Updated August 21, 2020
Turkmenistan
Overview
Berdimuhamedov was elected in a 2007 election widely
Turkmenistan is a strategically situated country with
seen as fraudulent. He was reelected in 2012 and again in
significant energy resources, making it a potential partner
2017 (in 2016, the presidential term was extended from five
for governments, including the United States, interested in
to seven years). There is no constitutional limit on the
advancing regional stability and economic development.
number of terms a president can hold office, and with the
Since becoming independent with the dissolution of the
introduction of constitutional amendments in 2016, there is
Soviet Union in 1991, Turkmenistan’s authoritarian
no longer an upper age limit for presidential candidates.
government has kept the country largely isolated from the
Although he initially introduced modest reforms,
outside world and maintained tight control over the
Berdimuhamedov has largely followed in his predecessor’s
economy. While Turkmenistan’s constitution establishes
authoritarian footsteps. He has moved to dismantle
“permanent neutrality” as the core principle of the country’s
Niyazov’s cult of personality, replacing it with veneration
foreign policy, its history and geography underpin a
of himself. He uses the title Arkadag (the Protector). Many
difficult but important relationship with Russia, and
analysts assess that Berdimuhamedov is positioning his son
increasing economic dependence is driving closer ties with
Serdar as his successor.
China. In recent years, U.S. cooperation with Turkmenistan
has focused primarily on border security issues, particularly
with neighboring Afghanistan.
Political Background
Government. Turkmenistan’s constitution defines the
country as a secular, democratic presidential republic with a
tripartite separation of powers between the executive, the
judiciary, and the legislature. In practice, executive power
is largely unchecked and President Gurbanguly
Berdimuhamedov dominates the country’s political
structures. The president has extensive powers that include
presiding over the Cabinet of Ministers, as well as
appointing and dismissing regional governors and mayors.
Although the constitution stipulates the independence of the
Map of Turkmenistan
judiciary, the president also appoints and dismisses judges.
Source: Graphic created by CRS
The legislature comprises a 125-seat unicameral parliament
(the Mejlis), elected to five-year terms. Following 2012
Human Rights. Turkmenistan faces regular criticism for
legislation allowing for a multi-party system, Turkmenistan
human rights abuses from the U.S. State Department and
now has three officially recognized political parties: the
from international organizations. Freedom House, a
Democratic Party (established in 1991 as the successor to
nonpartisan non-governmental organization (NGO),
describes the country as “a repressive authoritarian state
the Soviet-era Communist Party), the Party of Industrialists
and Entrepreneurs (registered in 2012), and the Agrarian
where political rights and civil liberties are almost
completely denied in practice.” Citiz
Party (registered in 2014). The Organization for Security
ens are subject to
and Cooperation in Europe describes Turkmenistan’s
widespread surveillance, arbitrary arrest and detention, and
political environment as “only nominally pluralist,” as all
torture. The government also imposes severe restrictions on
three parties are aligned with the president and electoral
freedom of movement. Because of its violations of religious
procedures fail to meet international standards.
freedom, Turkmenistan has been designated as a “Country
of Particular Concern” (CPC) under the International
Authoritarian Rule. Saparmurad Niyazov, former first
Religious Freedom Act since 2014. The Secretary of State
secretary of Turkmenistan’s Communist Party, became the
re-designated Turkmenistan as a CPC in 2019, although the
country’s first elected president after an uncontested 1992
Trump Administration waived the related sanctions in light
race. A 1994 referendum extended his term to 2002. In
of U.S. national interests.
1999, amendments to the constitution proclaimed him
president for life. Niyazov, known as Turkmenbashi, or
By most accounts, Turkmenistan engages in widespread use
Leader of the Turkmen, was an autocratic ruler who created
of state-orchestrated forced labor, particularly in the
a cult of personality around himself and his family, isolated
harvesting of cotton. Tens of thousands of public sector
the country, and suppressed dissent. Following Niyazov’s
employees are reportedly forced to pick cotton annually.
unexpected death in December 2006, former Deputy
Similarly, private businesses are allegedly forced to
Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers Gurbanguly
contribute labor. There are also reports of child labor in the
cotton harvest. In 2018, U.S. Customs and Border
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Turkmenistan
Protection responded to concerns about forced labor by
driving down living standards. High inflation, currency
issuing a Withhold Release Order banning the importation
devaluation, tight foreign exchange controls, and import
of all cotton from Turkmenistan, as well as all products
restrictions mean that the country faces chronic shortages of
produced using cotton from Turkmenistan.
food and cash. Corruption is pervasive, and foreign
companies have reported problems collecting payments for
Virtually all media outlets in Turkmenistan are state-
government contracts. The Heritage Foundation’s 2020
controlled, and nonpartisan NGOs identify significant
Index of Economic Freedom classifies Turkmenistan as
abuses: the Committee to Protect Journalists has
“repressed,” ranking it 170th out of 180 countries.
condemned the “systematic harassment” of the few
independent journalists active in the country, and, in its
Although Ashgabat states that Turkmenistan’s population is
2020 World Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without
over 6.2 million, outside observers argue that this figure is
Borders ranked Turkmenistan 179th out 180 countries in
not credible; some contend that it could be as low as 3.3
levels of freedom available to journalists. The U.S.-funded
million, as the country’s dire economic situation has
nonprofit Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is
prompted many citizens to emigrate.
one of the only independent news outlets that reports from
within Turkmenistan. Internet censorship is prevalent, and
Turkmenistan at a Glance
the government blocks access to many websites.
