacted in 1952, naturalization was reserved broadly for “free white person[s],” as specified by the
Naturalization Act of 1790. The Naturalization Act of 1870 extended citizenship to African nationals. The Chinese
Exclusion Act of 1882 explicitly excluded Chinese nationals from citizenship until it was repealed by Congress in
1943.
Congressional Research Service

18

link to page 24 link to page 24

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Figure 4. Naturalized Foreign Born as a Proportion of the Total Foreign Born

Sources: 1900-2000: Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born
Population of the United States: 1850 to 2000,” U.S. Census Bureau Population Division (February 2006). 2010
and 2022: CRS analysis of American Community Survey 1-year estimates, Table B05001.
Notes: The 1960 Decennial Census did not ask respondents about their citizenship status. See Guil ermina Jasso
and Mark R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1990), p. 105. CRS used
2022 instead of 2020 because it is the most recent available year of data and because of complications with data
col ection during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.
In FY2022 (most recent available data), 969,380 individuals became naturalized U.S. citizens.
Individuals born in Mexico represented the largest number of naturalizations, followed by
persons from India, Philippines, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic (Figure 5). The top 20
countries displayed in Figure 5 represent approximately 62% of all naturalizations in FY2022.
People who naturalized in FY2022 spent a median of seven years in LPR status before becoming
citizens.112 Naturalized foreign-born from North America and Oceania had the highest median
number of years (10) in LPR status; those from Africa and Asia had the lowest (6).113

112 Camille Caterina, U.S. Naturalizations: 2022, Annual Flow Report, DHS, Office of Homeland Security Statistics,
November 2023, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2023-12/2023_0818_plcy_naturalizations_fy2022.pdf.
113 Ibid.
Congressional Research Service

19

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Figure 5. Persons Naturalized by Country of Birth, FY2022
Top 20 countries

Source: DHS, 2022 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, Table 21d.
Naturalization Determinants
An estimated 46 million foreign-born persons resided in the United States in 2022, approximately
14% of the total U.S. population (333 million), according to American Community Survey data
from the U.S. Census Bureau. Of these, 24.5 million (about 53%) reported their status as
naturalized citizens.114 An additional estimated nine million LPRs were eligible to naturalize but
had not done so.115
LPRs who are eligible to naturalize may not do so for a variety of reasons, such as language and
cost barriers.116 Other noncitizens are not eligible to naturalize because they are LPRs with

114 U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2022 1-year estimates, Table B05001 (data.census.gov).
115 Miller and Baker, 2023
116 Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Mexicans Among Least Likely Immigrants to Become American Citizens,” Pew Research
Center, June 29, 2017, https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2017/06/29/mexican-lawful-immigrants-among-least-
likely-to-become-u-s-citizens (hereinafter, “Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017”) and Bloemraad, 2006, pp. 40-42.
Congressional Research Service

20

link to page 25

U.S. Naturalization Policy

insufficient years of U.S. residency, are nonimmigrants, or are unauthorized and are not eligible
to naturalize.117
Figure 6. Foreign-Born Population by Origin Country and Citizenship Status, 2022
25 largest national origins, listed in order of U.S. population size (each square represents 100,000 people)

Source: 2022 American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Micro Sample (PUMS), U.S. Census Bureau.
Note: Populations are rounded to the nearest 100,000.
As shown in Figure 6, the proportion of naturalized individuals varies by country of origin.118
Among the 25 national origin groups with the largest U.S. populations, foreign-born individuals
from Honduras, Guatemala, Venezuela, Mexico, El Salvador, and Brazil have the lowest
naturalized percentages (less than 40% naturalized). These low proportions have several
explanations, including large numbers of recent legal immigrants, which reduces the proportion
of all foreign born with at least five years of U.S. residence; geographic proximity, which can
increase the likelihood that individuals maintain strong ties to their countries of origin; and
sizable numbers of unauthorized individuals who are ineligible to naturalize.119 Individuals born

