State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
link to page 1 
Updated September 12, 2022
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
Some policymakers have raised concerns about a perceived
the resignation rate, and a 45% increase in the retirement
police staffing crisis and what this might mean for public
rate. The combination of reduced hiring and increases in
safety. This In Focus provides an overview of state and
resignations and retirements led to a 1.6% decrease in the
local law enforcement officer (LEO) staffing levels, a
number of LEOs among these agencies, though in the
discussion of some factors identified as potentially
largest agencies (500 or more officers) the decrease was
contributing to LEO attrition, what effect attrition might
3.1%.
have on public safety, and federal funding to help law
enforcement agencies (LEAs) hire officers.
Factors Potentially Affecting Staffing
Some point to increased scrutiny of LEOs and their tactics
Number of LEOs
in the wake of cases where on-duty police officers killed
Table 1 presents data on the number of full-time LEOs
alleged suspects as a reason why officers are leaving the
employed by state and local law enforcement agencies from
force and why LEAs are having difficulty recruiting new
the Census Bureau’s Annual Survey of Public Employment
officers. Evidence of how heightened scrutiny of LEOs
and Payroll.
might contribute to reductions in LEO staffing is largely
anecdotal.
Table 1. LEOs in the United States, 2012-2021
A 2021 study of LEO turnover in one “large, capital city
Year
Number of LEOs
Rate per 1,000 People
jurisdiction in the western [United States]” found there
2012
674,614
2.1
were no changes in trends in retirements and involuntary
separations after the 2020 death of George Floyd in
2013
672,060
2.1
Minneapolis and the resulting scrutiny of LEO tactics, but
2014
678,896
2.1
there was a nearly three-fold increase in resignations
compared to what would have been expected if past trends
2015
683,850
2.1
persisted, though the authors were not able to identify the
specific reasons why officers resigned. Some LEOs have
2016
687,643
2.1
reportedly left their departments because they feel they do
2017
698,277
2.1
not have the community’s support or fear they will be
charged with crimes for actions that result in someone’s
2018
710,428
2.2
injury or death, even if they were following departmental
2019
711,387
2.2
policies.
2020
719,325
2.2
While some point to current tensions around law
2021
712,112
2.1
enforcement as the reason for why LEOs are leaving their
departments, law enforcement was facing staffing issues
Source: Census Bureau’s Annual Survey of Public Employment and
before George Floyd’s death. A 2019 PERF report on a
Payroll. Rate calculated by the Congressional Research Service using
workforce crisis noted that “most law enforcement agencies
U.S. population estimates from the Census Bureau.
are sensing a crisis in their ability to recruit new officers,
and to hold on to the ones they have.” PERF identified three
The Census Bureau’s data provide insight into how the
reasons why law enforcement leaders were concerned about
number of LEOs nationwide changed from year-to-year, but
staffing: (1) fewer people are applying to become police
they do not provide insight into how staffing levels might
officers; (2) more LEOs are leaving their departments, and
have changed at individual agencies. While the total
in many cases the profession, before retirement age; and (3)
number of LEOs decreased from 2020 to 2021, it is
a growing number of current LEOs are becoming eligible
possible that not all law enforcement agencies experienced
for retirement. More recently, it is not clear to what extent
a decrease in their ranks.
stresses of the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., potential
exposure to COVID-19, requirements to work extensive
A June 2021 report from the Police Executive Research
overtime to cover shifts because other officers are sick)
Forum (PERF) suggests that some LEAs continue to
contributed to any recent LEO departures across the
struggle to fill open positions. In May 2021, PERF
country.
surveyed a non-representative sample of 194 LEAs about
staffing changes in their agencies. LEAs were asked how
Some point to efforts to “defund the police” in some cities
many LEOs were hired, resigned, or retired during two
(i.e., efforts to move resources from law enforcement
periods: April 1, 2019, to March 31, 2020, and April 1,
agencies to other social service agencies that can aid in
2020, to March 31, 2021. Responding agencies reported a
addressing social problems that LEAs currently handle) as a
5% decrease in the overall hiring rate, an 18% increase in
https://crsreports.congress.gov
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
reason for decreases in LEA staffing. An analysis of the
increases in violent and property crimes after Newark, NJ,
budgets of the 50 largest cities in the United States by
laid off 13% of its police officers in 2010. In comparison,
Bloomberg CityLab found that in aggregate these cities
the adjacent Jersey City, NJ, was able to forgo layoffs, and
reduced funding for LEAs by 5.2% from 2020 to 2021.
experienced decreases in violent and property crime during
However, the LEAs’ share of general expenditures in these
the same period.
