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January 19, 2022
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
Some policymakers have raised concerns about a perceived
rate. The combination of reduced hiring and increases in
police staffing crisis and what this might mean for public
resignations and retirements led to a 1.6% decrease in the
safety. This In Focus provides an overview of state and
number of LEOs among these agencies, though in the
local law enforcement officer (LEO) staffing levels, a
largest agencies (500 or more officers) the decrease was
discussion of some factors identified as potentially
3.1%.
contributing to LEO attrition, what effect attrition might
have on public safety, and federal funding to help law
Factors Potentially Affecting Staffing
enforcement agencies (LEAs) hire officers.
Some point to increased scrutiny of LEOs and their tactics
in the wake of cases where on-duty police officers killed
Number of LEOs
alleged suspects as a reason why officers are leaving the
Table 1 presents data on the number of full-time LEOs
force and why LEAs are having difficulty recruiting new
employed by state and local law enforcement agencies from
officers. Evidence of how heightened scrutiny of LEOs
the Census Bureau’s Annual Survey of Public Employment
might contribute to reductions in LEO staffing is largely
and Payroll. The number of LEOs increased each year from
anecdotal.
2014 to 2020 after three years of decreases from 2011 to
2013. The relatively steady increase in the number of LEOs
A 2021 study of LEO turnover in one “large, capital city
since 2014 helped offset the losses in LEO employment that
jurisdiction in the western [United States]” found there
occurred from 2011 to 2013. The fairly consistent rate of
were no changes in trends in retirements and involuntary
LEOs per 1,000 people since 2014 indicates that LEO
separations after the 2020 death of George Floyd in
employment has kept pace with U.S. population growth.
Minneapolis and the resulting scrutiny of LEO tactics, but
there was a nearly three-fold increase in resignations
Table 1. LEOs in the United States, 2011-2020
compared to what would have been expected if past trends
persisted, though the authors were not able to identify the
Year
Number of LEOs
Rate per 1,000 People
specific reasons why officers resigned. Some LEOs have
2011
702,759
2.3
reportedly left their departments because they feel they do
not have the community’s support or fear they will be
2012
674,614
2.1
charged with crimes for actions that result in someone’s
2013
672,060
2.1
injury or death, even if they were following departmental
policies.
2014
678,896
2.1
While some point to current tensions around law
2015
683,850
2.1
enforcement as the reason for why LEOs are leaving their
2016
687,643
2.1
departments, law enforcement was facing staffing issues
before George Floyd’s death. A 2019 PERF report on a
2017
698,277
2.1
workforce crisis noted that “most law enforcement agencies
2018
710,428
2.2
are sensing a crisis in their ability to recruit new officers,
and to hold on to the ones they have.” PERF identified three
2019
711,583
2.2
reasons why law enforcement leaders were concerned about
2020
718,217
2.2
staffing: (1) fewer people are applying to become police
officers; (2) more LEOs are leaving their departments, and
Source: Census Bureau’s Annual Survey of Public Employment and
in many cases the profession, before retirement age; and (3)
Payroll. Rate calculated by the Congressional Research Service using
a growing number of current LEOs are becoming eligible
U.S. population estimates from the Census Bureau.
for retirement. More recently, it is not clear to what extent
stresses of the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., potential
The Census Bureau has not published LEO employment
exposure to COVID-19, requirements to work extensive
data for 2021; a June 2021 report from the Police Executive
overtime to cover shifts because other officers are sick)
Research Forum (PERF) suggests that some LEAs continue
contributed to any recent LEO departures across the
to struggle to fill open positions. In May 2021, PERF
country.
surveyed a non-representative sample of 194 LEAs about
staffing changes in their agencies. LEAs were asked how
Some point to efforts to “defund the police” in some cities
many LEOs were hired, resigned, or retired during two
(i.e., efforts to move resources from law enforcement
periods: April 1, 2019, to March 31, 2020, and April 1,
agencies to other social service agencies that can aid in
2020, to March 31, 2021. Responding agencies reported a
addressing social problems that LEAs currently handle) as a
5% decrease in the overall hiring rate, an 18% increase in
reason for decreases in LEA staffing. An analysis of the
the resignation rate, and a 45% increase in the retirement
https://crsreports.congress.gov
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
budgets of the 50 largest cities in the United States by
increases in violent and property crimes after Newark, NJ,
Bloomberg CityLab found that in aggregate these cities
laid off 13% of its police officers in 2010. In comparison,
reduced funding for LEAs by 5.2% from 2020 to 2021.
the adjacent Jersey City, NJ, was able to forgo layoffs, and
However, the LEAs’ share of general expenditures in these
experienced decreases in violent and property crime during
cities increased from 13.6% to 13.7% during the same
the same period.