117 Nonimmigrants refer to foreign nationals admitted for a designated period of time and a specific purpose. They
include a wide range of visitors, including tourists, foreign students, diplomats, and temporary workers. See CRS
Report R45040, Immigration: Nonimmigrant (Temporary) Admissions to the United States.
118 See also National Academies, 2015; Nancy Rytina, The Timing of Naturalization in the United States through
1996:The Experience of the Legal Immigrant Cohorts of 1977 and 1982, DHS Office of Immigration Statistics,
Working Paper, August 2008; and Guillermina Jasso and Mark R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People (New York:
Russell Sage Foundation, 1990), pp. 98-121.
119 Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017; and Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield et al., “Naturalization of U.S. Immigrants: Highlights from
Ten Countries,” Population Research and Policy Review, vol. 23, no. 3 (June, 2004), pp. 187-218 (hereinafter,
“Woodrow-Lafield et al., 2004”).
Congressional Research Service

21

link to page 27 link to page 27 link to page 27 U.S. Naturalization Policy

in Latin America and the Caribbean represent an estimated 79% of the total unauthorized
population in the United States.120
In contrast, foreign-born individuals from countries including Vietnam, the Philippines, and
Russia all have naturalization rates exceeding 70%. Countries whose immigrants show relatively
high naturalization proportions tend to be characterized by large geographic distance from the
United States, less democratic or more oppressive political systems, and/or geopolitical factors
and calamities that initiate flows of refugees and asylees.121
By country of origin, Mexican nationals represent by far the largest number of LPRs who meet
the five-year residency requirement and who are potentially eligible for naturalization (2.39
million in 2023).122 However, because many others lack LPR status, a relatively large proportion
of Mexican nationals (42%) are ineligible for naturalization. Other national groups with large
numbers of LPRs potentially eligible for naturalization (more than 300,000 people) include
China, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and the Philippines (Table 2).
National groups with the highest percentage of potentially eligible LPRs (greater than 25%)
relative to their total foreign-born populations include Japan, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, the
United Kingdom, and Canada. National groups with the highest percentages of persons who are
ineligible for naturalization (greater than 40%) include Guatemala, El Salvador, Mexico, and
India. The ineligible proportion of a population includes foreign-born individuals who are not
LPRs or who are LPRs but have not yet met the residency requirements for naturalization (Table
2).

120 Migration Policy Institute, “MPI Issues New Estimates of the Size and Origins of the U.S. Unauthorized Immigrant
Population,” September 13, 2023, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/news/2021-estimates-us-unauthorized-immigrant-
population.
121 Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017; Woodrow-Lafield et al., 2004.
122 Miller and Baker, 2023.
Congressional Research Service

22

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Table 2. Foreign-Born Population, by Naturalization Eligibility and Country of Birth
Top 20 countries listed in order of number of persons potentially eligible for naturalization as of 2023
Number of
Percent
LPRs
Total
Percent
Potentially
Potentially
Population
Percent
Ineligible for
Eligible for
Eligible for
Country
in the U.S.
Naturalized
Naturalization
Naturalization
Naturalization
Mexico
10,638,429
35%
42%
22%
2,390,000
China
2,225,447
52%
23%
25%
550,000
Cuba
1,314,330
64%
6%
30%
390,000
Dominican
1,285,678
56%
14%
30%
390,000
Republic
Philippines
2,010,597
76%
7%
17%
350,000
India
2,831,330
48%
42%
10%
290,000
Vietnam
1,340,499
78%
5%
17%
230,000
Canada
818,909
51%
22%
27%
220,000
El Salvador
1,415,035
36%
48%
16%
220,000
South Korea
1,043,937
67%
14%
19%
200,000
United Kingdom
684,130
59%
13%
28%
190,000
Haiti
726,594
63%
15%
22%
160,000
Jamaica
814,606
71%
11%
18%
150,000
Colombia
923,125
58%
28%
14%
130,000
Germany
538,118
64%
11%
24%
130,000
Guatemala
1,150,094
28%
61%
11%
130,000
Japan
332,386
34%
30%
36%
120,000
Ecuador
523,013
50%
35%
15%
80,000
Pakistan
406,152
69%
11%
20%
80,000
Poland
372,502
75%
3%
21%
80,000
Other/unknown
—
—
—
—
2,550,000
Total

