U.S. Naturalization Policy
Updated May 3, 2021
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R43366

U.S. Naturalization Policy

Summary
Naturalization is the process that grants U.S. citizenship to lawful permanent residents (LPRs)
who fulfil requirements established by Congress and enumerated in the Immigration and
Nationality Act (INA). In general, U.S. immigration policy gives al LPRs the opportunity to
naturalize, and doing so is voluntary. To qualify for citizenship, LPRs in most cases must have
resided continuously in the United States for five years, show they possess good moral character,
demonstrate English language ability, and pass a U.S. government and history examination,
which is part of their naturalization interview. The INA waives some of these requirements for
applicants over age 50 with 20 years of U.S. residency, those with mental or physical disabilities,
and those who have served in the U.S. military.
Naturalization is often viewed as a milestone for immigrants and a measure of their civic and
socioeconomic integration to the United States. Naturalized immigrants gain important benefits,
including the right to vote, security from deportation in most cases, access to certain public-sector
jobs, and the ability to travel with a U.S. passport. U.S. citizens are also advantaged over LPRs
for sponsoring relatives to immigrate to the United States.
During the past three decades, the number of LPRs who submitted naturalization applications has
varied over time, ranging from a low of about 207,000 applications in FY1991 to a high of 1.4
mil ion in FY1997. In FY2020, 967,755 LPRs submitted naturalization applications. The number
of individuals who have recently applied for citizenship remains wel below the estimated
population of 9.2 mil ion LPRs who were eligible to naturalize in 2019. The percentage of
foreign-born individuals who are naturalized varies by several factors, including country of
origin. Immigrants from Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador, Mexico, and Brazil have the lowest
percentages of naturalized foreign born, while those from Vietnam, Iran, Poland, and the
Philippines have the highest.
Research on determinants of naturalization suggests that the propensity to naturalize is positively
associated with length of U.S. residence, educational attainment, and income. Those who
immigrate as refugees and asylees and those who immigrate through employment-based visas are
more likely to naturalize than those who immigrate as relatives of U.S. residents. Immigrants
from countries with less democratic or more oppressive political systems are more likely to
naturalize than those from more democratic nations.
Access to naturalization may be of interest to Congress. Some contend, and empirical research
has demonstrated, that current filing fees pose barriers to naturalization for some eligible LPRs.
However, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), a fee-funded agency, relies on
these fees to cover its operating costs. Naturalization fees have increased approximately 800% in
the past three decades, from $90 in 1991 to $725 currently. A planned increase to $1,245 in 2020
through a USCIS fee regulation was blocked by court injunctions.
Support for English language acquisition and civics education to meet the statutory requirements
for naturalization are another potential area of interest. Congress appropriates annual grant
funding to support these initiatives, and some Members have expressed interest in augmenting
support for language and civics instruction to promote naturalization. Others contend that English
language proficiency and civics education are the responsibility of immigrants and not the federal
government.
Potential congressional action on U.S. immigration laws could affect naturalization policy and the
number of persons who naturalize each year. This may raise concerns regarding USCIS’s ability
to process potential applications—in recent years, average processing times for citizenship
applications have increased, and the number of pending applications reached 942,669 at the end
of FY2020.
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Introduction
Naturalization is the process by which an immigrant1 attains U.S. citizenship after he or she
fulfil s requirements established by Congress and outlined in the Immigration and Nationality Act
(INA). U.S. immigration policy gives al lawful permanent residents (LPRs) who meet the
naturalization requirements the opportunity to become citizens.
Applying for citizenship is voluntary and represents an important milestone for immigrants.
Naturalization and citizenship are general y viewed as a measure of immigrants’ socioeconomic,
political, and civic integration to the United States.2 The policy manual of U.S. Citizenship and
Immigration Services (USCIS) of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) states:
United States citizenship is a unique bond that unites people around civic ideals and a belief
in the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution. The promise of citizenship
is grounded in the fundamental value that all persons are created equal and serves as a
unifying identity to allow persons of all backgrounds, whether native or foreign-born, to
have an equal stake in the future of the United States.3
Naturalization requirements include U.S. residence (typical y five years), good moral character,
demonstrated English proficiency, and a basic knowledge of U.S. civics and history.4 (See
“Naturalization Requirements,” below.)
Naturalized immigrants gain certain benefits available only to U.S. citizens, including the right to
vote, security from deportation, access to certain public-sector jobs, federal means-tested benefits,
and the ability to travel abroad on a U.S. passport.5 U.S. citizens are also advantaged over LPRs
for sponsoring relatives to immigrate to the United States. Despite the benefits of naturalization,
an estimated 9.2 mil ion LPRs who are eligible have not done so as of 2019.6
This report reviews the requirements for naturalization and the rights that come with it. It
examines the naturalization process, discusses recent trends regarding who, among the roughly 1
mil ion immigrants entering the United States each year, ultimately becomes a U.S. citizen, and
discusses recent naturalization-related policy issues.

1 Immigrant refers to a foreign national admitted to the United States as a lawful permanent residen t (LPR).
2 Irene Bloemraad, Becoming a Citizen: Incorporating Immigrants and Refugees in the United States and Canada
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2006) (hereinafter, “Bloemraad 2006”); National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, The Integration of Im m igrants into Am erican Society (National
Academies Press, 2015) (hereinafter, “ National Academies, 2015”).
3 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, USCIS Policy Manual, Volume
12: Citizenship and Naturalization, Chapter 1.
4 INA §§312, 316; 8 U.S.C. §§1423, 1427. Good moral character is defined in INA §101(f), 8 U.S.C. §1101(f).
5 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, USCIS Policy Manual, Volume
12: Citizenship and Naturalization, Part A, Chapter 1.
6 Bryan Baker, Estimates of the Lawful Permanent Resident Population in the United States and the Subpopulation
Eligible to Naturalize: 2015-2019, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, September
2019 (hereinafter, “Baker, 2019”).
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Impacts of Naturalization
Rights and Benefits of Citizenship
The Constitution and laws of the United States give many of the same rights to both noncitizens
and U.S. citizens living in the United States. However, only U.S. citizens may
 vote in federal, state, and local elections; 7
 receive U.S. citizenship for their minor children born abroad;
 travel with a U.S. passport and receive diplomatic protection from the U.S.
government while abroad;
 meet the citizenship requirement for federal and many state and local civil
service employment and certain law enforcement jobs;
 receive the full range of federal public benefits and certain state benefits;
 participate in a jury; and
 run for elective office where citizenship is required.8
U.S. citizens may also sponsor a broader range of family members living abroad for legal
permanent residence (i.e., married minor and adult children, and siblings) than LPRs. U.S.
citizens may sponsor certain relatives for legal permanent residence—spouses, minor unmarried
children, and parents—regardless of numerical limits established in the INA. As such, their
sponsored immediate relatives may immigrate to the United States without having to wait for a
numerical y limited preference visa to become available. In contrast, LPRs must sponsor relatives
for LPR status within numerical y limited family preference categories that require waiting for a
visa.9
Other benefits of naturalization include access to public benefits which may be restricted to only
U.S. citizens or may require five to seven years of LPR status. Access to state and local public
benefits according to legal status varies by state.10
In addition, researchers have found that naturalization is associated with beneficial economic
outcomes for immigrants who become citizens. These include increased earnings and
homeownership and lower levels of poverty, even when control ing for other factors such as age,
education, sex, and race and ethnicity. 11

7 Some localities allow noncitizens to vote, for example, in local school board elections. See Kimia Pakdaman,
“Noncitizen Voting Rights in the United States,” Berkeley Public Policy Journal, Spring 2019, at
https://bppj.berkeley.edu/2019/03/04/spring-2019-journal-noncitizen-voting-rights-in-the-united-states/.
8 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, USCIS Policy Manual, Volume
12: Citizenship and Naturalization, at https://www.uscis.gov/policy-manual/volume-12-part -a-chapter-2.
9 For further discussion, see CRS Report R43145, U.S. Family-Based Immigration Policy.
10 For more information, see CRS Report RL33809, Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy
Overview.
11 María E. Enchautegui and Linda Giannarelli, “T he Economic Impact of Naturalization on Immigrants and Cities,”
Urban Institute, 2015, at https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/76241/2000549-The-Economic-Impact-
of-Naturalization-on-Immigrants-and-Cities.pdf (hereinafter, “ Enchautegui and Giannarelli, 2015”). Manuel Pastor and
Justin Scoggins, “Citizen Gain: T he Economic Benefits of Naturalization for Immigrants and the Economy ,” Center for
the Study of Immigrant Integration, University of Sout hern California, December 2012 (hereinafter, “ Pastor and
Scoggins, 2012”); Heidi Shierholz, “T he Effects of Citizenship on Family Income and Poverty,” Briefing Paper ,
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Citizenship is permanent and relieves one of the continuous residency requirements LPRs must
meet to maintain their legal status12 as wel as to preserve their option to naturalize (see
“Continuous Residence,” below). Except for acts that bear on the integrity of the naturalization
process itself, citizenship through naturalization is as secure as citizenship acquired at birth (see
“Dual Citizenship,” below).
Outcomes for the United States
The United States benefits from having eligible foreign-born persons naturalize and acquire U.S.
citizenship. By naturalizing, the foreign born are able to vote in public elections, participate in
jury duty, and run for elective office where citizenship is required. Symbolical y and legal y,
naturalization represents an individual’s commitment to his or her new country, sufficiently so
that Congress has sometimes introduced legislation to facilitate naturalization and discourage
dual citizenship (see “Dual Citizenship,” below).
In addition to greater civic participation and commitment, as mentioned above, empirical research
offers evidence of economic benefits to the foreign born who naturalize, including higher
earnings. These earnings gains from naturalization translate to greater city, state, and federal tax
revenues.13 Such impacts can be considerable when aggregated to the national level.14
Naturalization Requirements
To qualify for U.S. citizenship, LPRs must meet certain requirements.15 They must
 be at least 18 years of age;
 reside continuously in the United States for five years (three years for spouses of
U.S. citizens);
 be of good moral character;
 demonstrate the ability to read, write, speak, and understand English;
 pass an examination on U.S. government and history; and
 be wil ing and able to take the naturalization Oath of Al egiance.
USCIS is responsible for reviewing al naturalization applications to ensure applicants meet U.S.
citizenship eligibility requirements.16 This assessment includes security and criminal background
checks, a review of the applicant’s entire immigration history, an in-person interview, and English
language and civics exams. Applicants bear the burden of proof to demonstrate that they entered
the United States lawfully.17 Upon approval, they must take an oath of al egiance to the United