period. In many cases, LEAs’ budgets were reduced as a
part of a broader pandemic-related budget cut, hence LEA
Research suggests that police practices, rather than the size
funding accounted for a slightly higher proportion of
of the police force, are a more important consideration for
overall general expenditures even though funding for the
crime prevention. A 2018 review of the literature by the
LEAs decreased. Of the 50 cities in the analysis, 23 reduced
National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
funding for their police departments, with reductions
found that certain targeted, proactive policing strategies—
ranging from 5% or less in most cities to 15% in both
such as hot spots, problem-oriented policing, and focused
Minneapolis, MN, and New York City, and 33% in Austin,
deterrence—are effective at reducing crime. Other research
TX. It is unclear whether any of these budget reductions
suggests crime is not equally distributed across a city; it
resulted in a reduction in force by terminating or
tends to be concentrated in certain neighborhoods or even
reassigning LEOs. It is possible that some LEAs absorbed
on particular blocks, so even with fewer LEOs available to
the budget cuts by leaving positions unfilled, not replacing
a department, the LEA still might be able to have a
retiring officers, or not funding planned raises.
significant deterrent effect if it can properly reallocate its
resources. There may be a point at which staffing is too low
Effects on Public Safety
for an LEA to effectively implement targeted, proactive
Interest in LEA staffing levels stems from concerns among
policing strategies in all of the jurisdiction’s hot spots.
some policymakers about what effect they might have on
public safety. Some have pointed to cities that reduced their
COPS Hiring Grants
police department’s budget and experienced increases in
The Department of Justice awards grants to state, local, and
homicides and other violent crimes (murder, rape, robbery,
tribal governments to hire LEOs through the COPS hiring
and aggravated assault) in the first three quarters (i.e.,
program (CHP). While a potential increase in the amount of
through September 30) of 2021 compared to the same
CHP grants might be able to help more LEAs hire new
period in 2020 to suggest that the cuts contributed to higher
LEOs, this solution assumes that LEAs are not filling their
crime rates. However, increases in violent crime were
ranks because they do not have the necessary budgetary
widespread in the first three quarters of 2021 and occurred
resources. Additional funding for CHP might not help
in many of the country’s largest cities, even in those that
LEAs fill vacant positions if agencies have difficulty
increased funding for LEAs. Also, for many large cities,
attracting new recruits. Grant funds cannot be used to
violent crimes increased in 2020 relative to 2019, so for
provide incentives to help recruit or retain officers.
many of these cities, the increases in 2021 were the
continuation of what occurred in 2020.
Congress has continued to fund CHP although authorized
appropriations expired at the end of FY2009.
Those concerned about the effect of fewer LEOs on public
Reauthorization of the COPS program might present
safety point to studies showing that more police officers
policymakers with a chance to encourage LEAs to adopt
contribute to decreases in crime. They argue these studies
policies and practices that could help foster better police-
suggest a decrease in police force size will result in more
community relations, which in turn might help LEAs retain
crime. While research on the relationship between the size
current and recruit new LEOs. As a means of promoting
of police forces and crime is mixed, a 2016 meta-analysis
better police-community relations, Congress could consider
of 62 studies conducted from 1971 to 2013 concluded the
requiring LEAs to demonstrate that they are trying to
relationship between the size of a police force and crime is
recruit a diverse set of candidates for LEO positions that
“negative, small, and not statistically significant.” However,
reflect the jurisdiction’s demographics, require LEOs hired
more recent research suggests that increases in the number
with CHP funds to be bilingual, or require LEOs to reside
of LEOs might contribute to decreases in crime, especially
in the jurisdiction in which they work. Policymakers might
violent crime, and particularly murder. For example, a 2019
consider whether to allow LEAs to use COPS grants to
study used a natural experiment created by cities that
survey the public about the LEA’s performance.
received Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS)
hiring grants in 2009 under the American Recovery and
Congress could also consider allowing COPS grants to be
Reinvestment Act (P.L. 111-5); it estimated that one
used for purposes other than LEOs’ salaries that could help
additional LEO contributed to 0.1 fewer murders, 0.5 fewer
LEAs hire and retain officers. Policymakers might consider
rapes, and 2.0 fewer robberies. Another 2019 study utilizing
whether to allow LEAs to use COPS grants for hiring or
data from California estimated that one additional LEO
retention bonuses, to provide housing stipends for officers
prevented six property crimes and one violent crime.
who live in the jurisdiction, or to help LEOs repay student
loans or take college courses that could help them advance
While some research on increases in the number of LEOs,
in the department. Congress might also consider whether to
which tend to be gradual, suggests that more police can
allow COPS grants to be used for programs to promote law
reduce crime, there is little research on the effects of
enforcement careers in high schools and colleges.
marginal decreases in the size of a police force and its
effects on crime. A 2020 study of a significant and drastic
Nathan James, Analyst in Crime Policy
reduction in the size of a police force found there were
IF12022
https://crsreports.congress.gov
State and Local Law Enforcement Officer Staffing
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF12022 · VERSION 1 · NEW