Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations
link to page 1 
Updated January 14, 2022
Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations
COVID-19 in Europe
European Responses
Like most of the rest of the world, European governments
By March 2020, nearly all European governments had
and the European Union (EU) have struggled to manage the
imposed national “lockdown” restrictions and social-
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.
distancing measures, including closing schools and
European leaders have characterized the pandemic as
nonessential businesses and banning large gatherings. Such
Europe’s biggest challenge since the Second World War,
measures varied by country in strictness, length, and other
with potentially far-reaching political, social, and economic
aspects. Sweden initially took a different approach that
consequences beyond the public health impact. Members of
trusted citizens to practice social distancing and imposed
Congress may be interested in COVID-19’s implications
few mandatory restrictions, but many public health experts
for U.S. relations with Europe, including in NATO and with
questioned this strategy. Most European governments also
the EU, and in how the pandemic might alter certain U.S.-
enacted national border controls, and some limited internal
European dynamics, especially vis-à-vis China.
travel. Several European countries, including Denmark,
Germany, and Norway, implemented robust testing and
Statistics
tracing programs. Phased reopenings began in mid-April
Europe has experienced several waves of the pandemic
and early May 2020, but most European countries
since its onset in early 2020. As of January 14, 2022, about
continued to restrict nonessential international travel.
84.2 million confirmed COVID-19 infections and nearly
Subsequent waves of the virus in fall 2020 and in 2021
1.1 million deaths had been reported across the 27-member
prompted new rounds of restrictions on social and business
EU, the United Kingdom (UK), Norway, and Switzerland
activity throughout Europe, although in some countries
(out of a combined population of roughly 527 million). As
restrictions were less stringent than during the first wave.
seen in Table 1, the pandemic has significantly affected
countries in both Western and Central Europe.
By early 2021, EU and other European countries had begun
vaccination programs. According to Oxford University
Table 1. COVID-19 Cases and Deaths in Europe:
data, roughly 70% of the total EU population and 70% of
Top 10 Affected Countries
the UK population are fully vaccinated (as of mid-January
(by number of cases, as of January 14, 2022)
2022). Western European countries generally have higher
vaccination rates (of 70%-80%) to date than Central
Deaths
Case
European countries (most between 40%-60%) or those in
Country
Cases
Deaths
per
Fatality
the Western Balkans (about 40% of the region’s total
100,000
Rates
population is fully vaccinated). Many European
governments require a “COVID pass” (showing proof of
UK
15,064,685
151,833
227.18
1.00%
vaccination, a recent negative test, or recent recovery) for
France
13,351,053
127,520
190.16
1.00%
access to certain venues and businesses, including
restaurants. Amid rising cases throughout Europe due to the
Italy
8,155,645
140,188
232.49
1.70%
spread of the more transmissible omicron variant, most
Spain
7,930,528
90,620
192.49
1.10%
European governments are encouraging booster shots.
Germany
7,866,784
115,343
138.75
1.50%
Some European governments began to reinstitute selected
social and commercial restrictions in late 2021 due to
Poland
4,265,433
101,419
267.10
2.40%
concerns that the omicron surge could overburden hospitals.
Netherlands
3,539,335
21,610
124.68
0.60%
Austria, the Netherlands, and Slovakia reimposed
lockdowns for several weeks. Austria, France, Germany,
Czech Rep.
2,562,235
36,765
334.57
1.40%
Italy, and others implemented or are considering tighter
Belgium
2,347,164
28,566
248.74
1.20%
restrictions for unvaccinated individuals and vaccine
mandates.
Romania
1,875,887
59,150
305.58
3.20%
Source: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Coronavirus
European leaders continue to grapple with balancing
Resource Center, updated daily at https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/.
measures to contain the virus’s spread with fostering
economic recovery and managing growing “pandemic
The Western Balkan countries (Albania, Bosnia and
fatigue.” The EU estimates its total economy contracted by
Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and
5.9% in 2020 but grew by 5% in 2021; forecasts predict
Serbia) have reported a combined 2.5 million COVID-19
4.3% growth in 2022. The speed of economic recovery has
cases and nearly 44,000 deaths to date (out of a combined
been faster than expected but varies among member states.
population of roughly 18 million). Some parts of the region
National measures to mitigate the pandemic’s negative
have among the highest case-fatality ratios in Europe.
economic repercussions include loan programs and credit
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations
guarantees for companies, income subsidies for affected
Upon taking office, President Biden pledged to enhance
workers, tax deferrals, and debt repayment deferments.