Economic Policy Institute, February 24, 2010, at https://www.epi.org/publication/bp256/.
12 Most non-U.S. citizens must report a change of address within 10 days of moving within the United States or its
territories. INA §265(a), 8 U.S.C. §1305.
13 Enchautegui and Giannarelli, 2015.
14 Pastor and Scoggins, 2012.
15 For more detailed information about these requirements for naturalization, see 8 C.F.R. §316.
16 INA §335, 8 U.S.C. §1446.
17 INA §318, 8 U.S.C. §1429.
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States and renounce al egiance to any foreign state.18 Persons whose naturalization applications
have been denied may request a hearing before an immigration officer.19
Continuous Residence
To be naturalized, an applicant general y must have resided continuously for at least five years
within the United States after being lawfully admitted for permanent residence and prior to the
date he or she filed a naturalization application. For periods totaling at least half of that time, the
individual must have been physically present in the United States. The individual also must have
lived for at least three months within the State or district in which he or she filed the application.20
The period of continuous residence required for naturalization is broken by an absence of over a
year unless the LPR is employed abroad by the U.S. government, an international organization,
an American research institute, or an American company engaged in foreign trade. An absence of
between six months and one year presumptively breaks continuous residence unless the applicant
can establish that he or she did not abandon U.S. residence during that period.21
Certain classes of LPRs either are exempt from the residency requirement or are subject to shorter
residency periods.22 Unmarried children under age 18 living with a citizen parent are exempt from
any residency requirement.23 The residency requirement for spouses of American citizens is three
years instead of five years, and the physical presence requirement is one and a half years.24
Residency requirements also are modified for other special classes.25
Good Moral Character
To be eligible for naturalization, applicants must demonstrate that they have been persons of good
moral character during the applicable statutory period (five years in most cases) preceding the
filing of their naturalization application.26 The definition of good moral character can be found
not in the INA but in case law interpretation. However, the INA bars a finding of good moral
character if a naturalization applicant, over the course of the applicable statutory period, commits

18 INA §337, 8 U.S.C. §1448.
19 INA §336, 8 U.S.C. §1447.
20 INA §316(a), 8 U.S.C. §1427(a).
21 INA §316(b), 8 U.S.C. §1427(b).
22 Residency requirements are not applied to children adopted by U.S. citizens (INA §320), those who served honorably
in the U.S. Armed Forces during peacetime for periods totaling at least one year (INA §328), or those who served
honorably during a designated period of military hostilities for any period of time (INA §329). Individuals whom
USCIS determines have made extraordinary contributions to national security may be naturalized without regard to
these residency requirements provided they have resided continuously in the United States for at least one year. T his
clause is limited to five individuals per year (INA §316(f)). A similar rule applies to persons authorized to be
temporarily absent in order to perform ministerial or priestly functions of a bona fide religious organization (INA
§317).
23 INA §322, 8 U.S.C. §1433.
24 INA §319(a), 8 U.S.C. §1430(a).
25 INA §319(a), 8 U.S.C. §1430(a). For example, an individual’s absence from the United States due to his or her work
with the Chief of Mission or U.S. Armed Forces as a translator or interpreter, some of which work was done in Iraq or
Afghanistan, will not be considered a break in U.S. contin uous residence for purposes of naturalization (P.L. 109-163,
§1059(e)).
26 In determining good moral character, the Attorney General is not limited to the applicant’s conduct and acts during
the five years preceding application but may also take into consideration behavior at any time prior to the applicable
statutory period. INA §316(e) and 8 C.F.R. 316.10(a)(2).
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certain crimes or engages in certain il egal or what are general y considered immoral acts and
behaviors.27
Anyone convicted of murder at any time or of an aggravated felony on or after November 29,
1990, is statutorily barred from naturalization.28 Aggravated felonies according to the INA include
murder, rape, or sexual abuse of a minor; il egal trafficking in firearms or in a controlled
substance; supervising a prostitution business; receiving stolen property; and, fraud or deceit in
which the victims’ losses exceed $10,000, among other offenses.29
The USCIS naturalization examiner may go beyond what is specified in the INA to assess good
moral character. For example, failure to pay child support may be a significant factor. Although
adultery was removed as a statutory bar to naturalization in 1981, it may stil be a basis for
denying an application under certain conditions.30 The INA prohibits naturalization of persons
opposed to government law, persons who favor totalitarian forms of governance, 31 and
deserters from the Armed Forces.32
English Language Proficiency and Civics Knowledge
During applicants’ eligibility interviews for naturalization, they must pass English language and
civics tests. The law requires that persons wishing to be naturalized demonstrate an understanding
of English, specifical y an ability to read, write, and speak words in ordinary usage in the English
language.33 The language requirement is waived for those who are at least 50 years old and have
lived in the United States as an LPR at least 20 years, or who are at least 55 years old and have
lived in the United States as an LPR for at least 15 years.34 Individuals for whom the language
requirement is waived may take the civics test in their native language.35

27 T he INA and Code of Federal Regulations specifies examples of lack of good moral character as the following:
conviction of murder or an aggravated felony ; committing crimes involving moral turpitude or two or more offenses for
which the aggregate sentence was five years or more; violating any controlled substance law of the United States, any
State, or any foreign country; habitual drunkenness; illegal gambling; prostitution; polygamy (marriage to more than
one person at the same time); lying to gain immigration benefits; failing to pay court -ordered child support or alimony
payments; confinement in jail, prison, or similar institution for which the total confinement was 180 days or more
during the past five years (or three years if applying based on marriage to a United States citizen); failing to complete
any probation, parole, or suspended sentence before applying for naturalization; terrorist acts; persecution of anyone
because of race, religion, national origin, political opinion, or social group. Drug convictions for a single instance of
simple marijuana possession of 30 grams or less are excepted. INA §101(f), 8 C.F.R. §316.10.
28 8 C.F.R. §316.10(b)(1).
29 INA §101(a)(43), 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(43).
30 8 C.F.R. §316.10(b)(3). For a comprehensive list and descriptions of co nditional bars to establishing good moral
character, see USCIS Policy Manual, Volume 12, Part F, Chapter 5, at https://www.uscis.gov/policy-manual/volume-
12-part -f-chapter-5.
31 INA §313, 8 U.S.C. §1424. See C.F.R. §316.11 which states that naturalization applicants must demonstrate “a depth
of conviction that would lead to active support of the Constitution.”
32 INA §314, 8 U.S.C. §1425.
33 INA §312(a)(1), 8 U.S.C. §1423(a)(1).
34 INA §312(b)(2), 8 U.S.C. §1423(b)(2).
35 Individuals taking the test in their native language must bring an interpreter with them to the interview. See U.S.
Citizenship and Immigration Services, “ Exceptions and Accommodations,” at https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/
exceptions-and-accommodations.
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The civics test fulfil s a statutory requirement for naturalized citizens to demonstrate an
understanding of the history, principles, and form of government of the United States.36 The exam
is an oral test administered by a USCIS officer during the eligibility interview. USCIS has
discretion over the test questions and periodical y makes updates to the test. Applicants have two
opportunities to pass the test. They may retake a failed portion of the test between 60 and 90 days
from the date of the initial interview.37 The pass rate for the English and civics components of the
naturalization test was 91% as of December 2020.38
Special consideration on the civics requirement is given to individuals who are over 65 years and
have lived in the United States for at least 20 years.39 These individuals may take a modified,
shorter version of the test. Both the language and civics requirements are waived for those unable
to comply because of physical or developmental disabilities or mental impairment.40 LPRs who
serve in the U.S. military are eligible for expedited processing and waivers of certain
requirements (see “Military Naturalizations,” below).
On December 1, 2020, USCIS implemented a new version of the civics test, which had been last
updated in 2008. The 2020 version had the same “pass” score of 60% but required individuals to
answer 12 of 20 questions, an increase in the number of questions to be answered from the prior 6
of 10 questions. It also increased the pool of al possible questions from 100 to 128. USCIS stated
that the revision was undertaken “as part of a decennial update to ensure that it remains an
instrument that comprehensively assesses applicants’ knowledge of American history,
government and civic values.”41
Some stakeholders argued that the new test format and questions would pose a barrier to
naturalization.42 In February 2021, President Joe Biden issued an executive order directing
agencies to comprehensively review naturalization processes, including the civics and English
language tests.43 Subsequently, USCIS rescinded the new exam and reverted to the previous
version from 2008, stating it had determined that the 2020 test “may inadvertently create potential
barriers to the naturalization process.”44