Land area: 188,457 sq. mi.; slightly larger than California
Economy
Population: 5.5 mil ion (2020 est., disputed)
Key Sectors. Turkmenistan’s economy is largely dependent
Ethnicity: 85% Turkmen, 5% Uzbek, 4% Russian, 6% other
(2003 est.)
on hydrocarbons, especially natural gas; hydrocarbon
Religion: Muslim 89%, Eastern Orthodox 9%, Other 2%
exports account for about 25% of GDP. Although the
agricultural sector accounts for about 8% of Turkmenistan’s
GDP/GNI per capita (2018): $40.76 bil ion/$6,740
GDP, it employs almost half of the country’s workforce.
Data from the World Bank and the CIA World Factbook
Soviet industrialization policies established a cotton
monoculture in the country, and Turkmenistan remains
among the world’s top ten producers of cotton, which is
Foreign Policy and U.S. Relations
primarily grown for export. The country’s other major crop,
Neutrality. Turkmenistan’s constitution outlines the
wheat, is cultivated for the domestic market. Foreign direct
principle of “permanent neutrality” as the basis for the
investment is limited outside of the hydrocarbons sector.
country’s foreign policy. The United Nations officially
recognized Turkmenistan’s neutral status in 1995. In
Natural Gas. Turkmenistan is estimated to have the fourth
practice, Turkmenistan’s neutrality translates to foreign
largest natural gas reserves in the world, accounting for
policy isolationism, and the country is largely closed off
about 10% of the global total. The country’s export capacity
from the outside world.
is limited by infrastructural deficiencies, however. The
planned Turkmenistan-Pakistan-Afghanistan-India (TAPI)
Terrorism and Violent Extremism. Turkmenistan has not
pipeline, first proposed in the 1990s, would open new
had a recent history of terrorist attacks, but independent
markets for Turkmenistan and improve South Asia’s
observers note significant deficiencies in the country’s
regional energy security, but its completion remains highly
military capabilities and equipment, giving rise to concerns
speculative. The proposed Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline
about Turkmenistan’s potential vulnerability to armed
(TCGP) would enable Turkmenistan to supply gas to
Islamist extremists. According to a 2015 estimate, some
European markets, providing an alternative to Russian gas,
360 citizens of Turkmenistan traveled to Syria and Iraq to
but the project has been hampered by opposition from
fight for the Islamic State between 2011 and 2014. Some
Russia and Iran as well as unresolved questions concerning
have reportedly returned to the country. Additionally, there
the delimitation of seabed rights.
is a significant Taliban presence in the districts of
Afghanistan that neighbor Turkmenistan, and border
Dependence on China. Payment disputes with Russia and
security is a major concern for both Ashgabat and Kabul.
Iran halted gas flows from Turkmenistan in 2016 and 2017,
respectively, leaving China as Turkmenistan’s only major
U.S. Relations. While Turkmenistan’s geography and
export market. Turkmenistan is China’s largest natural gas
energy resources make it a potential strategic partner for the
supplier, accounting for over 60% of pipeline imports in
United States, the development of U.S.-Turkmenistan ties is
2019. China is also Turkmenistan’s primary international
hampered by the country’s uninviting investment climate
lender, having provided over $8 billion in loans to develop
and generally closed nature. Bilateral engagement to date
Turkmenistan’s gas infrastructure (Turkmenistan’s total
has focused primarily on regional security issues. U.S.
foreign debt is approximately $9 billion). Analysts
foreign assistance to Turkmenistan is limited and
speculate that Turkmenistan services its Chinese loans
predominantly directed toward promoting border security
through discounted gas sales. Although Russia resumed gas
and nonproliferation. The Trump Administration requested
imports from Turkmenistan in 2019, the volume is
$200,000 in appropriations for foreign aid to Turkmenistan
relatively minor compared to Turkmenistan’s exports to
in FY2021, which would be down from $3.96 million
China.
allocated in FY2019.
Domestic Economic Crisis. Declining revenue from gas
Maria A. Blackwood, Analyst in Asian Policy
exports has put pressure on Turkmenistan’s economy,
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Turkmenistan


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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10303 · VERSION 6 · UPDATED

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