53%
27%
20%
9,040,000
Sources: Number of LPRs potentially eligible: Sarah Mil er and Bryan Baker, Estimates of the Lawful Permanent Resident
Population in the United States and the Subpopulation Eligible to Naturalize: 2023, Table 2, DHS, Office of Homeland
Security Statistics, October 2023. Total U.S. Population, Percent Potentially Eligible and Percent Ineligible: CRS
analysis of data from Mil er and Baker and 2022 American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Micro Sample
(PUMS), U.S. Census Bureau.
Notes: Potentially eligible individuals have been in LPR status for a sufficient length of time to meet naturalization
residency requirements. Ineligible for naturalization represents foreign-born who are not naturalized citizens and are
not potentially eligible to naturalize. These individuals either are not LPRs or are LPRs with insufficient residency for
naturalization. Because this calculation does not take into account other requirements for naturalization (e.g., English
language proficiency), the proportion ineligible presented is likely an undercount. Percentages may not add to 100%
due to rounding.
Congressional Research Service

23

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Other contextual factors are significant in predicting naturalization, including living in an area
with other immigrants from the same racial/ethnic background.123 A study examining
naturalization among refugees, for example, found that naturalization rates were higher among
individuals placed in counties with a high share of conationals.124
The availability of dual citizenship is positively correlated with naturalization for some groups,
particularly those from Latin America.125 Scholars posit that dual citizenship may reduce barriers
to naturalization because it allows individuals to become U.S. citizens without sacrificing their
rights in their countries of origin.
Previous experience with unauthorized status and concerns about immigration enforcement may
also impact propensity to naturalize. For example, one study found that LPRs who entered the
United States without inspection and were formerly unauthorized had a higher propensity to
naturalize than those who were not previously unauthorized.126 Researchers have found that some
LPRs choose to naturalize as a protective mechanism against policies that curtail rights or
benefits for noncitizens.127
Apart from country-level and contextual characteristics, individual and family characteristics also
influence naturalization. Those with a naturalized family member or spouse are more likely to
naturalize.128 Time spent in the United States is positively associated with naturalization.129
Measures of socioeconomic status, measured by income, education, and English skills are also
positively correlated with naturalization.130
Some eligible LPRs, including those who are low-income or limited English proficient, may face
barriers to naturalization. For example, one study found that 98% of Mexican LPRs surveyed said
they would naturalize if they could, citing factors such as English language ability, lack of time or

123 John R. Logan, Sookhee Oh, and Jennifer Darrah, “The Political and Community Context of Immigrant
Naturalisation in the United States,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies vol. 38, no. 4 (2012), pp. 535–554
(hereinafter, “Logan, Oh, and Darrah, 2012”)
124 Nadwa Mossaad et al., “Determinants of Refugee Naturalization in the United States,” Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, vol. 115, no. 37 (2018), pp. 9175–9180 (hereinafter, “Mossaad et al., 2018”).
125 Michael Jones-Correa, “Institutional and Contextual Factors in Immigrant Naturalization and Voting,” Citizenship
Studies, vol. 5, no. 1 (2001), pp. 41-56 (hereinafter, Jones-Correa, 2001); Francesca Mazzolari, “Dual Citizenship
Rights: Do they Make More and Richer Citizens?,” Demography, vol. 46, no. 1 (2009), pp. 169-191; Logan, Oh, and
Darrah, 2012.
126 Amanda R. Cheong, “Legal Histories as Determinants of Incorporation: Previous Undocumented Experience and
Naturalization Propensities among Immigrants in the United States,” International Migration Review, 2020, pp. 1-32.
For information about legalization provisions under the Immigration and Nationality Act, see CRS Report R45993,
Legalization Framework Under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA).
127 Greta Gilbertson and Audrey Singer, “The Emergence of Protective Citizenship in the USA: Naturalization among
Dominican Immigrants in the Post-1996 Welfare Reform Era,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 26, no. 1 (2003), pp. 25-
51; Paul M. Ong, “Defensive Naturalization and Anti-Immigrant Sentiment: Chinese Immigrants in Three Primate
Metropolises,” Asian American Policy Review, vol. 21 (2011); Yunju Nam and Wooksoo Kim, “Welfare Reform and
Elderly Immigrants’ Naturalization: Access to Public Benefits as an Incentive for Naturalization in the United States,”
International Migration Review, vol. 46, no. 3 (2012), pp. 656–679; Catalina Amuedo-Dorantes and Mary Lopez,
“Recent Changes in Immigration Policy and U.S. Naturalization Patterns,” Review of Economics of the Household
(2020).
128 Thai V. Le and Manuel Pastor, “Family Matters: Modeling Naturalization Propensities in the United States,”
International Migration Review, vol. 57, no. 4 (2023), pp. 1427-1455 (hereinafter, “Le and Pastor, 2023”).
129 Jones-Correa, 2001; Irene Bloemraad, “Becoming a Citizen in the United States and Canada: Structured
Mobilization and Immigrant Political Incorporation Immigrant Integration and Social Membership,” Social Forces, vol.
85, no. 2 (2006), pp. 667–696.
130 National Academies, 2015; Logan, Oh, and Darrah, 2012; Mossaad et al., 2018; Le and Pastor, 2023.
Congressional Research Service