36 INA §312(a)(2), 8 U.S.C. §1423(a)(2).
37 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “T he 2020 Version of the Civics T est,” December 10, 2020, at
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/2020test .
38 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Applicant Performance on the 2008 Naturalization T est,” January 27,
2021, at https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about -citizenship/the-naturalization-interview-and-test/applicant-
performance-on-the-naturalization-test.
39 INA §312(b)(3), 8 U.S.C. §1423(b)(3).
40 INA §312(b), 8 U.S.C. §1423(b).
41 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS Announces a Revised Naturalizat ion Civics T est,” news release,
November 13, 2020, at https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/uscis-announces-a-revised-naturalization-civics-test.
42 Simon Romero and Miriam Jordan, “New U.S. Citizenship T est Is Longer and More Difficult,” The New York Times,
December 3, 2020, at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/03/us/citizenship-test.html.
43 Executive Order 14012, “Restoring Faith in Our Legal Immigration Systems and Strengthening Integration and
Inclusion Efforts for New Americans,” 86 Federal Register 8278, February 5, 2021 (hereinafter, “Executive Order
14012, 2021).
44 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS Reverts to the 2008 Version of the Naturalization Civics T est ,”
news release, February 22, 2021, at https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/uscis-reverts-to-the-2008-version-of-
the-naturalization-civics-test. Applicants who filed their Form N-400 between December 1, 2020, and February 28,
2021, and are scheduled for an examination before April 19, 2021 , may choose which version (2008 or 2020) they take.
Applicants who filed on or after March 1 or whose exams are scheduled on or af ter April 19, 2021, are to take the 2008
version.
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The Naturalization Process
Application Procedures
The naturalization process begins when applicants file the USCIS Form N-400, Application for
Naturalization with USCIS along with a $640 filing fee and $85 biometric fee.45 Following
formal acknowledgement of receipt of the application, USCIS instructs applicants to attend a
mandatory biometrics appointment to have their fingerprints, photograph, and signature recorded.
Individuals undergo a background check to establish eligibility; USCIS checks fingerprints
against federal databases to see whether the individual has been arrested or convicted of a crime,
deported, involved with terrorist activities, or has used other identities.46
USCIS then schedules interviews with the applicants. During the interview, applicants are
questioned about their application and background and tested on their English ability and civics
knowledge (see the “English Language Proficiency and Civics Knowledge” section).
Those who pass their interviews and exams become American citizens upon taking the Oath of
Al egiance to the United States in a naturalization ceremony,47 which can occur either the same
day or in a ceremony at a later date. At the time of the naturalization ceremony, LPRs are
expected to bring several USCIS documents, including their Permanent Resident Card (“green
card”) which they must return to USCIS.48 After an LPR has taken the Oath, USCIS issues a
Form N-550, Certificate of Naturalization to document the individual’s new status as a U.S.
citizen.49 Newly naturalized citizens are instructed to update their Social Security record at a
local Social Security Administration office. They are also encouraged to apply for a U.S.
passport, register to vote, and obtain certificates of citizenship for their children.50
Children’s Citizenship and Naturalization
The INA specifies different requirements for a child to obtain citizenship through his or her
parents, which may be obtained at birth or after birth and before the age of 18.

45 Lawful Permanent Residents may also apply for a Declaration of Intention to become a U.S. citizen (USCIS Form
N-300). T his form is not required for naturalization, but may be required by some states for conduct ing certain business
with that State. Filing the N-300 does not grant citizenship or nationality or the rights that come with them.
46 Michael T . Dougherty, “Annual Report 2020, Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman ,” Department of
Homeland Security, June 30, 2020, at https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/20_0630_cisomb-2020-
annual-report -to-congress.pdf (hereinafter, “ Dougherty, 2020”).
47 See U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Naturalization Oath of Allegiance to the United States of America,
at https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/the-naturalization-interview-and-test/naturalization-oath-
of-allegiance-to-the-united-states-of-america.
48 USCIS Form N-445 provides specific documentation requirements.
49 INA §§338, 341, 8 U.S.C. §§1449, 1452, and C.F.R. §§338.1-338.5. In July 2013, USCIS announced it would begin
issuing redesigned certificates for citizenship and naturalization for individuals who request replacement certificates.
According to USCIS, the replacement certificates incorporate st ate-of-the-art technology to help deter counterfeiting,
prevent tampering, and facilitate quick and accurate authentication. See U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services,
“USCIS Redesigns Replacement Citizenship and Naturalization Certificates,” press release, July 1, 2013.
50 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Important Information for New Citizens,” Form M -767, August 2019.
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A child born in the United States automatical y acquires U.S. citizenship regardless of the legal
status of his or her parents based on the principle of jus soli,51 codified in the Citizenship Clause
of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution and Section 301(a) of the INA.52
For children born outside the United States, the INA enumerates a number of different
circumstances for citizenship acquisition depending on the citizenship status of the parent(s) and
the residence of the parent(s) and child, as specified in Table 1.
Table 1. Requirements for U.S. Citizenship Acquisition for Children Born Outside
the United States
Timing of
Relevant
Citizenship
Section of
Circumstances
Acquisition
Requirements
INA
Children born to
At birth
Child acquires automatic citizenship at birth if at least
INA §301(c)
two U.S. citizen
one of the parents resided in the United States or one of
parentsa
its outlying possessionsb prior to the birth.
Children born to
At birth
Child acquires automatic citizenship at birth if the U.S.
INA §301(d)
one U.S. citizen
citizen parent was physical y present in the United States
parent and one U.S.
or one of its outlying possessions for a continuous
national parentc
period of at least one year prior to the child’s birth.
Children born to
At birth
Child acquires automatic citizenship at birth if the U.S.
INA §301(g)
one U.S. citizen
citizen parent was physical y present in the United States
parent and one
or one of its outlying possessions for five years prior to
noncitizen parent
the child’s birth and at least two years after the parent’s
14th birthday.
Children lawful y
After birth;
Child acquires automatic citizenship if the fol owing
INA §320(a)
admitted for
before age 18
conditions are met: (1) at least one parent, including an
permanent
adoptive parent, is a U.S. citizen by birth or
residence and
naturalization; (2) the child is under 18 years of age; (3)
residing in the
the child is an LPR; and (4) the child is residing in the
United Statesd
United States in the legal and physical custody of the
citizen parent.e
Children residing
After birth;
Child may become a citizen if the fol owing conditions
INA §322(a)
outside the United
before age 18
are met: (1) at least one parent, including an adoptive
States
parent, is a U.S. citizen by birth or naturalization; (2) the
U.S. citizen parent has resided for at least five years in
the United States, of which at least two years were after
the parent’s 14th birthday; (3) the child is under 18 years
of age; (4) the child is residing outside of the United
States in the legal and physical custody of the citizen
parent; and (5) the child has been lawful y admitted
temporarily to the United States and remains in lawful
status.
Source: CRS analysis of the Immigration and Nationality Act.
a. These provisions apply to children born abroad in wedlock; the INA enumerates additional requirements
for children born out-of-wedlock to one U.S. citizen parent and one noncitizen parent. See INA §§309(a),
309(c) and 8 FAM 304.
b. Outlying possessions are American Samoa and Swains Island (INA §101(a)(29); 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(29)).

51 Jus soli is the principle that a person acquires citizenship in a nation by virtue of his birth in that nation or its
territorial possessions. Black’s Law Dictionary 775 (5th Ed. 1979); entry for “ jus soli.”
52 For additional information, see CRS Legal Sidebar LSB10214, The Citizenship Clause and “Birthright Citizenship”:
A Brief Legal Overview.
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c. Individuals born in outlying possessions of the United States to parents who are noncitizen nationals are
considered U.S. nationals but not U.S. citizens (INA §308; 8 U.S.C. §1408). Children born in an outlying
possession of the United States receive automatic citizenship under INA §301(e) if at least one U.S. citizen
parent was physical y present in the United States or one of its outlying possessions for a continuous period
of one year prior to the child’s birth.
d. Children general y become LPRs as derivative beneficiaries of a parent who receives LPR status (e.g.,
through family-sponsored or employment-based preference categories.) For more information, see CRS
Report R42866, Permanent Legal Immigration to the United States: Policy Overview.
e. These provisions apply only for children born on or after February 27, 2001 , per the Child Citizenship Act
of 2000 (P.L. 106-395). For children born earlier, the law in effect at the time the fourth condition was met
before reaching age 18 is the relevant law to determine whether they acquired citizenship.
In 2020, special provisions for the residence requirement under INA Section 320(a) were made
for the children of U.S. military members and government employees under the Citizenship for
Children of Military Members and Civil Servants Act.53 Under this law, a child born outside of
the United States acquires automatic citizenship, even if the child is residing outside the United
States, in cases where the child is an LPR and is in the legal and physical custody of his or her
U.S. citizen parent who is
 stationed and residing outside of the United States as a member of the U.S.
Armed Forces;
 stationed and residing outside of the United States as an employee of the U.S.
government; or
 the spouse residing outside the United States who is married to a U.S. Armed
Forces member or U.S. government employee who is stationed outside the
United States.54
Military Naturalizations55
The INA contains several provisions facilitating the application and naturalization process for
foreign-born military personnel of most branches of the U.S. Armed Forces and recently
discharged members.56 The Secretary of Defense is required to ensure that LPR members of the
Armed Forces are informed of the availability of naturalization through military service and the
naturalization process and to ensure resources are available to assist eligible servicemembers to
navigate the process.57 Requirements and qualifications (see “Naturalization Requirements”) for

53 P.L. 116-133.
54 INA §320(c), 8 U.S.C. §1431(c).
55 Portions of this section were taken from CRS In Focus IF10884, Expedited Citizenship through Military Service.
56 Qualifying branches include Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and certain National Guard
organizations that are recognized as reserve components of the U.S. Armed Forces. 8 C.F.R. §328.1. Under 10 U.S.C.
§504(b)(1), only citizens and noncitizen nationals of the United States; lawful permanent resident aliens; and certain
nationals of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Palau who are admissible as
nonimmigrants under the Compacts of Free Association with those nations, are eligible to enlist in the Armed Forces.
However, under 10 U.S.C. §504(b)(2), the Secretary of any U.S. Armed Force may authorize the enlistment of an alien
“if the Secretary determines that such person possesses a critical skill or expertise that is vital to the national interest
and that the person will use in the primary daily duties of that person as a member of the armed forces.” 10 U.S.C.
§504(b)(3)(B) limits the Secretary to 1,000 such enlistments in a calendar year per military department unless “the
Secretary of Defense submits to Congress written notice of the intent of that Se cretary concerned to authorize more
than 1,000 such enlistments in a calendar year; and a period of 30 days has elapsed after the date on which Congress
receives the notice.”
57 P.L. 115-91.
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military naturalizations are similar to general naturalization requirements, but military personnel
are exempt from residence and physical presence requirements.58
The INA distinguishes between peacetime and wartime service.59 For current or past peacetime
military service, naturalization applicants are not required to meet the naturalization residency
requirements if they apply while stil in the service or within six months of discharge.60 The
applicant must have served honorably in the U.S. Armed Forces for at least one year and must be
LPRs. Military naturalization applicants are exempt from USCIS naturalization fees.61
For current or past wartime military service during periods of designated military hostilities,62
naturalization applicants are also not required to meet the naturalization residency requirements,
but there are no conditions regarding the timing of the applicability of this exemption.63 Spouses
of U.S. Armed Forces personnel stationed overseas who apply for naturalization may have their
time abroad counted as residence and physical presence in the United States and may complete
the naturalization process abroad. Similar provisions apply to children of U.S. Armed Forces
personnel.
During a period of military hostilities, members of the Armed Forces who serve honorably for
any period of time may qualify for naturalization. Those who have separated from military
service must have been discharged under honorable conditions.64 Applicants are not required to be
LPRs, as long as they were physical y present in the United States65 at the time of their enlistment
or reenlistment.66
As of July 2002, noncitizens serving honorably in the U.S. Armed Forces on or after September
11, 2001, may file for citizenship under wartime conditions.67 Military naturalizations increased
substantial y following the executive order, growing more than four-fold, from FY2002 to
FY2004 (Figure 1).