cities increased from 13.6% to 13.7% during the same
period. In many cases, LEAs’ budgets were reduced as a
Research suggests that police practices, rather than the size
part of a broader pandemic-related budget cut, hence LEA
of the police force, are a more important consideration for
funding accounted for a slightly higher proportion of
crime prevention. A 2018 review of the literature by the
overall general expenditures even though funding for the
National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
LEAs decreased. Of the 50 cities in the analysis, 23 reduced
found that certain targeted, proactive policing strategies—
funding for their police departments, with reductions
such as hot spots, problem-oriented policing, and focused
ranging from 5% or less in most cities to 15% in both
deterrence—are effective at reducing crime. Other research
Minneapolis, MN, and New York City, and 33% in Austin,
suggests crime is not equally distributed across a city; it
TX. It is unclear whether any of these budget reductions
tends to be concentrated in certain neighborhoods or even
resulted in a reduction in force by terminating or
on particular blocks, so even with fewer LEOs available to
reassigning LEOs. It is possible that some LEAs absorbed
a department, the LEA still might be able to have a
the budget cuts by leaving positions unfilled, not replacing
significant deterrent effect if it can properly reallocate its
retiring officers, or not funding planned raises.
resources. There may be a point at which staffing is too low
for an LEA to effectively implement targeted, proactive
Effects on Public Safety
policing strategies in all of the jurisdiction’s hot spots.
Interest in LEA staffing levels stems from concerns among
some policymakers about what effect they might have on
COPS Hiring Grants
public safety. Some have pointed to cities that reduced their
The Department of Justice awards grants to state, local, and
police department’s budget and experienced increases in
tribal governments to hire LEOs through the COPS hiring
homicides and other violent crimes (murder, rape, robbery,
program (CHP). While a potential increase in the amount of
and aggravated assault) in the first three quarters (i.e.,
CHP grants might be able to help more LEAs hire new
through September 30) of 2021 compared to the same
LEOs, this solution assumes that LEAs are not filling their
period in 2020 to suggest that the cuts contributed to higher
ranks because they do not have the necessary budgetary
crime rates. However, increases in violent crime were
resources. Additional funding for CHP might not help
widespread in the first three quarters of 2021 and occurred
LEAs fill vacant positions if agencies have difficulty
in many of the country’s largest cities, even in those that
attracting new recruits. Grant funds cannot be used to
increased funding for LEAs. Also, for many large cities,
provide incentives to help recruit or retain officers.
violent crimes increased in 2020 relative to 2019, so for
many of these cities, the increases in 2021 were the
Congress has continued to fund CHP although authorization
continuation of what occurred in 2020.
of appropriations for the program expired at the end of
FY2009. Reauthorization of the COPS program might
Those concerned about the effect of fewer LEOs on public
present policymakers with a chance for amending the
safety point to studies showing that more police officers
program to encourage LEAs to adopt policies and practices
contribute to decreases in crime. They argue these studies
that could help foster better police-community relations,
suggest a decrease in police force size will result in more
which in turn might help LEAs retain current and recruit
crime. While research on the relationship between the size
new LEOs. As a means of promoting better police-
of police forces and crime is mixed, a 2016 meta-analysis
community relations, Congress could consider requiring
of 62 studies conducted from 1971 to 2013 concluded the
LEAs to demonstrate that they are trying to recruit a diverse
relationship between the size of a police force and crime is
set of candidates for LEO positions that reflect the
“negative, small, and not statistically significant.” However,
jurisdiction’s demographics, require LEOs hired with CHP
more recent research suggests that increases in the number
funds to be bilingual, or require LEOs to reside in the
of LEOs might contribute to decreases in crime, especially
jurisdiction in which they work. Policymakers might
violent crime, and particularly murder. For example, a 2019
consider whether to allow LEAs to use COPS grants to
study used a natural experiment created by cities that
survey the public about the LEA’s performance.
received Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS)
hiring grants in 2009 under the American Recovery and
Congress could also consider allowing COPS grants to be
Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5); it estimated hiring
used for purposes other than LEOs’ salaries that could help
grants increased police forces by 3.2% and crime rates in
LEAs hire and retain officers. Policymakers might consider
cities that received grants were 3.5% lower relative to cities
whether to allow LEAs to use COPS grants for hiring or
that did not receive a grant.
retention bonuses, to provide housing stipends for officers
who live in the jurisdiction, or to help LEOs repay student
While some research on increases in the number of LEOs,
loans or take college courses that could help them advance
which tend to be gradual, suggests that more police can
in the department. Congress might also consider whether to
reduce crime, there is little research on the effects of
allow COPS grants to be used for programs to promote law
marginal decreases in the size of a police force and its
enforcement careers in high schools and colleges.
effects on crime. A 2020 study of a significant and drastic
reduction in the size of a police force found there were
Nathan James, Analyst in Crime Policy
https://crsreports.congress.gov
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
IF12022
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF12022 · VERSION 2 · UPDATED
Updated September 12, 2022
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
Some policymakers have raised concerns about a perceived
the resignation rate, and a 45% increase in the retirement
police staffing crisis and what this might mean for public
rate. The combination of reduced hiring and increases in
safety. This In Focus provides an overview of state and
resignations and retirements led to a 1.6% decrease in the
local law enforcement officer (LEO) staffing levels, a
number of LEOs among these agencies, though in the
discussion of some factors identified as potentially
largest agencies (500 or more officers) the decrease was
contributing to LEO attrition, what effect attrition might
3.1%.
have on public safety, and federal funding to help law
enforcement agencies (LEAs) hire officers.