24

link to page 29 link to page 31 link to page 21 U.S. Naturalization Policy

initiative, and cost as primary reasons for not yet becoming citizens.131 (For more discussion of
barriers to naturalization, see the “Issues for Congress” section).
Issues for Congress
Backlogs, Processing, and USCIS Capacity
Congress has expressed interest in USCIS’s ability to timely process immigration benefits,
including naturalization applications. During the last five years (FY2019-FY2023), naturalization
applications accounted for 10% of all applications received and processed by USCIS, making it
the second most common immigration form handled by the agency (after I-765, Employment
Authorization applications).132 In recent years, USCIS has improved its processing times,
including for naturalization applications, following processing challenges in previous years. The
annual number of pending naturalization applications increased from FY2016 (524,000) through
FY2018 (739,000) and reached a peak of nearly 943,000 in FY2020 (Figure 7) at the onset of the
COVID-19 pandemic.
USCIS, the Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman (CIS Ombudsman) and Office of
Inspector General, and external observers attributed those backlogs of pending applications to
multiple factors:
• USCIS changes to Form N-400, including adding 13 questions in 2016, which
required longer adjudication times133;
• increased numbers of naturalization applications in recent years (Figure 2) and
inaccurate USCIS projections, which are used to estimate necessary staffing134;
• a USCIS hiring pause in FY2020 and budget cuts in response to financial
challenges135;
• insufficient USCIS staffing levels and office space136;
• initial challenges transitioning from paper to electronic processing for some
forms in 2016137;
• increased scrutiny of Form N-400 by adjudicators, including more requests for
evidence138;

131 Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017.
132 DHS, USCIS, Number of Service-wide Forms by Fiscal Year To- Date, multiple years.
133 DHS, FY2018-2020 Annual Performance Report, 2020), p. 40, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/
19_0318_MGMT_CBJ-Annual-Performance-Review-DHS-Overview_0.pdf.
134 Dougherty, 2020, p. 13.
135 Letter from Joseph B. Edlow, USCIS deputy director for policy, to The Honorable Bill Cassidy, December 23, 2020,
https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/foia/USCIS_budget_shortfall_Senator_Cassidy.pdf.
136 Dougherty, 2020.
137 DHS Office of Inspector General, “USCIS Has Been Unsuccessful in Automating Naturalization Benefits
Delivery,” November 30, 2017, https://www.oig.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/assets/2017-12/OIG-18-23-Nov17.pdf.
However, more recently, USCIS has reportedly “turned a corner in its electronic processing” of Forms N-400. See
Dougherty, 2020.
138 Randy Capps and Carlos Echeverría-Estrada, “A Rockier Road to U.S. Citizenship? Findings of a Survey on
Changing Naturalization Procedures,” Migration Policy Institute, July 14, 2020, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/
research/changing-uscis-naturalization-procedures.
Congressional Research Service