58 INA §§328, 329, 8 U.S.C. §§1439, 1440.
59 Wartime service refers to a designated period in which the Armed Forces of the United States are or were engaged in
military operations involving armed conflict with a hostile foreign force. INA §329(a), 8 U.S.C. §1440(a).
60 INA §328, 8 U.S.C. §1439.
61 INA §328(b)(4), 8 U.S.C. §1439(b)(4) and 8 U.S.C. §1440e.
62 Wartime military service refers to a designated period of military hostilities, defined under INA §329(a) as a period
during which the President designates by executive order a period in which the U.S. Armed Forces are or were engaged
in military operations involving armed conflict with a hostile foreign force. Such designated periods include Sept. 1,
1939-Dec. 31, 1946; June 25, 1950-July 1, 1955; Feb. 28, 1961-Oct. 15, 1978; Aug. 2, 1990-April 11, 1991; and Sept.
11, 2001-present.
63 INA §329, 8 U.S.C. §1440.
64 Citizenship obtained through military service may be revoked if the individual obtaining it separates from the
military under “other than honorable conditions” before completing five years of honorable service. INA §§328(f),
329(c), 340.
65 In this case, the United States includes the Canal Zone, American Samoa, and Swains Island.
66 INA §329(a), 8 U.S.C. §1440(a). If such naturalization applicants are LPRs, they are not required to be present in the
United States at the time subsequent to their enlistment.
67 INA §329. In Executive Order 13269, former President George W. Bush officially designated the period beginning
on September 11, 2001, as a “period of hostilities,” which triggered immediate naturalization eligibility for active -duty
U.S. military servicemembers. T his executive order signed on July 3, 2002, also covers veterans of selected past wars
and conflicts.
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Figure 1. Military Naturalizations, FY2000-FY2019

Source: Department of Homeland Security, Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, Table 20, multiple years.
Military naturalizations also increased sharply from FY2007 to FY2010—from 3,808 to 9,122
(Figure 1)—facilitated by DOD and USCIS initiatives. In 2008, DOD authorized the Military
Accessions Vital to the National Interest (MAVNI) program. MAVNI al owed the Armed Forces
to recruit certain lawfully present foreign nationals whose skil s—either in medical specialties or
in certain languages—were deemed vital to the national interest. Qualified applicant categories
included refugees, holders of Temporary Protected Status (TPS), beneficiaries of the Deferred
Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, and a range of nonimmigrant categories.
Approved MAVNI applicants who then met the conditions for expedited naturalization through
military service, as described above, could immediately apply for U.S. citizenship. In 2009,
USCIS implemented the Naturalization at Basic Training Program, which offered enlistees the
option to naturalize upon graduation from basic training.68
Military naturalizations have decreased substantial y since FY2016, which may be attributable to
several factors. In 2016, the military services stopped accepting new applicants to the MAVNI
program and did not renew the program in 2017. In 2017, DOD implemented additional
background investigation and security review requirements for noncitizen recruits.69 A report
from the Government Accountability Office states, “due to backlogs in the background check
process, these new recruits were delayed in beginning their service, and officials stated that it
may take DOD up to a year to complete enhanced requirements for certain recruits.”70 DOD’s

68 Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Annual Report 2012, Citizenship and
Im m igration Services Om budsm an, June 25, 2012, p. 23.
69 10 U.S.C. §504(b)(3)(A) states that no person enlisting under MAVNI “may report to initial training until after the
Secretary concerned has completed all required background investigations and security and suitability screening as
determined by the Secretary of Defense regarding that person.”
70 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Immigration Enforcement: Actions Needed to Better Handle, Identify, and
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2017 guidance also required completion of basic training and six months of active duty service
(inclusive of basic training) to qualify for an honorable service determination. However, a 2020
opinion by the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia vacated the minimum service
requirements.71 In 2018, USCIS ended the Naturalization at Basic Training Program.72 By
FY2019, military naturalizations fel to 3,670 (Figure 1).
Posthumous citizenship is available for individuals whose death resulted from injury or disease
incurred on active duty with the U.S. Armed Forces during specified periods of military
hostilities. Surviving spouses and children of deceased servicemembers who qualify for
posthumous citizenship may be eligible for certain immigration benefits under the INA.73
Naturalization Oath of Allegiance
An individual seeking to become a naturalized citizen must take the Naturalization Oath of
Al egiance to the United States of America before citizenship can be granted:
I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance
and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, of whom or which I have
heretofore been a subject or citizen; that I will support and defend the Constitution and
laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will
bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I will bear arms on behalf of the United
States when required by law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces
of the United States when required by law; that I will perform work of national importance
under civilian direction when required by the law; and that I take this obligation freely,
without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; so help me God.74
In addition, naturalization applicants must renounce any hereditary titles or orders of nobility in a
foreign state.75 The oath of al egiance may be modified for conscientious objectors to military
service or for individuals preferring to affirm (instead of swear to) the substance of the oath. 76
Applicants for naturalization may choose to have the oath administered either by USCIS
(Department of Homeland Security) or an immigration judge (Department of Justice).77 They

Track Cases Involving Veterans, GAO-19-416, June 2019, p. 21, at https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-19-416.pdf.
71 Patricia Kime and Richard Sisk, “Judge Strikes down Minimum Service Requirement for T roops Applying for US
Citizenship,” Military.com, August 26, 2020, at https://www.military.com/daily-news/2020/08/26/judge-strikes-down-
minimum-service-requirement -troops-applying-us-citizenship.html.
72 Vera Bergengruen, “T he US Army Promised Immigrants a Fast T rack for Citizenship. T hat Fast T rack Is Gone,”
BuzzFeed News, March 5, 2018, at https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/verabergengruen/more-bad-news-for-
immigrant -military-recruits-who-were.
73 INA §329A, 8 U.S.C. §1440-1, and USCIS Policy Manual, Chapter 8 - Posthumous Citizenship.
74 8 C.F.R. §337.1. Language of the oath is closely based upon the statutory elements in INA §337(a). For more
information on the naturalization ceremony see U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “ Naturalization
Ceremonies,” July 5, 2020, at https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/naturalization-ceremonies.
75 8 C.F.R. §337.1(d).
76 INA §337, 8 U.S.C. §1448. See also 8 C.F.R. §337.1.
77 8 C.F.R. §337.2. INA §310 confers upon the Attorney General and USCIS the authority to naturalize persons as
citizens of the United States unless applicants are subject to the exclusive oath administration authority of an eligible
court per INA §310(b), 8 U.S.C. §1421(b).
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must appear in person in a public ceremony,78 which must be held as frequently as necessary to
ensure timely naturalization.79
Dual Citizenship
Dual citizenship refers to an individual’s possession of citizenship for two countries at the same
time. Each country has its own citizenship laws that define the nationality status of its citizens.80
Because such laws general y do not coincide, persons may have dual nationality by automatic
operation of different laws rather than by choice. For example, a child born in a foreign country
to U.S. citizen parents may be both a U.S. citizen and a citizen of the country of birth. Likewise, a
child born in the United States to foreign-born parents not only acquires U.S. citizenship at birth
but may also acquire the citizenship of his or her parents. For a variety of reasons, a number of
countries such as Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil have facilitated dual citizenship by passing laws
permitting their expatriates the right to naturalize in other countries without losing citizenship
from their countries of origin.81
The United States has no authority to prohibit another country from continuing to treat an
individual as its citizen. However, the United States considers that person, upon naturalization, to
have renounced other citizenships and to be only a U.S. citizen.
Loss of Citizenship
U.S. citizens may lose their citizenship in two ways: voluntarily, through expatriation, or
involuntarily, through denaturalization.
Expatriation
A U.S. citizen may lose citizenship through expatriating acts, including
 voluntary naturalization in a foreign country after age 18;
 making a formal declaration of al egiance to a foreign country after age 18;
 serving in the armed forces of a foreign country engaged in hostilities against the
United States;
 serving in the armed forces of a foreign country as an officer;
 holding an office under the government of a foreign country if foreign nationality
is acquired or if a declaration of al egiance is required;

78 Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, USCIS temporarily suspended naturalization ceremonies in March 2019 but fully
resumed them, with some modifications, in June 2019. See U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “ USCIS to
Celebrate Independence Day by Hosting Naturalization Ceremonies Across the Country,” July 1, 2020, at
https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/uscis-to-celebrate-independence-day-by-hosting-naturalization-ceremonies-
across-the-country.
79 8 C.F.R. §337.2(a). Applicants may be granted an expedited oath under certain circumstances. 8 C.F.R. §337.3.
80 U.S. Department of State, “Dual Nationality,” 2021, at https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/legal/travel-legal-
considerations/Advice-about-Possible-Loss-of-US-Nationality-Dual-Nationality/Dual-Nationality.html.
81 Scholars contend that many countries have become more tolerant of dual citizenship since World War II. See Peter J.
Spiro, At Hom e in Two Countries: The Past and Future of Dual Citizenship (New York: NYU Press, 2016). Empirical
research suggests that such legal changes in other countries have contributed to increasing levels of naturalization by
reducing the penalty for naturalizing in the United States. See Francesca Mazzolari, “ Dual Citizenship Rights: Do they
Make More and Richer Citizens?,” Demography, vol. 46, no. 1 (2009), pp. 169-191.
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 renunciation of citizenship before a U.S. diplomatic or consular officer abroad;
 formal written renunciation of citizenship during a state of war if the Attorney
General approves the renunciation as not contrary to the national defense; and
 conviction of treason, seditious conspiracy, or advocating violent overthrow of
the government.82
The Supreme Court has held that expatriating acts alone are not sufficient for expatriation unless
undertaken with intent to relinquish U.S. citizenship.83 This restriction also has been enacted in
statute.84 The requisite intent to relinquish need not be expressed but may be inferred from the
circumstances.85
Unlike citizenship revocation (see “Revocation,” below), expatriation or loss of nationality does
not have a retrospective effect. Hence, loss of citizenship through expatriation does not affect that
of “derivative” citizens—spouses and children—who acquired their citizenship by virtue of their
relationship with a “principal” citizen.86
Revocation
A naturalized citizen may be “denaturalized” (i.e., have his or her citizenship revoked) on the
basis that the citizenship was procured il egal y, by concealment of material fact, or by wil ful
misrepresentation.87 Various acts occurring after naturalization are considered evidence of
misrepresentation or suppression at the time of naturalization. For example, if a naturalized
citizen joins certain political or terrorist organizations within five years of becoming a citizen,
and membership in that group would have precluded eligibility for naturalization under the INA,
then the joining of the organization is held to be prima facie evidence raising a rebuttable
presumption88 that naturalization was obtained by concealing or misrepresenting how attached to
the United States the citizen was when naturalized.89 Naturalized citizens may have their
citizenship revoked because of less than honorable discharge from the U.S. armed services.90
Citizenship revocation must be initiated by a U.S. district attorney and must occur in the district
where the naturalized citizen resides.91 If a naturalized citizen is convicted of knowingly
procuring naturalization in violation of law, the court in which that conviction is obtained has
jurisdiction to revoke that person’s citizenship.92 In both cases, the court in which the revocation