cooperation with Europe to defeat COVID-19, halted the
U.S. withdrawal from the WHO, and announced the United
EU Actions
States would join COVAX, a WHO-led initiative supported
Although national governments retain control over most
by the EU to deliver vaccines and treatments to developing
aspects of health policy, the EU has sought to play a leading
countries. At their June 2021 summit, the United States and
role in managing the European response to the pandemic
the EU identified ending the pandemic as a key priority;
and in harmonizing policies in an effort to prevent internal
among other measures, they have committed to bolster
discord and promote EU solidarity. The EU coordinated the
COVID-19 vaccine supplies globally, including by
imposition of bloc-wide travel restrictions on most foreign
donating vaccines and addressing manufacturing and supply
visitors; worked to ensure the provision of sufficient
chain challenges. The United States and the EU also are
personal protective equipment (PPE) and other medical
involved in World Trade Organization (WTO) discussions
supplies across Europe; and supported research and
on trade responses to the pandemic, including the concept
development of treatments, diagnostics, and vaccines, in
of waiving intellectual property rights (IPR) on COVID-19
part through leading international donor efforts. The EU
vaccines. The Biden Administration has voiced support for
procured vaccines on behalf of all member states. Although
a potential waiver, but Members of Congress are divided
initial production delays and a slow start to vaccine
and the EU has proposed alternatives. (See CRS In Focus
distribution sparked frustration among some European
IF11858, Potential WTO TRIPS Waiver and COVID-19.)
leaders and publics, the EU procurement initiative is largely
regarded as a success given the relatively high vaccination
Relations with China
rates across much of the bloc.
Some U.S. officials and Members of Congress have voiced
apprehension about China’s efforts to enhance its influence
The EU also has focused on promoting economic recovery.
in Europe. Notwithstanding initial concerns that China’s
In April 2020, the EU agreed on a €540 billion (about $590
face-mask diplomacy would build goodwill in Europe, the
billion) financial aid package for pandemic-affected
pandemic and its aftermath—including China’s waging of a
workers, businesses, and member states. In February 2021,
pandemic-related disinformation campaign in Europe—may
the EU finalized a €750 billion (around $911 billion)
have contributed to hardening European attitudes toward
recovery fund—to include issuing EU bonds backed jointly
China. For some Europeans, the pandemic has highlighted
by member states—attached to a €1.1 trillion (roughly $1.3
Europe’s overreliance on China in global supply chains and
trillion) budget for 2021-2027. The European Central Bank,
the vulnerability of Europe’s critical infrastructure and
which manages the EU’s common currency (the euro) used
companies to foreign takeover. The Biden Administration
by 19 members, established an emergency bond-buying
and the EU have committed to intensifying cooperation on
program totaling €1.8 trillion (about $2.2 trillion) as of
the strategic and economic concerns posed by China and
December 2020 (it is scheduled to end in March 2022).
have restarted a dialogue on China begun by the Trump
NATO’s Role
Administration, but devising common U.S.-European
policy approaches may remain challenging.
NATO and allied military personnel, including from the
United States, actively assisted civilian responses to
Congressional Interests
COVID-19 in Europe and beyond. Although NATO
Many Members of Congress retain a long-standing interest
traditionally focuses on military threats, it possesses
in European affairs and U.S.-European efforts to tackle
command-and-control and logistics capabilities to
global challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
coordinate multilateral responses to a range of security
Potential areas for congressional consideration include
challenges, including natural disasters and the COVID-19
pandemic. Among other measures, NATO officials report
The extent of collaboration on COVID-19 in forums
that allied military delivered critical supplies around the
such as NATO and the G-7, and progress on U.S.-EU
world and helped build field hospitals and conduct testing
initiatives to boost global vaccine access, resolve supply
across the alliance. In an effort to bolster its pandemic
chain issues, improve pandemic preparedness and early
response capacities, NATO also established a stockpile of
warning, and support global economic recovery
medical equipment and a new fund to enable rapid
The WTO trade response to the pandemic, including
distribution of medical supplies and services.
U.S. and EU approaches to IPR obligations for COVID-
Impact on U.S.-European Relations
19 vaccines and treatments
At its onset in 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic further
Options for countering COVID-19 disinformation
strained fraught U.S.-European relations during the Trump
campaigns that have targeted the United States and its
Administration. U.S. and EU travel bans, competition for
European allies and are believed to be backed by China,
PPE and medical equipment, and President Trump’s
Russia, or other foreign powers.
decision to withdraw from the World Health Organization
(WHO) exacerbated tensions with many European countries
Kristin Archick, Specialist in European Affairs
and the EU. The Trump Administration asserted it was
Paul Belkin, Analyst in European Affairs
working with European partners to address aspects of the
Sarah E. Garding, Analyst in European Affairs
pandemic, including in NATO and the Group of 7 (G-7)
Derek E. Mix, Specialist in European Affairs
leading industrialized democracies. U.S. and EU scientific
Rachel L. Martin, Research Assistant
and regulatory experts also established technical dialogues
on pandemic-related issues in 2020.