25

link to page 31 U.S. Naturalization Policy

• increased numbers of applications in advance of a planned 83% naturalization fee
increase (which was not subsequently implemented)139; and
• processing disruptions related to the pandemic, including the temporary
suspension of in-person services at USCIS field offices and the inability to obtain
paper immigration files stored in federal records centers140;
The agency has since taken steps to reduce these backlogs, supported by additional funds
appropriated by Congress in FY2022 and FY2023.141 For example, in 2019 USCIS announced a
new strategy to decrease processing times by shifting caseloads between field offices, which may
require scheduling interviews at field offices outside of applicants’ normal jurisdictions.142
In addition, after initially struggling to transition to electronic processing, the CIS Ombudsman
reported in 2020 that “the agency is now able to leverage automated functions ... to enhance
vetting and better manage workloads at field offices.”143 USCIS also began using automated
assessments of N-400 applications to determine expected interview lengths.144 During the
COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, USCIS began using video interviews for N-400 applicants during
which the applicant and interviewing officer are in separate rooms within a field office to allow
for adjudication while maintaining social distancing.145
In 2021, President Biden issued an executive order directing federal agencies to develop a plan to
“substantially reduce current naturalization processing times.”146 Subsequently, USCIS increased
its hiring. Since FY2022, USCIS seems to have prioritized the adjudication of naturalization
applications (in addition to employment-based petitions).147 In 2022, USCIS announced new
internal “time cycle goals” for completing cases, including a six-month processing completion
goal for Form N-400.148 USCIS adjudicated more than 1 million naturalization applications in
FY2022 and approximately 976,000 application in FY2023.149
As shown in Figure 7, the number of pending N-400 applications declined to 408,034 by the end
of FY2023. Processing times have also declined as this backlog has reduced. In FY2021, the

139 DHS, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to Certain Other Immigration Benefit
Request Requirements,” 85 Federal Register 46788, August 3, 2020.
140 DHS, USCIS, “USCIS Temporarily Closing Offices to the Public March 18-April 1,” news release, March 17, 2020,
https://www.uscis.gov/news/alerts/uscis-temporarily-closing-offices-to-the-public-march-18-april-1; USCIS, “USCIS
Preparing to Resume Public Services on June 4,” news release, May 27, 2020, https://www.uscis.gov/news/alerts/uscis-
preparing-to-resume-public-services-on-june-4; CIS Ombudsman, Annual Report 2022, June 30, 2022, p. 5.
141 For more information, see CRS Report R48021, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS): Operations
and Issues for Congress.
142 DHS, USCIS, “USCIS Aims to Decrease Processing Times for N-400 and I-485,” news release, June 17, 2019,
https://www.uscis.gov/news/alerts/uscis-aims-to-decrease-processing-times-for-n-400-and-i-485.
143 Dougherty, 2020, p. 19.
144 Ibid.
145 DHS, USCIS, USCIS Response to the Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman’s (CISBOM) 2020 Annual
Report to Congress, December 4, 2020, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/2020_uscis_response.pdf.
146 Executive Order 14012, 2021.
147 CIS Ombudsman, Annual Report 2023, June 30, 2023, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2023-07/
2023%20Annual%20Report%20to%20Congress_0.pdf.
148 DHS, USCIS, “USCIS Announces New Actions to Reduce Backlogs, Expand Premium Processing, and Provide
Relief to Work Permit Holders,” news release, March 29, 2022.
149 DHS, USCIS, Number of Service-wide Forms by Quarter, From Status, and Processing Time, July 1, 2022-
September 30, 2022 and July 1, 2023-September 30, 2023.
Congressional Research Service

26

U.S. Naturalization Policy

median processing time for the N-400 was 11.5 months. As of January 31, 2024, the median
processing time had declined to 5.2 months.150 Processing times vary by USCIS Field Offices.151
Figure 7. Number of Pending Naturalization Applications, FY2012-FY2023

Source: DHS, USCIS, Number of Service-wide Forms by Quarter, Form Status, and Processing Time, multiple years.
Naturalization Fees
USCIS operates largely as a fee-funded agency: Congress has authorized USCIS to set fees for
adjudication and naturalization services at a level that ensures recovery of the full costs of
providing those services.152 In FY2023, approximately 94% of its budget was funded through fees
collected and deposited into the Immigration Examinations Fee Account, which includes N-400
filing fees for (nonmilitary) naturalizations.153
The amount of the naturalization fee raises several issues for Congress, including whether it
accurately reflects USCIS’s cost to process naturalization applications and whether it discourages
persons from naturalizing due to the expense.
USCIS naturalization fee increases are usually subsumed within across-the-board USCIS fee
increases for many types of forms based upon audits of the costs of providing immigration
services/benefits.154 USCIS has generally set naturalization fees at a level that is below the full
cost of providing naturalization services.155 Proponents of fee increases maintain that cost of