82 INA §349, 8 U.S.C. §1481.
83 Vance v. T errazas, 444 U.S. 252 (1980).
84 INA, §349(a), 8 U.S.C. §1481(a).
85 For example, Richards v. Sec'y of State, 752 F.2d 1431 (9 th Cir. 1985); T errazas v. Haig, 653 F.2d 285 (7th Cir.
1981).
86 Perkins v. Elg, 307 U.S. 325, 59 S. Ct. 884, 83 L. Ed. 1320 (1939).
87 INA, §340(a), 8 U.S.C. §1451(a).
88 A rebuttable presumption is an assumption made by a court that is taken to be true unless someone comes forward to
contest it and prove otherwise.
89 INA, §340(c), 8 U.S.C. §1451(c).
90 INA, §329(c), 8 U.S.C. §1440(c).
91 INA §340(a), 8 U.S.C. §1451(a). If the naturalized citizen does not reside in any judicial district in the United States
at the time of the suit, proceedings may be instituted in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia or in the
U.S. district court in which such person last had his or her residence. T he naturalized citizen against whom such action
is taken has 60 days in which to respond to the action.
92 INA §340(e), 8 U.S.C. §1451(e).
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occurs must cancel the certificate of naturalization and notify the Attorney General of that action.
The holder of the certificate of naturalization must return it to the Attorney General.93
The effect of denaturalization is to divest a person of their status as a U.S. citizen and to return
them to their former immigration status as a noncitizen. Once final, the denaturalization is
effective as of the original date of the certificate of naturalization.94
Derivative citizens also lose their citizenship under these circumstances. If a principal
immigrant’s citizenship is revoked based on “procurement by concealment of a material fact or
by wil ful misrepresentation,” derivative citizens (i.e., their naturalized family members) also lose
their citizenship regardless of where they are living.95 If citizenship is revoked because of
membership in a subversive organization96 or less than honorable discharge from the Armed
Forces,97 derivative citizens lose their citizenship only if they are living abroad.98
In February 2020, the Department of Justice (DOJ) announced the establishment of a
Denaturalization Section within its Office of Immigration Litigation dedicated to citizenship
revocation investigations and litigation. DOJ stated that its Office of Immigration Litigation had a
95% success rate in denaturalization cases and that “the growing number of referrals anticipated
from law enforcement agencies motivated the creation of a standalone section.. . ”99 In 2021,
President Biden issued an executive order that directed federal agencies to review
denaturalization policies and practices “to ensure these authorities are not used excessively or
inappropriately.”100
Recent Naturalization Trends
Naturalization Applications
The number of persons applying to naturalize annual y has general y increased over the past three
decades, from 233,843 in 1990 to 967,755 in FY2020 (Figure 2).

93 INA §340(f), 8 U.S.C. §1451(f).
94 Ibid.
95 INA §340(d), 8 U.S.C. §1451(d).
96 INA §340(c), 8 U.S.C. §1451(c).
97 INA §329(c), 8 U.S.C. §1440(c).
98 INA §340(d), 8 U.S.C. §1451(d).
99 U.S. Department of Justice, “T he Department of Justice Creates Section Dedicated to Denaturalization Cases,” press
release, February 26, 2020, at https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/department -justice-creates-section-dedicated-
denaturalization-cases.
100 Executive Order 14012, 2021
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Figure 2. Naturalization Applications Filed and Denied, and Persons Naturalized,
FY1990-2019

Sources: FY1990-FY2019: DHS Office of Immigration Statistics, 2019 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, Table 20.
FY2020: USCIS, “Al USCIS Application and Petition Form Types (Fiscal Year 2020, 4th Quarter, Jul. 1-Sep 30,
2020).”
Notes: Because DHS Yearbook of Immigration Statistics data are not yet available for FY2020, FY2020
naturalizations shown are represented by approved Forms N-400 published by USCIS. These two data sources
closely correspond.
Naturalization application volume peaked in FY1997 and FY2007. These increases have been
attributed to legislation and demographic factors. Legislatively, the Immigration Reform and
Control Act of 1986 legalized about 2.8 mil ion LPRs between 1986 and 1989 who then became
eligible to naturalize in the mid-1990s. Four years later, the Immigration Act of 1990 increased
the limits on legal immigration to the United States, among other provisions, which also resulted
in increased numbers of persons applying for naturalization by the mid-1990s.101 USCIS has also
attributed the 2007 surge in naturalization application volume to several factors including a green
card replacement program,102 a broad-based increase in USCIS fees that took effect in July 2007,

101 Some have speculated that part of the 1997 increase in naturalization application volume stemmed from greater
eligibility restrictions for means-tested benefits and other federal assistance enacted through the Personal
Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA) . Other research suggests that the social
context of state-level immigrant receptivity plays a more important role in the decision to naturalize than state -level
welfare benefit levels. See Jennifer Van Hook, Susan K. Brown, and Frank D. Bean, “For Love or M oney? Welfare
Reform and Immigrant Naturalization,” Social Forces, vol. 85, no. 2 (December 2006), pp. 643-666. GAO attempted to
address this question, but encountered methodological difficulties. See General Accounting Office, Welfare Reform :
Public Assistance Benefits Provided to Recently Naturalized Citizens, GAO IHEHS-99-102, June 1999.
102 In the early 1990s, the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), predecessor agency to DHS, instituted a green
card replacement program to curb the increasing prevalence of document fraud. At that time, the INS estimated that 1.5
million LPRs in the United States would have to replace their existing green cards (I-151 cards), which would all expire
in 1996, with new biometric LPR cards. Because the cost of replacing a green card was nearly the same as that to
naturalize, many LPRs reportedly chose to naturalize instead.
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and grassroots campaigns to increase naturalizations prior to the 2008 elections.103 Naturalization
application numbers general y tend to increase in advance of general elections (e.g., as seen in
FY2012, FY2016, and FY2020 in Figure 2) and planned fee increases (see “Naturalization Fees”
section).
The average processing time for naturalization applications (Form N-400) dropped sharply
between FY2009 and FY2010, from 10.0 to 5.9 months, even with a 27% increase in pending
cases over that period. The number of pending applications increased sharply from FY2015 to
FY2017 and from FY2019 to FY2020. These increases were followed by increases to average
processing times, which peaked at 10.3 months in FY2018 before declining to 9.9 months in
FY2019 and 9.3 months FY2020 (Figure 3). For further discussion, see the “Backlogs,
Processing, and USCIS Capacity” section.
Figure 3. Pending Naturalization Applications (N-400) and Average Processing Times
FY2009 – FY2020

Sources: Pending cases (FY2009-FY2012): Data provided to CRS by USCIS. (FY2013-FY2020): USCIS, “Al
USCIS Application and Petition Form Types,” multiple years, at https://www.uscis.gov/tools/reports-and-studies/
immigration-and-citizenship-data. Average processing times (FY2009-FY2014): Data provided to CRS by USCIS.
(FY2015-2020): USCIS, “Historic Processing Times,” at https://egov.uscis.gov/processing-times/historic-pt; and
data provided by USCIS.
Naturalization Trends
Figure 4 shows the proportion of naturalizations by newly naturalized citizens’ region of birth for
each decade beginning in 1970. After representing the largest proportion of persons naturalized in
the 1970s, naturalizations of European nationals have declined over time, while naturalizations of
African and South American nationals have increased. By the 2010s, European, African, and
South American nationals represented similar proportions of naturalizations. Since the 1980s,

103 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Citizenship and Immigration Services, USCIS Ombudsman’s Annual
Report 2009, p. 3.
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Asia and North America (which includes Mexico and Central America) have consistently
represented the largest proportions of persons naturalizing by region of birth.
Figure 4. Proportion of Persons Naturalized, by Region of Birth
By decade, FY1970-FY2019

Sources: 1970: Immigration and Naturalization Service 1975 Annual Report. 1971-1980: 1980 Statistical Yearbook of
the Immigration and Naturalization Service. 1981-1990: 1990 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization
Service. 1991-2000: 2000 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service. 2001-2010: DHS, 2010
Yearbook of Immigration Statistics. 2011-2019: DHS, 2019 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics.
Despite increasing numbers of naturalization applications filed in recent years, the number of
naturalizations has not kept pace with the overal growth of the foreign-born population. The
naturalized percentage of the foreign born peaked in 1950 (74.5%), reflecting high naturalization
rates among refugees after World War II.104 After 1950, it declined, reaching its lowest point of
40.3% in 2000. The naturalized proportion of the foreign born increased to 51.6% by 2019
(Figure 5).105

