Turkmenistan




Updated January 12, 2023
Turkmenistan
Overview
Leader of the Turkmen, was an autocratic ruler who created
Turkmenistan is an authoritarian Central Asian country rich
a cult of personality around himself and his family, isolated
in hydrocarbons that borders the Caspian Sea and four other
the country, and suppressed dissent. Following Niyazov’s
countries, including Afghanistan and Iran. Since becoming
unexpected death in December 2006, former Deputy
independent with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in
Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers Gurbanguly
1991, Turkmenistan’s government has kept the country
Berdimuhamedov was elected in a 2007 election widely
largely isolated from the outside world and maintained tight
seen as fraudulent, then reelected in 2012 and 2017.
control over the economy, although Turkmenistan’s natural
Berdimuhamedov followed in his predecessor’s
gas resources have attracted foreign investment. While
authoritarian footsteps, replacing Niyazov’s cult of
Turkmenistan’s constitution establishes “permanent
personality with veneration of himself. He uses the title
neutrality” as the core principle of the country’s foreign
Arkadag (the Protector). Since he was succeeded by his son
policy, its history and geography underpin a difficult but
as president in March 2022, the elder Berdimuhamedov has
important relationship with Russia, and increasing
maintained his position as chairman of the upper house of
economic dependence is driving closer ties with China. In
parliament, and analysts predict that he will retain
recent years, U.S. cooperation with Turkmenistan has
significant political influence and that reforms are unlikely.
focused primarily on border security issues, particularly
with neighboring Afghanistan.
Figure 1. Map of Turkmenistan
Political Background
Government.
Turkmenistan’s constitution defines the
country as a secular, democratic presidential republic with a
tripartite separation of powers between the executive, the
judiciary, and the legislature. In practice, executive power
is largely unchecked. The president has extensive powers
that include presiding over the Cabinet of Ministers, as well
as appointing and dismissing regional governors and
mayors. Although the constitution stipulates the
independence of the judiciary, the president also appoints
and dismisses judges. In March 2022, Turkmenistan
underwent its first presidential transition in 16 years, with
Serdar Berdimuhamedov replacing his father, Gurbanguly

Berdimuhamedov, in an election widely seen as a carefully
Source: Graphic created by CRS.
orchestrated succession.
Human Rights. Turkmenistan faces regular criticism for
The legislature, termed a “rubber-stamp body” by many
human rights abuses from the U.S. State Department and
observers, became bicameral with the creation of an upper
from independent watchdogs. Freedom House, a
house in 2021, with Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov as its
nonpartisan nongovernmental organization (NGO),
chairman. Following 2012 legislation allowing for a multi-
describes the country as “a repressive authoritarian state
party system, Turkmenistan now has three officially
where political rights and civil liberties are almost
recognized political parties: the Democratic Party
completely denied in practice.” Citizens are subject to
(established in 1991 as the successor to the Soviet-era
widespread surveillance, arbitrary arrest and detention, and
Communist Party), the Party of Industrialists and
torture. The government also imposes severe restrictions on
Entrepreneurs (registered in 2012), and the Agrarian Party
freedom of movement. Because of its violations of religious
(registered in 2014). The Organization for Security and Co-
freedom, Turkmenistan has been designated as a “Country
operation in Europe describes Turkmenistan’s political
of Particular Concern” (CPC) under the International
environment as “only nominally pluralist,” as all three
Religious Freedom Act since 2014. The State Department
parties are aligned with the president and electoral
regularly waives the related sanctions, citing U.S. national
procedures fail to meet international standards.
interests.
Authoritarian Rule. Saparmurad Niyazov, a former first
Turkmenistan has long faced international criticism for
secretary of Turkmenistan’s Communist Party, became the
engaging in widespread use of state-orchestrated forced
country’s first elected president after an uncontested 1992
labor, particularly in the harvesting of cotton. Public sector
race. A 1994 referendum extended his term to 2002. In
employees are reportedly forced to pick cotton, and private
1999, amendments to the constitution proclaimed him
businesses are allegedly also forced to contribute labor. In
president for life. Niyazov, known as Turkmenbashi, or
2018, U.S. Customs and Border Protection responded to
https://crsreports.congress.gov