IF11635
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF11635 · VERSION 10 · UPDATED
Updated January 14, 2022
Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations
COVID-19 in Europe
European Responses
Like most of the rest of the world, European governments
By March 2020, nearly all European governments had
and the European Union (EU) have struggled to manage the
imposed national “lockdown” restrictions and social-
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.
distancing measures, including closing schools and
European leaders have characterized the pandemic as
nonessential businesses and banning large gatherings. Such
Europe’s biggest challenge since the Second World War,
measures varied by country in strictness, length, and other
with potentially far-reaching political, social, and economic
aspects. Sweden initially took a different approach that
consequences beyond the public health impact. Members of
trusted citizens to practice social distancing and imposed
Congress may be interested in COVID-19’s implications
few mandatory restrictions, but many public health experts
for U.S. relations with Europe, including in NATO and with
questioned this strategy. Most European governments also
the EU, and in how the pandemic might alter certain U.S.-
enacted national border controls, and some limited internal
European dynamics, especially vis-à-vis China.
travel. Several European countries, including Denmark,
Germany, and Norway, implemented robust testing and
Statistics
tracing programs. Phased reopenings began in mid-April
Europe has experienced several waves of the pandemic
and early May 2020, but most European countries
since its onset in early 2020. As of January 14, 2022, about
continued to restrict nonessential international travel.
84.2 million confirmed COVID-19 infections and nearly
Subsequent waves of the virus in fall 2020 and in 2021
1.1 million deaths had been reported across the 27-member
prompted new rounds of restrictions on social and business
EU, the United Kingdom (UK), Norway, and Switzerland
activity throughout Europe, although in some countries
(out of a combined population of roughly 527 million). As
restrictions were less stringent than during the first wave.
seen in Table 1, the pandemic has significantly affected
countries in both Western and Central Europe.
By early 2021, EU and other European countries had begun
vaccination programs. According to Oxford University
Table 1. COVID-19 Cases and Deaths in Europe:
data, roughly 70% of the total EU population and 70% of
Top 10 Affected Countries
the UK population are fully vaccinated (as of mid-January
(by number of cases, as of January 14, 2022)
2022). Western European countries generally have higher
vaccination rates (of 70%-80%) to date than Central
Deaths
Case
European countries (most between 40%-60%) or those in
Country
Cases
Deaths
per
Fatality
the Western Balkans (about 40% of the region’s total
100,000
Rates
population is fully vaccinated). Many European
governments require a “COVID pass” (showing proof of
UK
15,064,685
151,833
227.18
1.00%
vaccination, a recent negative test, or recent recovery) for
France
13,351,053
127,520
190.16
1.00%
access to certain venues and businesses, including
restaurants. Amid rising cases throughout Europe due to the
Italy
8,155,645
140,188
232.49
1.70%
spread of the more transmissible omicron variant, most
Spain
7,930,528
90,620
192.49
1.10%
European governments are encouraging booster shots.
Germany
7,866,784
115,343
138.75
1.50%
Some European governments began to reinstitute selected
social and commercial restrictions in late 2021 due to
Poland
4,265,433
101,419
267.10
2.40%
concerns that the omicron surge could overburden hospitals.
Netherlands
3,539,335
21,610
124.68
0.60%
Austria, the Netherlands, and Slovakia reimposed
lockdowns for several weeks. Austria, France, Germany,
Czech Rep.
2,562,235
36,765
334.57
1.40%
Italy, and others implemented or are considering tighter
Belgium
2,347,164
28,566
248.74
1.20%
restrictions for unvaccinated individuals and vaccine
mandates.
Romania
1,875,887
59,150
305.58
3.20%
Source: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Coronavirus
European leaders continue to grapple with balancing
Resource Center, updated daily at https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/.
measures to contain the virus’s spread with fostering
economic recovery and managing growing “pandemic
The Western Balkan countries (Albania, Bosnia and
fatigue.” The EU estimates its total economy contracted by
Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and
5.9% in 2020 but grew by 5% in 2021; forecasts predict
Serbia) have reported a combined 2.5 million COVID-19
4.3% growth in 2022. The speed of economic recovery has
cases and nearly 44,000 deaths to date (out of a combined
been faster than expected but varies among member states.
population of roughly 18 million). Some parts of the region
National measures to mitigate the pandemic’s negative
have among the highest case-fatality ratios in Europe.
economic repercussions include loan programs and credit
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations
guarantees for companies, income subsidies for affected
Upon taking office, President Biden pledged to enhance
workers, tax deferrals, and debt repayment deferments.