Factors Potentially Affecting Staffing
Some point to increased scrutiny of LEOs and their tactics
Number of LEOs
in the wake of cases where on-duty police officers killed
Table 1 presents data on the number of full-time LEOs
alleged suspects as a reason why officers are leaving the
employed by state and local law enforcement agencies from
force and why LEAs are having difficulty recruiting new
the Census Bureau’s Annual Survey of Public Employment
officers. Evidence of how heightened scrutiny of LEOs
and Payroll.
might contribute to reductions in LEO staffing is largely
anecdotal.
Table 1. LEOs in the United States, 2012-2021
A 2021 study of LEO turnover in one “large, capital city
Year
Number of LEOs
Rate per 1,000 People
jurisdiction in the western [United States]” found there
2012
674,614
2.1
were no changes in trends in retirements and involuntary
separations after the 2020 death of George Floyd in
2013
672,060
2.1
Minneapolis and the resulting scrutiny of LEO tactics, but
2014
678,896
2.1
there was a nearly three-fold increase in resignations
compared to what would have been expected if past trends
2015
683,850
2.1
persisted, though the authors were not able to identify the
specific reasons why officers resigned. Some LEOs have
2016
687,643
2.1
reportedly left their departments because they feel they do
2017
698,277
2.1
not have the community’s support or fear they will be
charged with crimes for actions that result in someone’s
2018
710,428
2.2
injury or death, even if they were following departmental
2019
711,387
2.2
policies.
2020
719,325
2.2
While some point to current tensions around law
2021
712,112
2.1
enforcement as the reason for why LEOs are leaving their
departments, law enforcement was facing staffing issues
Source: Census Bureau’s Annual Survey of Public Employment and
before George Floyd’s death. A 2019 PERF report on a
Payroll. Rate calculated by the Congressional Research Service using
workforce crisis noted that “most law enforcement agencies
U.S. population estimates from the Census Bureau.
are sensing a crisis in their ability to recruit new officers,
and to hold on to the ones they have.” PERF identified three
The Census Bureau’s data provide insight into how the
reasons why law enforcement leaders were concerned about
number of LEOs nationwide changed from year-to-year, but
staffing: (1) fewer people are applying to become police
they do not provide insight into how staffing levels might
officers; (2) more LEOs are leaving their departments, and
have changed at individual agencies. While the total
in many cases the profession, before retirement age; and (3)
number of LEOs decreased from 2020 to 2021, it is
a growing number of current LEOs are becoming eligible
possible that not all law enforcement agencies experienced
for retirement. More recently, it is not clear to what extent
a decrease in their ranks.
stresses of the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., potential
exposure to COVID-19, requirements to work extensive
A June 2021 report from the Police Executive Research
overtime to cover shifts because other officers are sick)
Forum (PERF) suggests that some LEAs continue to
contributed to any recent LEO departures across the
struggle to fill open positions. In May 2021, PERF
country.
surveyed a non-representative sample of 194 LEAs about
staffing changes in their agencies. LEAs were asked how
Some point to efforts to “defund the police” in some cities
many LEOs were hired, resigned, or retired during two
(i.e., efforts to move resources from law enforcement
periods: April 1, 2019, to March 31, 2020, and April 1,
agencies to other social service agencies that can aid in
2020, to March 31, 2021. Responding agencies reported a
addressing social problems that LEAs currently handle) as a
5% decrease in the overall hiring rate, an 18% increase in
https://crsreports.congress.gov
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
reason for decreases in LEA staffing. An analysis of the
increases in violent and property crimes after Newark, NJ,
budgets of the 50 largest cities in the United States by
laid off 13% of its police officers in 2010. In comparison,
Bloomberg CityLab found that in aggregate these cities
the adjacent Jersey City, NJ, was able to forgo layoffs, and
reduced funding for LEAs by 5.2% from 2020 to 2021.
experienced decreases in violent and property crime during
However, the LEAs’ share of general expenditures in these
the same period.