104 Guillermina Jasso and Mark R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People: Immigrants in the United States (New York:
Russell Sage Foundation, 1990), p. 102.
105 In 1920, the Census Bureau began asking all foreign-born persons whether they had naturalized, and almost half
(49%) reported that they had. Prior decennial censuses in 1900 and 1910 asked only adult men their citizenship status.
Historically, certain immigrant groups have been excluded from naturalization. Until the Immigration and Nationality
Act was enacted in 1952, naturalization was reserved broadly for “ free white person[s],” as specified by the
Naturalization Act of 1790. T he Naturalization Act of 1870 extended citizenship to African nationals. T he Chinese
Exclusion Act of 1882 explicitly excluded Chinese nationals from citizenship until it was repealed by Congress in
1943.
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Figure 5. Naturalized Foreign Born as a Proportion of the Total Foreign Born

Sources: 1900-2000: Campbel Gibson and Kay Jung, “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born
Population of the United States: 1850 to 2000,” U.S. Census Bureau Population Division (February 2006). 2010
and 2019: CRS analysis of American Community Survey data, Table B05001, at data.census.gov.
Notes: The 1960 Decennial Census did not ask respondents about their citizenship status. See Guil ermina Jasso
and Mark R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People (New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 1990), p. 105.
In FY2019 (most recent available data), 843,593 individuals became naturalized U.S. citizens.
Individuals born in Mexico represented the highest number of naturalizations, followed by
persons from India, Philippines, China, and Cuba (Figure 6). The top 20 countries displayed in
Figure 6 represent approximately 64% of al naturalizations in FY2019.
People who naturalized in FY2019 spent an average of eight years in LPR status before becoming
citizens.106 Naturalized foreign-born from North America and Oceania spent the highest number
of years (10) in LPR status; those from Africa spent the fewest (6).107

106 John T eke, U.S. Naturalizations: 2019, Annual Flow Report, U.S. Department of Homeland Security Office of
Immigration Statistics, August 2020, at https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration-statistics/
yearbook/2019/naturalizations_2019.pdf.
107 Ibid.
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Figure 6. Persons Naturalized by Country of Birth, FY2019
Top 20 Countries

Source: John Teke, U.S. Naturalizations: 2019, Annual Flow Report, U.S. Department of Homeland Security
Office of Immigration Statistics, August 2020.
Naturalization Determinants
An estimated 44.9 mil ion foreign-born persons resided in the United States in 2019,
approximately 13.7% of the total U.S. population. Of these, 23.2 mil ion (about 52%) self-
reported their status as naturalized citizens.108 An additional estimated nine mil ion LPRs were
eligible to naturalize but had not done so.109 LPRs who are eligible to naturalize may not do so for
a variety of reasons, such as language and cost barriers.110 Other noncitizens are not eligible to
naturalize because they are LPRs with insufficient years of U.S. residency or they are
nonimmigrants or unauthorized and are not permitted to naturalize.111

108 U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2019 1-year estimates, T able B05001 (data.census.gov).
109 Baker, 2019
110 Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Mexicans Among Least Likely Immigrants to Become American Citizens,” Pew Research
Center, June 29, 2017, at https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2017/06/29/mexican-lawful-immigrants-among-least-
likely-to-become-u-s-citizens (hereinafter, “Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017”) and Bloemraad, 2006, pp. 40 -42.
111 Nonimmigrants refer to foreign nationals admitted for a designated period of time and a specific purpose. T hey
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Figure 7. Foreign-Born Population by Origin Country and Citizenship Status, 2019
25 largest national origins, listed in order of U.S. population size (each square represents 100,000 people)

Source: 2019 American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Micro Sample (PUMS), U.S. Census Bureau.
Notes: Populations are rounded to the nearest 100,000.
As shown in Figure 7, the proportion of naturalized individuals varies by country of origin.112
Among the 25 national origin groups with the largest U.S. populations, foreign-born individuals
from Central America—specifical y, Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador—Mexico, and Brazil
have the lowest naturalized percentages (less than 35% naturalized). These low proportions have
several explanations, including large numbers of recent legal immigrants, which reduces the
proportion of al foreign born with at least five years of U.S. residence; geographic proximity,
which can increase the likelihood that individuals maintain strong ties to their countries of origin;
and sizable numbers of unauthorized individuals who are ineligible to naturalize.113 Individuals
born in Mexico and Central America represent an estimated 68% of the total unauthorized
population in the United States.114

include a wide range of visitors, including tourists, foreign students, diplomats, and temporary workers. See CRS
Report R45040, Im m igration: Nonimm igrant (Tem porary) Adm issions to the United States.
112 See also National Academies, 2015; Nancy Rytina, The Timing of Naturalization in the United States through
1996:The Experience of the Legal Im m igrant Cohorts of 1977 and 1982 , DHS Office of Immigration Statistics,
Working Paper, August 2008; and Guillermina Jasso and Mark R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People (New York:
Russell Sage Foundation, 1990), pp. 98-121.
113 Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017; and Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield et al., “Naturalization of U.S. Immigrants: Highlights from
T en Countries,” Population Research and Policy Review, vol. 23, no. 3 (June, 2004), pp. 187-218 (hereinafter,
“Woodrow-Lafield et al., 2004”).
114 Migration Policy Institute, “Profile of the Unauthorized Population,” accessed February 17, 2021, at
https://www.migrationpolicy.org/data/unauthorized-immigrant -population/state/US.
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In contrast, foreign-born individuals from countries such as Vietnam, Iran, Poland, and the
Philippines al have naturalization rates exceeding 70%. Countries whose immigrants show
relatively high naturalization proportions tend to be characterized by large geographic distance
from the United States, less democratic or more oppressive political systems, and/or geopolitical
factors and calamities that initiate flows of refugees and asylees.115
By country of origin, Mexican nationals represent by far the largest number of LPRs who meet
the five-year residency requirement and who are potential y eligible for naturalization (2.49
mil ion in 2019). However, because many others lack LPR status, a large proportion of Mexican
nationals (43%) are ineligible for naturalization. Other national groups with large numbers of
LPRs potential y eligible for naturalization (more than 300,000 people) include those from China,
the Philippines, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and India (Table 2).
Looking at population proportions, those national groups with the highest percentage of
potential y eligible LPRs (>25%) relative to their total foreign-born populations include Japan,
the United Kingdom, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Germany, and Cuba. Countries with the
highest percentages of nationals ineligible for naturalization (>40%) include Guatemala, El
Salvador, Mexico, and India. The ineligible proportion of the population includes foreign-born
individuals who are not LPRs or who are LPRs but have not yet met the residency requirements
for naturalization (Table 2).

115 Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017; Woodrow-Lafield et al., 2004.
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Table 2. Foreign-Born Population, by Naturalization Eligibility and Country of Birth,
2019
Top 20 countries listed in order of number of persons potential y eligible for naturalization
Percent
Number of LPRs
Percent Ineligible
Potentially
Potentially
Total Population
Percent
for
Eligible for
Eligible for
Country
in the U.S.
Naturalized
Naturalization
Naturalization
Naturalization
Mexico
10,867,215
34%
43%
23%
2,490,000
China
2,257,642
50%
29%
22%
490,000
Philippines
2,019,664
72%
9%
18%
370,000
Cuba
1,358,388
61%
13%
26%
350,000
Dominican Republic
1,168,289
57%
14%
29%
340,000
India
2,686,889
47%
42%
12%
310,000
Canada
794,373
50%
18%
31%
250,000
El Salvador
1,433,313
34%
51%
15%
220,000
United Kingdom
682,283
55%
13%
32%
220,000
Vietnam
1,378,831
76%
8%
16%
220,000
South Korea
1,037,345
66%
15%
19%
200,000
Haiti
704,913
63%
15%
23%
160,000
Jamaica
787,740
68%
12%
20%
160,000
Colombia
803,759
62%
21%
17%
140,000
Germany
537,047
65%
9%
26%
140,000
Japan
325,540
35%
28%
37%
120,000
Guatemala
1,110,506
27%
62%
11%
120,000
Poland
406,492
73%
4%
22%
90,000
Peru
436,310
59%
20%
21%
90,000
Pakistan
392,538
68%
11%
20%
80,000
Other/unknown
—

—
—
2,560,000
Total

28%
20%
9,130,000
Sources: Number LPRs potential y eligible: Bryan Baker, Estimates of the Lawful Permanent Resident Population in the
United States and the Subpopulation Eligible to Naturalize: 2015-2019, Table 2, U.S. Department of Homeland Security,
Office of Immigration Statistics, September 2019. Total U.S. Population, Percent potential y eligible and Percent
ineligible: CRS analysis of data from Baker and 2019 American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Micro Sample
(PUMS), U.S. Census Bureau.
Notes: Potential y eligible individuals have been in LPR status for a sufficient length of time to meet naturalization
residency requirements. Ineligible for naturalization represents foreign-born who are not naturalized citizens and are
not potential y eligible to naturalize. These individuals either are not LPRs or are LPRs with insufficient residency for
naturalization. Because this calculation does not take into account other requirements for naturalization (e.g., English
language proficiency), the proportion ineligible presented is likely an undercount. Percentages may not add to 100%
due to rounding error.
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Other contextual factors are significant in predicting naturalization, including living in an area
with other immigrants from the same racial/ethnic background.116 The availability of dual
citizenship is positively correlated with naturalization for some groups, particularly those from
Latin America.117 Immigration restrictions may also impact propensity to naturalize. A recent
study found that LPRs who entered the United States without inspection and were formerly
unauthorized have a higher propensity to naturalize than those who were not previously
unauthorized.118 Researchers have found that some LPRs choose to naturalize as a protective
mechanism against policies that curtail rights or benefits for noncitizens.119
Apart from country-level and contextual characteristics, individual characteristics also influence
naturalization. Time spent in the United States is positively associated with naturalization.120
Measures of socioeconomic status, measured by income, education, and English skil s are also
positively correlated with naturalization.121
Some eligible LPRs, including those who are low-income or limited English proficient, may face
structural barriers to naturalization. For example, one study found that 98% of Mexican LPRs
surveyed said they would naturalize if they could, citing factors such as English language ability,
lack of time or initiative, and cost as primary reasons for not yet becoming citizens.122 (For more
discussion of barriers to naturalization, see the “Issues for Congress” section, below).
Issues for Congress
Backlogs, Processing, and USCIS Capacity
From FY2016 through FY2020, N-400 naturalization applications accounted for 11.7% of al
applications received and processed by USCIS, making it the second most common immigration