150 DHS, USCIS, Historical National Median Processing Time (in Months) for All USCIS Offices for Select Forms By
Fiscal Year, Fiscal Year 2019 to 2024 (up to January 31, 2024), https://egov.uscis.gov/processing-times/historic-pt.
151 Processing times by Field Office or Service Center are available https://egov.uscis.gov/processing-times/.
152 INA §286(m); 8 U.S.C. §1356(m). For background information, see archived CRS Report R44038, U.S. Citizenship
and Immigration Services (USCIS) Functions and Funding.
153 DHS, “United States Citizenship and Immigration Services Budget Overview, Fiscal Year 2024,” Congressional
Justification, p. CIS-4. For more information, see CRS Report R48021, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
(USCIS): Operations and Issues for Congress.
154 P.L. 101-576 Section 902(b) requires USCIS to review its fees on a biennial basis.
155 See, for example, DHS, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to Certain Other
Immigration Benefit Request Requirements,” 88 Federal Register 426, January 4, 2023.
Congressional Research Service

27

U.S. Naturalization Policy

processing USCIS applications are rising (e.g., because of inflation), immigration benefits such as
naturalization should be self-financing, and that the beneficiaries should bear the full cost of
processing a naturalization application.156 Opponents argue that naturalization fee increases
discourage eligible LPRs from applying for naturalization, disproportionately impact low-income
immigrants, and prevent individuals from obtaining eligibility to vote in federal elections.157 One
experimental study, for example, found that offering fee vouchers for N-400 application costs to
low-income (between 150% and 300% of the Federal Poverty Guidelines) immigrants eligible for
citizenship increased naturalization application rates by 41%.158
In previous changes to its fee schedule, USCIS set N-400 filing fee increases at amounts lower
than the full costs of adjudication and lower than other fee increases in an effort to “promote
citizenship.”159 In FY2016, for example, USCIS increased its fees by a weighted average of 21%
but increased the naturalization fee by 8% to $640, or $725 total when including the required $85
biometric fee.160
In FY2020, USCIS proposed several fee increases, including an 83% increase in the N-400 filing
fee, stating, “DHS now believes that shifting costs to other applicants ... is not equitable given the
significant increase in Form N-400 filings in recent years.”161 The final rule was enjoined by two
federal courts and not implemented.162 A February 2021 executive order directed DHS, DOS, and
the U.S. Attorney General to review the 2020 fee rule, “recommend steps, as appropriate and
consistent with applicable law, to revise or rescind those agency actions,” and “make the
naturalization process more accessible to all eligible including through a potential reduction to the
naturalization fee and restoration of the fee waiver process.”163 Subsequently, the rule was
rescinded.
In FY2024, USCIS implemented a final fee regulation, effective April 1, 2024, that changed filing
fees for certain immigration benefits for the first time since 2016 and implemented discounts for
online filing. For the N-400, the new fees are $710 for online filings and $760 for paper filings,
which include biometric services.164 The rule also introduced a 50% discount for certain low-
income individuals who may not qualify for a fee waiver. Those whose household incomes are
between 150% and 400% of the Federal Poverty Guidelines (FPG) pay a discounted fee of $380.
The rule states:

156 See, for example, DHS, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to Certain Other
Immigration Benefit Request Requirements,” 85 Federal Register 46788-46929, August 3, 2020; and DHS, “U.S.
Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to Certain Other Immigration Benefit Request
Requirements,” 89 Federal Register 6194-6400, January 31, 2024.
157 Hailey Fuchs, “Looming Fee Increase Could Thwart Many U.S. Citizenship Applications,” The New York Times,
August 16, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/16/us/politics/us-citizenship-fee-increase.html.
158 Jens Hainmueller et al., “A Randomized Controlled Design Reveals Barriers to Citizenship for Low-Income
Immigrants,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 115, no. 5 (2018), pp. 939–944. See also
Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017.
159 DHS, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule,” 81 Federal Register 26916, May 4, 2016.
160 Ibid.
161 DHS, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Fee Schedule and Changes to Certain Other Immigration Benefit Request
Requirements,” 84 Federal Register 62316, November 14, 2019.
162 Suzanne Monyak, “Calif. Judge Blocks Upcoming Immigration Fee Hikes,” Law360, September 29, 2020,
https://www.law360.com/articles/1315144/calif-judge-blocks-upcoming-immigration-fee-hikes; Genevieve Douglas,
“Second Court Blocks Visa Fee Rule, Doubts DHS Chief’s Authority,” Bloomberg Law, October 9, 2020,
https://news.bloomberglaw.com/daily-labor-report/second-court-blocks-visa-fee-rule-doubts-dhs-chiefs-authority.
163 Executive Order 14012, 2021.
164 DHS, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to Certain Other Immigration Benefit
Request Requirements,” 89 Federal Register 6194-6400, January 31, 2024.
Congressional Research Service

28

U.S. Naturalization Policy

DHS believes that this change will provide additional relief to longtime residents who
struggle to pay naturalization fees without requiring further fee increases for other forms
to offset the cost. The increased income threshold for a reduced naturalization fee will also
enable the United States to further benefit from newly naturalized citizens, including their
greater civic involvement and tax revenues.165
Applicants whose incomes are less than 150% of the FPG may qualify for a fee waiver.166
Citizenship Resources and Promotion
Some in Congress have expressed interest in facilitating language and civics instruction as a
means to promote naturalization. Multiple federal agencies currently support these objectives.
Among these, the Citizenship Resource Center, part of the USCIS Office of Citizenship, provides
English and civics training directly and through public/private partnerships. USCIS also provides
competitive grants for citizenship preparation services to public and private nonprofit
organizations through its Citizenship and Integration Grant Program.167 USCIS estimates that
since the grant program was established in 2009, it has helped prepare more than 300,000 LPRs
for U.S. citizenship.168 The U.S. Department of Education offers grants to states to improve
English skills among adults who are not enrolled in school.169
Some have advocated for new funding for citizenship assistance, including proposals for a
National Office of New Americans within the Executive Office of the President to promote
citizenship, English-language learning, and workforce development training.170 As mentioned
previously, in February 2021 President Biden issued an executive order directing federal agencies
to develop a plan to eliminate barriers to naturalization and review N-400 application processes.
The order established an Interagency Working Group on Promoting Naturalization and directed
the group to submit a naturalization promotion strategy to the President.171 The Naturalization
Working Group, chaired by USCIS, has cited efforts including a citizenship public education and
awareness campaign, which includes outreach to refugees, asylees, agricultural workers, long-
term LPRs, and military members; video interviews for military members; partnerships with other
federal agencies to promote naturalization and conduct data analysis to inform naturalization
outreach; improving citizenship education materials; conducting special naturalization

165 Ibid., p. 6236.
166 See DHS, USCIS, Adjudicator’s Field Manual, Chapter 10.9 “Waiver of Fees,” https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/
files/document/policy-manual-afm/afm10-external.pdf. A recent experimental study found that informing low-income
immigrants about their eligibility for fee waivers increased the rate of citizenship applications by 8.6 percentage points.
See Michael Hotard et al., “A Low-Cost Information Nudge Increases Citizenship Application Rates among Low-
Income Immigrants,” Nature Human Behaviour, vol. 3, no. 7 (July 2019), pp. 678–683.
167 Eligible grant applicants are public or nonprofit organizations with recent experience providing citizenship
instruction programs, preparation workshops, and naturalization processes for immigrants. Because this program is not
directly related to USCIS’s central mission of reviewing and processing immigration-related petitions and applications,
its funding comes from congressional appropriations, which for FY2023 totaled $25 million (see P.L. 117-328 ). For
more information, see “Citizenship and Integration Grant Program,” https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/civic-
assimilation/learn-about-the-citizenship-and-assimilation-grant-program.
168 DHS, USCIS, “Learn About the Citizenship and Assimilation Grant Program,” updated February 7, 2024,
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/civic-assimilation/learn-about-the-citizenship-and-assimilation-grant-program.
169 For more information on adult education, see CRS Report R43789, Adult Education and Family Literacy Act: Major
Statutory Provisions.
170 See, for example, S. 883 and H.R. 1643 in the 118th Congress.
171 Executive Order 14012, 2021.
Congressional Research Service