Turkmenistan
concerns about forced labor by issuing a Withhold Release
Domestic Economic Crisis. In recent years, declining
Order banning the importation of all cotton from
revenue from gas exports has put pressure on
Turkmenistan, as well as all products produced using cotton
Turkmenistan’s economy, driving down living standards.
from Turkmenistan. In its 2022 Trafficking in Persons
High inflation, currency devaluation, tight foreign exchange
Report, the State Department assessed that the government
controls, and import restrictions mean that the country faces
of Turkmenistan had a documented “policy or pattern of
chronic shortages of food and cash. Corruption is pervasive,
forced labor,” and ranked Turkmenistan as a Tier 3 country
and foreign companies have reported problems collecting
for human trafficking.
payments for government contracts. The Heritage
Foundation’s 2022 Index of Economic Freedom classifies
Virtually all media outlets in Turkmenistan are state-
Turkmenistan as “repressed,” ranking it 165th out of 177
controlled, and nonpartisan NGOs identify significant
countries. Although Ashgabat states that Turkmenistan’s
abuses: the Committee to Protect Journalists has
population is over 6.2 million, outside observers argue that
condemned the “systematic harassment” of the few
this figure is not credible; some contend that it could be as
independent journalists active in the country, and, in its
low as 3.3 million, as the country’s dire economic situation
2020 World Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without
has prompted many citizens to emigrate.
Borders ranked Turkmenistan 177th out 180 countries in
levels of freedom available to journalists. The U.S.-funded
Turkmenistan at a Glance
nonprofit Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is
Land area: 188,457 sq. mi.; slightly larger than California
one of the few independent news outlets that reports from
within Turkmenistan. Internet censorship is prevalent, and
Population: 5.6 mil ion (2022 est., disputed)
the government blocks access to many websites.
Ethnicity: 85% Turkmen, 5% Uzbek, 4% Russian, 6% other
(2003 est.)
Economy
Religion: Muslim 93%, Christian 6%, other 1%
Key Sectors. Turkmenistan’s economy is largely dependent
GDP/GNI per capita (2019): $45.23 bil ion/$6,970
on hydrocarbons, especially natural gas, which accounted
Data from the World Bank and the CIA World Factbook.
for an estimated 83.4% of the country’s exports by value in
2019, with oil comprising another 9.5%. Soviet-era
industrialization policies established a cotton monoculture
Foreign Policy and U.S. Relations
in the country, and cotton is Turkmenistan’s largest export
Neutrality. Turkmenistan’s constitution outlines the
after hydrocarbons. The country’s other major crop, wheat,
principle of “permanent neutrality” as the basis for the
is cultivated for the domestic market. Foreign direct
country’s foreign policy. The United Nations officially
investment is limited outside of the hydrocarbons sector.
recognized Turkmenistan’s neutral status in 1995. In
The opaque nature of Turkmenistan’s government presents
practice, Turkmenistan’s neutrality translates into foreign
difficulties for accessing reliable data on the country’s
policy isolationism, and the country is largely closed off
centrally managed economy.
from the outside world.
Natural Gas. Turkmenistan is estimated to have the fourth-
Terrorism and Violent Extremism. Turkmenistan has not
largest natural gas reserves in the world, accounting for
had a recent history of terrorist attacks, but independent
about 7% of the global total. The country’s export capacity
observers note significant deficiencies in the country’s
is limited by infrastructural deficiencies, however. The
military capabilities and equipment, giving rise to concerns
planned Turkmenistan-Pakistan-Afghanistan-India (TAPI)
about Turkmenistan’s potential vulnerability to armed
pipeline, first proposed in the 1990s, would open new
Islamist extremists. According to a 2015 estimate, some
markets for Turkmenistan and improve South Asia’s
360 citizens of Turkmenistan traveled to Syria and Iraq to
regional energy security, but its completion remains highly
fight for the Islamic State between 2011 and 2014. Some
speculative. The proposed Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline
have reportedly returned to the country.
(TCGP) would enable Turkmenistan to supply gas to
European markets, providing an alternative to Russian gas,
U.S. Relations. While Turkmenistan’s geography and
but the project has been hampered by opposition from
energy resources make it a potential strategic partner for the
Russia and Iran as well as unresolved questions concerning
United States, the development of U.S.-Turkmenistan ties is
the delimitation of seabed rights.
hampered by the country’s uninviting investment climate
and generally closed nature. Bilateral engagement to date
Dependence on China. Payment disputes with Russia and
has focused primarily on regional security issues.
Iran halted gas flows from Turkmenistan in 2016 and 2017,
Turkmenistan is considering rejoining the National Guard’s
respectively, leaving China as Turkmenistan’s only major
State Partnership Program, from which it withdrew in 2011.
export market. Turkmenistan is China’s largest natural gas
U.S. foreign assistance to Turkmenistan is limited and
supplier, accounting for over 60% of pipeline imports in
predominantly directed toward promoting border security
2019. China is also Turkmenistan’s primary international
and nonproliferation. The State Department requested $4.1
lender, having provided over $8 billion in loans to develop
million in assistance to Turkmenistan in FY2023, compared
Turkmenistan’s gas infrastructure. Analysts speculate that
to $3.9 million allocated in FY2021.
Turkmenistan services its Chinese loans through discounted
gas sales. Although Russia resumed gas imports from
Maria A. Blackwood, Analyst in Asian Policy
Turkmenistan in 2019, the volume is minor compared to
IF10303
Turkmenistan’s exports to China.
https://crsreports.congress.gov

Turkmenistan


Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10303 · VERSION 10 · UPDATED