116 John R. Logan, Sookhee Oh, and Jennifer Darrah, “T he Political and Community Context of Immigrant
Naturalisation in the United States,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies vol. 38, no. 4 (2012), pp. 535–554
(hereinafter, “Logan, Oh, and Darrah, 2012”); Nadwa Mossaad et al., “Determinants of Refugee Naturalization in the
United States,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 115, no. 37 (2018), pp. 9175–9180 (hereinafter,
“Mossaad et al., 2018”).
117 Michael Jones-Correa, “Institutional and Contextual Factors in Immigrant Naturalization and Voting,” Citizenship
Studies, vol. 5, no. 1 (2001), pp. 41-56 (hereinafter, Jones-Correa, 2001); Logan, Oh, and Darrah, 2012.
118 Amanda R. Cheong, “Legal Histories as Determinants of Incorporation: Previous Undocumented Experience and
Naturalization Propensities among Immigrants in the United States,” International Migration Review, 2020, pp. 1-32.
For information about legalization provisions under the Immigration and Nationality Act, see CRS Report R45993,
Legalization Fram ework Under the Im m igration and Nationality Act (INA) .
119 Greta Gilbertson and Audrey Singer, “T he Emergence of Protective Citizenship in the USA: Naturalization among
Dominican Immigrants in the Post -1996 Welfare Reform Era,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 26, no. 1 (2003), pp. 25-
51; Paul M. Ong, “ Defensive Naturalization and Anti-Immigrant Sentiment: Chinese Immigrants in T hree Primate
Metropolises,” Asian American Policy Review, vol. 21 (2011); Yunju Nam and Wooksoo Kim, “Welfare Reform and
Elderly Immigrants’ Naturalization: Access to Public Benefits as an Incentive for Naturalization in the United States,”
International Migration Review, vol. 46, no. 3 (2012), pp. 656–679; Catalina Amuedo-Dorantes and Mary Lopez,
“Recent Changes in Immigration Policy and U.S. Naturalization Patterns,” Review of Economics of the Household
(2020).
120 Jones-Correa, 2001; Irene Bloemraad, “Becoming a Citizen in the United States and Canada: Structured
Mobilization and Immigrant Political Incorporation Immigrant Integration and Social Membership,” Social Forces, vol.
85, no. 2 (2006), pp. 667–696.
121 National Academies, 2015; Logan, Oh, and Darrah, 2012; Mossaad et al., 2018.
122 Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017.
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form handled by the agency (after I-765, Employment Authorization applications).123 As shown in
Figure 3, there has been a substantial increase in the growth of pending N-400 applications in
recent years, with 942,669 applications pending at the end of FY2020, compared with 291,833
applications at the end of FY2010.
The increase in pending cases is reflected in increased processing times for N-400 applications.
The average processing time for the N-400 nearly doubled from 5.9 months in FY2010 to 10.3
months in FY2018, before declining to 9.3 months in FY2020 (Figure 3). Processing times vary
by USCIS Field Offices.124
USCIS, Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman (CIS Ombudsman) and Office of
Inspector General, and external observers have associated the backlog of pending applications
with multiple factors:
 USCIS changes to Form N-400, including adding 13 questions in 2016, which
caused longer adjudication times;125
 increased numbers of naturalization applications in recent years (Figure 2) and
inaccurate USCIS projections;126
 a USCIS hiring pause in FY2020 and budget cuts in response to financial
chal enges;127
 insufficient USCIS staffing levels and office space;128
 initial chal enges transitioning from paper to electronic processing for some
forms in 2016;129
 increased demands on adjudicators’ time due to a new mandate for in-person
interviews for individuals adjusting to LPR status;130
 increased scrutiny of information submitted on Forms N-400 by adjudicators,
including more requests for evidence;131
 increased numbers of applications in advance of a planned 83% naturalization fee
increase (which was not subsequently implemented);132 and

123 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Number of Service-wide Forms by Fiscal Year To- Date, multiple years.
124 Processing times by Field Office or Service Center are available at https://egov.uscis.gov/processing-times/.
125 Department of Homeland Security, FY2018-2020 Annual Performance Report, 2020), p. 40, at
https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/19_0318_MGMT _CBJ-Annual-Performance-Review-DHS-
Overview_0.pdf.
126 Dougherty, 2020.
127 Letter from Joseph B. Edlow, USCIS deputy director for policy, to T he Honorable Bill Cassidy, December 23, 2020,
at https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/foia/USCI S_budget_shortfall_Senator_Cassidy.pdf.
128 Dougherty, 2020.
129 DHS Office of Inspector General, “USCIS Has Been Unsuccessful in Automating Naturalization Benefits
Delivery,” Department of Homeland Security, November 30, 2017, at https://www.oig.dhs.gov/sites/
default/files/assets/2017-12/OIG-18-23-Nov17.pdf. However, more recently, USCIS has reportedly “ turned a corner in
its electronic processing” of Forms N-400. See Dougherty, 2020.
130 Dougherty, 2020.
131 Randy Capps and Carlos Echeverría-Estrada, “A Rockier Road to U.S. Citizenship? Findings of a Survey on
Changing Naturalization Procedures,” Migration Policy Institute, July 14, 2020, at https://www.migrationpolicy.org/
research/changing-uscis-naturalization-procedures.
132 Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to
Certain Other Immigration Benefit Request Requirements,” 85 Federal Register 46788, August 3, 2020.
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 processing disruptions related to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
pandemic. On March 17, 2020, USCIS temporarily suspended al in-person
services at its field offices;133 the agency resumed some services on June 4, 2020,
including in-person naturalization ceremonies and interviews.134
USCIS has reported efforts made to address the backlog of N-400 applications. In 2019, USCIS
announced a new strategy to decrease processing times by shifting caseloads between field
offices, which may require scheduling interviews at field offices outside of applicants’ normal
jurisdictions.135 After initial y struggling to transition to electronic processing (see footnote 129),
the CIS Ombudsman reported that, “the agency is now able to leverage automated functions ... to
enhance vetting and better manage workloads at field offices.”136 USCIS is also using automated
assessments of N-400 applications to determine expected interview lengths.137 In 2020, USCIS
stated it had begun testing and implementing video interviews for N-400 applicants during which
the applicant and interviewing officer are in separate rooms within a field office to al ow for
adjudication while maintaining social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic.138 In 2021,
President Biden issued an executive order directing federal agencies to develop a plan to
“substantial y reduce current naturalization processing times.”139
Concerns regarding USCIS’s total application processing capability sometimes receive attention
when events transpire to cause unusual y large numbers of foreign nationals to apply for
immigration benefits. If Congress were to pass major reforms to U.S. immigration laws, such
changes could substantial y alter the number of immigrants lawfully admitted each year and the
legal status of sizeable numbers of foreign-born persons who reside in the United States. Changes
to both of these populations, in turn, could increase considerably the number of naturalization
applications filed.140
Naturalization Fees
USCIS operates as a fee-funded agency: Congress has authorized USCIS to set fees for
adjudication and naturalization services at a level that ensures recovery of the full costs of

133 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS T emporarily Closing Offices to the Public March 18-April 1,”
news release, March 17, 2020, at https://www.uscis.gov/news/alerts/uscis-temporarily-closing-offices-to-the-public-
march-18-april-1.
134 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS Preparing to Resume Public Services on June 4,” news release,
May 27, 2020, at https://www.uscis.gov/news/alerts/uscis-preparing-to-resume-public-services-on-june-4.
135 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS Aims to Decrease Processing T imes for N-400 and I-485,”
news release, June 17, 2019, at https://www.uscis.gov/news/alerts/uscis-aims-to-decrease-processing-times-for-n-400-
and-i-485.
136 Dougherty, 2020, p. 19.
137 Ibid.
138 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, USCIS Response to the Citizenship and Immigration Services
Ombudsman’s (CISBOM) 2020 Annual Report to Congress, December 4, 2020, at https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/
files/publications/2020_uscis_response.pdf.
139 Executive Order 14012, 2021.
140 Surges in petition and application volume often result from changes in U.S. immigration policy. In 2007, for
example, USCIS experienced a surge in immigration benefits filings that posed challenges for various agency
operations, including a “frontlog” in intake processing that created lags in data entry, delays in issuing receipts, and
problems with storing files and depositing filing fees. In addition, the agency announced that processing times in many
offices had increased, even as USCIS sought to realign existing staff and hire new adjudicators. However, within one
year, processing times for many forms were reduced considerably. See archived CRS Report RL34040 U.S. Citizenship
and Immigration Services’ Immigration Fees.
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providing those services.141 In FY2020, approximately 97% of its budget was funded through fees
collected and deposited into the Immigration Examinations Fee Account, which includes N-400
filing fees for (nonmilitary) naturalizations.142
Currently, USCIS charges naturalization applicants $725, which includes a $640 application fee
and an $85 fee for recording biometric information.143 The amount of the naturalization fee raises
several issues for Congress, including whether it accurately reflects USCIS’s cost to process
naturalization applications and whether it discourages persons from naturalizing due to the
expense.
USCIS naturalization fee increases are usual y subsumed within across-the-board USCIS fee
increases for many types of forms based upon audits of the costs of providing immigration
services/benefits.144 Proponents of fee increases maintain that immigration benefits such as
naturalization should be self-financing and that the beneficiaries should bear the full cost of
processing a naturalization application.145 Opponents argue that naturalization fee increases
discourage eligible LPRs from applying for naturalization, disproportionately impact low -income
immigrants, and prevent individuals from obtaining eligibility to vote in federal elections.146
In previous changes to its fee schedule, USCIS set N-400 filing fee increases at amounts lower
than the full costs of adjudication and lower than other fee increases in an effort to “promote
citizenship.”147 In FY2016, for example, USCIS increased its fees by a weighted average of 21%
but increased the naturalization fee by 8%.148 In FY2020, USCIS proposed several fee increases,
including an 83% increase in the N-400 filing fee, stating, “DHS now believes that shifting costs
to other applicants ... is not equitable given the significant increase in Form N-400 filings in
recent years.”149
USCIS stated that the planned fee increases were “intended to ensure that USCIS has the
resources it needs to provide adequate service to applicants and petitioners.”150 USCIS specified
that it had determined through its biennial fee review that current fees do not recover the full cost
of providing adjudication and naturalization services. The final rule would have also restricted