29

U.S. Naturalization Policy

ceremonies; outreach to foreign embassies; a “citizen ambassadors” initiative; and a new award
recognizing the outstanding achievements of naturalized citizens.172
Those opposing expenditures for citizenship preparation funding have argued such funding
creates a burden on taxpayers, expands the role of government, and is redundant with services
already provided by USCIS.173
Legislation in the 118th Congress
In the 118th Congress, some Members have proposed modifications to naturalization requirements
and processes. Certain measures seek to restrict citizenship and naturalization, including those
that would restrict automatic citizenship for certain children born in the United States.174
Other measures would expand access to naturalization, including those that would
• remove the requirement to have resided in a USCIS service district for three
months prior to applying to naturalize for the spouses of active-duty military
members stationed in the United States175;
• facilitate and further expedite the naturalization of servicemembers and
honorably discharged veterans, including those residing abroad176;
• expand automatic citizenship acquisition for certain children born abroad177;
• facilitate naturalization for certain LPRs abused by U.S. citizen relatives178;
• allow individuals to naturalize after three years in LPR status if they were
lawfully present and authorized for employment for at least three years prior to
becoming an LPR179;
• exempt American Samoans from certain naturalization requirements180;
• allow for remote video naturalization ceremonies during national emergencies,
natural disasters, or public health emergencies181; and
• establish within the Executive Office of the President a National Office of New
Americans, in part to promote U.S. citizenship and facilitate naturalization.182

172 See DHS, USCIS, Interagency Strategy for Promoting Naturalization: Naturalization Working Group Progress
Report, First Anniversary Accomplishment Highlights, and Second Anniversary Accomplishment Highlights,
https://www.uscis.gov/promotingnaturalization.
173 See, for example, Minority Views from Senators Grassley, Session, Lee, and Cruz in S.Rept. 113-40: U.S.
Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration
Modernization Act, Report, 113th Cong., 1st sess., June 7, 2013, p. 169.
174 H.R. 4864; H.R. 6612; H.R. 6940
175 H.R. 3274
176 H.R. 717; H.R. 4569
177 H.R. 1386; H.R. 3599 §51102
178 H.R. 5145
179 H.R. 3194 §1206
180 H.R. 6061
181 H.R. 3544
182 H.R. 1643 and S. 883.
Congressional Research Service

30

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Appendix. Selected Links to Naturalization
Information and Application Materials
Naturalization Information
10 Steps to Naturalization
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/10-steps-to-naturalization
Learn About Citizenship
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship
Naturalization Information for Military Personnel
https://www.uscis.gov/military/naturalization-through-military-service
USCIS Policy Manual: Citizenship and Naturalization
https://www.uscis.gov/policy-manual/volume-12
Commonly Asked Questions About the Naturalization Process
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/commonly-asked-questions-about-the-
naturalization-process

Naturalization Application Materials
Online Application and Instructions for Naturalization
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/apply-for-citizenship
N-400 Application for Naturalization
https://www.uscis.gov/n-400
Document Checklist
https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/forms/attachments.pdf
Citizenship Resource Center
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship
Study Materials and Resources
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/find-study-materials-and-resources

Congressional Research Service

31

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Author Information

Holly Straut-Eppsteiner

Analyst in Immigration Policy

Acknowledgments
CRS Research Librarian Mathilde Finnegan-Kennel and CRS Research Assistants Sylvia Bryan and John
Gorman provided research support for this report.

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

Congressional Research Service
R43366 · VERSION 7 · UPDATED
32

Download PDF

Download EPUB

Revision History

Apr. 15, 2024

HTML · PDF

May. 3, 2021

HTML · PDF

Jan. 16, 2014

HTML · PDF

Metadata

Topic areas

Economic Policy

Immigration Policy

National Defense

Report Type: CRS Report

Source: CRSReports.Congress.gov, EveryCRSReport.com

Raw Metadata: JSON