cooperation with Europe to defeat COVID-19, halted the
U.S. withdrawal from the WHO, and announced the United
EU Actions
States would join COVAX, a WHO-led initiative supported
Although national governments retain control over most
by the EU to deliver vaccines and treatments to developing
aspects of health policy, the EU has sought to play a leading
countries. At their June 2021 summit, the United States and
role in managing the European response to the pandemic
the EU identified ending the pandemic as a key priority;
and in harmonizing policies in an effort to prevent internal
among other measures, they have committed to bolster
discord and promote EU solidarity. The EU coordinated the
COVID-19 vaccine supplies globally, including by
imposition of bloc-wide travel restrictions on most foreign
donating vaccines and addressing manufacturing and supply
visitors; worked to ensure the provision of sufficient
chain challenges. The United States and the EU also are
personal protective equipment (PPE) and other medical
involved in World Trade Organization (WTO) discussions
supplies across Europe; and supported research and
on trade responses to the pandemic, including the concept
development of treatments, diagnostics, and vaccines, in
of waiving intellectual property rights (IPR) on COVID-19
part through leading international donor efforts. The EU
vaccines. The Biden Administration has voiced support for
procured vaccines on behalf of all member states. Although
a potential waiver, but Members of Congress are divided
initial production delays and a slow start to vaccine
and the EU has proposed alternatives. (See CRS In Focus
distribution sparked frustration among some European
IF11858, Potential WTO TRIPS Waiver and COVID-19.)
leaders and publics, the EU procurement initiative is largely
regarded as a success given the relatively high vaccination
Relations with China
rates across much of the bloc.
Some U.S. officials and Members of Congress have voiced
apprehension about China’s efforts to enhance its influence
The EU also has focused on promoting economic recovery.
in Europe. Notwithstanding initial concerns that China’s
In April 2020, the EU agreed on a €540 billion (about $590
face-mask diplomacy would build goodwill in Europe, the
billion) financial aid package for pandemic-affected
pandemic and its aftermath—including China’s waging of a
workers, businesses, and member states. In February 2021,
pandemic-related disinformation campaign in Europe—may
the EU finalized a €750 billion (around $911 billion)
have contributed to hardening European attitudes toward
recovery fund—to include issuing EU bonds backed jointly
China. For some Europeans, the pandemic has highlighted
by member states—attached to a €1.1 trillion (roughly $1.3
Europe’s overreliance on China in global supply chains and
trillion) budget for 2021-2027. The European Central Bank,
the vulnerability of Europe’s critical infrastructure and
which manages the EU’s common currency (the euro) used
companies to foreign takeover. The Biden Administration
by 19 members, established an emergency bond-buying
and the EU have committed to intensifying cooperation on
program totaling €1.8 trillion (about $2.2 trillion) as of
the strategic and economic concerns posed by China and
December 2020 (it is scheduled to end in March 2022).
have restarted a dialogue on China begun by the Trump
NATO’s Role
Administration, but devising common U.S.-European
policy approaches may remain challenging.
NATO and allied military personnel, including from the
United States, actively assisted civilian responses to
Congressional Interests
COVID-19 in Europe and beyond. Although NATO
Many Members of Congress retain a long-standing interest
traditionally focuses on military threats, it possesses
in European affairs and U.S.-European efforts to tackle
command-and-control and logistics capabilities to
global challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
coordinate multilateral responses to a range of security
Potential areas for congressional consideration include
challenges, including natural disasters and the COVID-19
pandemic. Among other measures, NATO officials report
The extent of collaboration on COVID-19 in forums
that allied military delivered critical supplies around the
such as NATO and the G-7, and progress on U.S.-EU
world and helped build field hospitals and conduct testing
initiatives to boost global vaccine access, resolve supply
across the alliance. In an effort to bolster its pandemic
chain issues, improve pandemic preparedness and early
response capacities, NATO also established a stockpile of
warning, and support global economic recovery
medical equipment and a new fund to enable rapid
The WTO trade response to the pandemic, including
distribution of medical supplies and services.
U.S. and EU approaches to IPR obligations for COVID-
Impact on U.S.-European Relations
19 vaccines and treatments
At its onset in 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic further
Options for countering COVID-19 disinformation
strained fraught U.S.-European relations during the Trump
campaigns that have targeted the United States and its
Administration. U.S. and EU travel bans, competition for
European allies and are believed to be backed by China,
PPE and medical equipment, and President Trump’s
Russia, or other foreign powers.
decision to withdraw from the World Health Organization
(WHO) exacerbated tensions with many European countries
Kristin Archick, Specialist in European Affairs
and the EU. The Trump Administration asserted it was
Paul Belkin, Analyst in European Affairs
working with European partners to address aspects of the
Sarah E. Garding, Analyst in European Affairs
pandemic, including in NATO and the Group of 7 (G-7)
Derek E. Mix, Specialist in European Affairs
leading industrialized democracies. U.S. and EU scientific
Rachel L. Martin, Research Assistant
and regulatory experts also established technical dialogues
on pandemic-related issues in 2020.
IF11635
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Europe, COVID-19, and U.S. Relations
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF11635 · VERSION 10 · UPDATED