141 INA §286(m); 8 U.S.C. §1356(m). For background information, see archived CRS Report R44038, U.S. Citizenship
and Im m igration Services (USCIS) Functions and Funding .
142 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS Adjusts Fees to Help Meet Operational Needs,” news release,
July 31, 2020, at https://www.uscis.gov/news/news-releases/ uscis-adjusts-fees-to-help-meet -operational-needs.
143 USCIS may waive N-400 filing fees and biometrics services fees based on an applicant’s inability to pay. See
USCIS, Adjudicator’s Field Manual, Chapter 10.9 “ Waiver of Fees,” at https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/
document/policy-manual-afm/afm10-external.pdf.
144 P.L. 101-576 §902(b) requires USCIS to review its fees on a biennial basis.
145 Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to
Certain Other Immigration Benefit Request Requirements,” 85 Federal Register 46795, August 3, 2020.
146 Hailey Fuchs, “Looming Fee Increase Could T hwart Many U.S. Citizenship Applications,” The New York Times,
August 16, 2020, at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/16/us/politics/us-citizenship-fee-increase.html.
147 Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule,” 81 Federal Register
26916, May 4, 2016.
148 Ibid.
149 Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Fee Schedule and Changes to Certain Other
Immigration Benefit Request Requirements,” 84 Federal Register 62316, November 14, 2019.
150 Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to
Certain Other Immigration Benefit Request Requirements,” 85 Federal Register 46788, August 3, 2020.
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eligibility for fee waivers for low-income immigrants. However, the final rule was not
implemented because it was enjoined by two federal courts.151
In December 2020 correspondence to Congress, USCIS stated that because of the court
injunctions against the fee increases, the agency would forgo $760 mil ion in revenue and
experience financial constraints in FY2021.152 In January 2021, USCIS stated in the Federal
Register that it would comply with court orders and continue to accept the fees in place prior to
October 2, 2020 (the implementation date for fee increases), and continue to adjudicate fee
waiver requests.153 A February 2021 executive order directed DHS, DOS, and the U.S. Attorney
General to review the 2020 fee regulation, “recommend steps, as appropriate and consistent with
applicable law, to revise or rescind those agency actions,” and “make the naturalization process
more accessible to al eligible including through a potential reduction to the naturalization fee and
restoration of the fee waiver process.”154
Some question whether fee increases discourage eligible LPRs from naturalizing.155 Empirical
studies suggest that naturalization fees present barriers for some eligible LPRs who would
otherwise choose to become citizens. One experimental study, for example, found that offering
fee vouchers for N-400 application costs to low-income (between 150% and 300% of the Federal
Poverty Guidelines) immigrants eligible for citizenship increased naturalization application rates
by 41%.156 Fee waivers are currently available for individuals whose household income is at or
below 150% of the Federal Poverty Guidelines or who receive means-tested benefits.157 However,
researchers have found that participation in the fee waiver program is low relative to the number
of individuals who would qualify for it.158

151 Suzanne Monyak, “Calif. Judge Blocks Upcoming Immigration Fee Hikes,” Law360, September 29, 2020, at
https://www.law360.com/articles/1315144/calif-judge-blocks-upcoming-immigration-fee-hikes; Genevieve Douglas,
“Second Court Blocks Visa Fee Rule, Doubts DHS Chief’s Authority,” Bloomberg Law, October 9, 2020, at
https://news.bloomberglaw.com/daily-labor-report/second-court -blocks-visa-fee-rule-doubts-dhs-chiefs-authority.
152 Letter from Joseph B. Edlow, USCIS deputy director for policy, to T he Honorable Bill Cassidy, December 23, 2020,
at https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/foia/USCI S_budget_shortfall_Senator_Cassidy.pdf.
153 Department of Homeland Security, “U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule and Changes to
Certain Other Immigration Benefit Request Requirements,” 86 Federal Register 7493, January 29, 2021.
154 Executive Order 14012, 2021.
155 National Foundation for American Policy, Reforming the Naturalization Process, NFAP Policy Brief, August 2011.
156 Jens Hainmueller et al., “A Randomized Controlled Design Reveals Barriers to Citizenship for Low-Income
Immigrants,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 115, no. 5 (2018), pp. 939–944. See also
Gonzalez-Barrera, 2017.
157 See USCIS, “I-912, Request for Fee Waiver,” at https://www.uscis.gov/i-912. For more information about
immigrant eligibility for means-tested benefits, see CRS Report RL33809, Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public
Assistance: Policy Overview.
158 A recent experimental study found that informing low-income immigrants about their eligibility for fee waivers
increased the rate of citizenship applications by 8.6 percentage points. See Michael Hotard et al., “ A Low-Cost
Information Nudge Increases Citizenship Application Rates among Low-Income Immigrants,” Nature Hum an
Behaviour, vol. 3, no. 7 (July 2019), pp. 678–683.
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Figure 8. N-400 Naturalization Application Volume and Fees, FY1991-FY2020

Source: CRS analysis of USCIS data and Office of Immigration Statistics data.
Notes: Fee totals include fees for biometrics, which began in FY1998. USCIS proposed a fee increase for
FY2020, but it was not implemented.
In addition, graphing the naturalization applications filed each fiscal year against the amount of
the naturalization fee in that year (Figure 8) suggests that fee increases in 1998, 2002, 2004,
2007, and 2017, and the planned 2020 fee increases, were preceded by greater application volume
followed in the subsequent year by declining application volume. Nevertheless, other factors
described above also explain application volume increases apart from fee increases (see “Recent
Naturalization Trends”).
Citizenship Resources and Promotion
Some in Congress have expressed interest in facilitating language and civics instruction as a
means to promote naturalization. Multiple federal agencies currently support these objectives.
Among these, the Citizenship Resource Center, part of the USCIS Office of Citizenship, provides
English and civics training directly and through public/private partnerships. USCIS also provides
competitive grants for citizenship preparation services to public and private nonprofit
organizations through its Citizenship and Integration Grant Program.159 USCIS estimates that
since the grant program was established in 2009, it has prepared approximately 278,000 LPRs for
U.S. citizenship.160 The U.S. Department of Education offers grants to states to improve English

159 Eligible grant applicants are public or nonprofit organizations with recent experience providing citizenship
instruction programs, preparation workshops, and naturalization processes for immigrants. Because this program is not
directly related to USCIS’s central mission of reviewing and processing immigration -related petitions and applications,
its funding comes from congressional appropriations, which for FY2021 totaled $10 million (see P.L. 116-93). For
more information, see “Citizenship and Integration Grant Program,” at https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/civic-
assimilation/learn-about -the-citizenship-and-assimilation-grant-program.
160 U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Learn About the Citizenship and Assimilation Grant Program,”
updated February 17, 2021, at https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/civic-assimilation/learn-about -the-citizenship-and-
assimilation-grant -program.
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skills among adults who are not enrolled in school.161 Despite these and other federal adult edu-
cation programs, as wel as programs run by nonprofit organizations, demand for adult English
language and civics education services remains high.
Some have advocated for new funding for citizenship assistance, including proposals for a
national office to promote citizenship, English-language learning, and workforce development
training.162 As mentioned previously, in February 2021, President Biden issued an executive order
directing federal agencies to develop a plan to eliminate barriers to naturalization and review N-
400 application processes. The order established an Interagency Working Group on Promoting
Naturalization and directed the group to submit a naturalization promotion strategy to the
President.163 It also reconvened a Task Force on New Americans, original y established in 2014,
which previously engaged in immigrant integration efforts, including citizenship promotion for
eligible LPRs.164
Those opposing expenditures for citizenship preparation funding have argued such funding
creates a burden on taxpayers, expands the role of government, and is redundant with services
already provided by USCIS.165

161 In FY2020, appropriations for such adult education under the Adult Education and Family Literacy Act (AEFLA)
were $657 million, of which $578 million was distributed to the states via formula grants. Since FY2000,
appropriations legislation has set aside a portion of the AEFLA stat e grant funding for Integrated English Literacy and
Civics Education services (IELCE) for English language learners. In FY2020, this set -aside was $78.83 million or 12%
of state grants funding. For more information on adult education, see CRS Report R43789, Adult Education and Family
Literacy Act: Major Statutory Provisions.
162 See, for example, Senator Edward J. Markey, “Senator Markey and Reps. Meng, Jayapal and García to Introduce
National Office of New Americans Act,” January 28, 2021, at https://www.markey.senate.gov/news/press-releases/
senator-markey-and-reps-meng-jayapal-and-garca-to-introduce-national-office-of-new-americans-act. See also H.R.
572, S. 291, S. 348, and H.R. 1177 introduced in the 117th Congress.
163 Executive Order 14012, 2021.
164 T he White House Office of the Press Secretary, “FACT SHEET : ‘Stand Stronger’ Citizenship Awareness
Campaign,” September 17, 2015, at https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/09/17/fact-sheet-
stand-stronger-citizenship-awareness-campaign.
165 See, for example, Minority Views from Senators Grassley, Session, Lee, and Cruz in S.Rept. 113-40: U.S.
Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Border Security, Econom ic Opportunity, and Im migration
Modernization Act, Report, 113th Cong., 1st sess., June 7, 2013, p. 169.
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Appendix. Selected Links to Naturalization
Information and Application Materials
Naturalization Information
Guide to Naturalization
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/citizenship-and-naturalization/a-guide-
to-naturalization
10 Steps to Naturalization
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship/10-steps-to-naturalization
Learn About Citizenship
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/learn-about-citizenship
Naturalization Information for Military Personnel
https://www.uscis.gov/military/naturalization-through-military-service
USCIS Policy Manual: Citizenship and Naturalization
http://www.uscis.gov/policymanual/HTML/PolicyManual-Volume12.html

Naturalization Application Materials
Online Application and Instructions for Naturalization
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/apply-for-citizenship
N-400 Application for Naturalization
https://www.uscis.gov/n-400
Document Checklist
https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/forms/attachments.pdf
Citizenship Resource Center
http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/citizenship
Study Materials and Resources
https://www.uscis.gov/citizenship/find-study-materials-and-resources

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Author Information

Holly Straut-Eppsteiner

Analyst in Immigration Policy

Acknowledgments
William Kandel was the previous author of this report. Isaac Nicchitta provided data analysis and
visualization support.

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should n ot be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
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