cities increased from 13.6% to 13.7% during the same
period. In many cases, LEAs’ budgets were reduced as a
Research suggests that police practices, rather than the size
part of a broader pandemic-related budget cut, hence LEA
of the police force, are a more important consideration for
funding accounted for a slightly higher proportion of
crime prevention. A 2018 review of the literature by the
overall general expenditures even though funding for the
National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
LEAs decreased. Of the 50 cities in the analysis, 23 reduced
found that certain targeted, proactive policing strategies—
funding for their police departments, with reductions
such as hot spots, problem-oriented policing, and focused
ranging from 5% or less in most cities to 15% in both
deterrence—are effective at reducing crime. Other research
Minneapolis, MN, and New York City, and 33% in Austin,
suggests crime is not equally distributed across a city; it
TX. It is unclear whether any of these budget reductions
tends to be concentrated in certain neighborhoods or even
resulted in a reduction in force by terminating or
on particular blocks, so even with fewer LEOs available to
reassigning LEOs. It is possible that some LEAs absorbed
a department, the LEA still might be able to have a
the budget cuts by leaving positions unfilled, not replacing
significant deterrent effect if it can properly reallocate its
retiring officers, or not funding planned raises.
resources. There may be a point at which staffing is too low
for an LEA to effectively implement targeted, proactive
Effects on Public Safety
policing strategies in all of the jurisdiction’s hot spots.
Interest in LEA staffing levels stems from concerns among
some policymakers about what effect they might have on
COPS Hiring Grants
public safety. Some have pointed to cities that reduced their
The Department of Justice awards grants to state, local, and
police department’s budget and experienced increases in
tribal governments to hire LEOs through the COPS hiring
homicides and other violent crimes (murder, rape, robbery,
program (CHP). While a potential increase in the amount of
and aggravated assault) in the first three quarters (i.e.,
CHP grants might be able to help more LEAs hire new
through September 30) of 2021 compared to the same
LEOs, this solution assumes that LEAs are not filling their
period in 2020 to suggest that the cuts contributed to higher
ranks because they do not have the necessary budgetary
crime rates. However, increases in violent crime were
resources. Additional funding for CHP might not help
widespread in the first three quarters of 2021 and occurred
LEAs fill vacant positions if agencies have difficulty
in many of the country’s largest cities, even in those that
attracting new recruits. Grant funds cannot be used to
increased funding for LEAs. Also, for many large cities,
provide incentives to help recruit or retain officers.
violent crimes increased in 2020 relative to 2019, so for
many of these cities, the increases in 2021 were the
Congress has continued to fund CHP although authorization
continuation of what occurred in 2020.
of appropriations for the program expired at the end of
FY2009. Reauthorization of the COPS program might
Those concerned about the effect of fewer LEOs on public
present policymakers with a chance for amending the
safety point to studies showing that more police officers
program to encourage LEAs to adopt policies and practices
contribute to decreases in crime. They argue these studies
that could help foster better police-community relations,
suggest a decrease in police force size will result in more
which in turn might help LEAs retain current and recruit
crime. While research on the relationship between the size
new LEOs. As a means of promoting better police-
of police forces and crime is mixed, a 2016 meta-analysis
community relations, Congress could consider requiring
of 62 studies conducted from 1971 to 2013 concluded the
LEAs to demonstrate that they are trying to recruit a diverse
relationship between the size of a police force and crime is
set of candidates for LEO positions that reflect the
“negative, small, and not statistically significant.” However,
jurisdiction’s demographics, require LEOs hired with CHP
more recent research suggests that increases in the number
funds to be bilingual, or require LEOs to reside in the
of LEOs might contribute to decreases in crime, especially
jurisdiction in which they work. Policymakers might
violent crime, and particularly murder. For example, a 2019
consider whether to allow LEAs to use COPS grants to
study used a natural experiment created by cities that
survey the public about the LEA’s performance.
received Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS)
hiring grants in 2009 under the American Recovery and
Congress could also consider allowing COPS grants to be
Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5); it estimated hiring
used for purposes other than LEOs’ salaries that could help
grants increased police forces by 3.2% and crime rates in
LEAs hire and retain officers. Policymakers might consider
cities that received grants were 3.5% lower relative to cities
whether to allow LEAs to use COPS grants for hiring or
that did not receive a grant.
retention bonuses, to provide housing stipends for officers
who live in the jurisdiction, or to help LEOs repay student
While some research on increases in the number of LEOs,
loans or take college courses that could help them advance
which tend to be gradual, suggests that more police can
in the department. Congress might also consider whether to
reduce crime, there is little research on the effects of
allow COPS grants to be used for programs to promote law
marginal decreases in the size of a police force and its
enforcement careers in high schools and colleges.
effects on crime. A 2020 study of a significant and drastic
reduction in the size of a police force found there were
Nathan James, Analyst in Crime Policy
https://crsreports.congress.gov
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
IF12022
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF12022 · VERSION 2 · UPDATED