Kazakhstan
link to page 1 
Updated January 11, 2023
Kazakhstan
Overview
assistance from the Collective Security Treaty Organization
Kazakhstan, a U.S. partner in areas such as
(CSTO), a Russia-led security alliance to which Kazakhstan
counterterrorism, regional security, and nuclear
belongs. In the first deployment in the organization’s
nonproliferation, is a strategically situated country with
history, a CSTO mission of roughly 2,500 mostly Russian
significant hydrocarbon and mineral resources. It shares
troops spent about two weeks in Kazakhstan.
borders with Russia to the north and China to the east (see
Figure 1). Although sparsely populated, Kazakhstan is the
In a move some analysts see as part of Tokayev’s efforts to
world’s ninth-largest country by land area. Previously a
reduce Nazarbayev’s influence, Kazakhstan held a
republic of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became
constitutional referendum on June 5, 2022. Voters approved
independent in 1991. Since then, the authoritarian
changes curtailing some presidential powers and removing
government has introduced market reforms, developed the
mentions of Nazarbayev from the constitution. Tokayev
energy sector, and moved to diversify its economy.
said the constitutional changes would shift Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan pursues a “multi-vector” foreign policy,
from a “super-presidential form of government to a
seeking to balance relations with major powers while
presidential republic with a strong parliament.” Following
actively participating in international organizations.
additional legislation extending the presidential term from
Following unprecedented unrest in January 2022, President
five years to seven and imposing a one-term limit, a snap
Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has moved to consolidate power
presidential election was held in November, two years
while his country confronts difficult geopolitical and
ahead of schedule, with Tokayev winning 81% of the vote.
economic dynamics in the wake of Russia’s February 2022
Observers from the Organization for Security and Co-
invasion of Ukraine.
operation in Europe (OSCE) deemed the electoral contest
“lacking competitiveness.”
Some Members of Congress express interest in expanding
U.S. engagement with Kazakhstan, supporting its political
Figure 1. Map of Kazakhstan
reform process, and encouraging democratization.
Kazakhstan has refused to endorse Russia’s invasion and
provided humanitarian assistance to Ukraine, leading some
analysts to suggest that Kazakhstan is moving away from
Russia’s influence, which may present new opportunities
for U.S. engagement. Other Members express concern
about Kazakhstan’s human rights record and have called for
a review of U.S. security assistance in the wake of the
January 2022 unrest.
Political Background
Reforms introduced by Tokayev are aimed at restructuring
Kazakhstan’s political system and annulling the privileged
position of former President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who
Source: CRS
held office for nearly three decades until his 2019
resignation. While authorities tout ongoing reforms as
Human Rights and Civil Society. According to the U.S.
moving the country in a more democratic direction, skeptics
State Department, serious human rights issues in
question the degree to which Kazakhstan will implement
Kazakhstan include restrictions on freedoms of expression,
genuine democratization.
peaceful assembly, and association; the absence of an
independent judiciary; and arbitrary detention, torture, and
Tokayev, seen as Nazarbayev’s hand-picked successor, won
unlawful or arbitrary killings by police. The
a snap presidential election in 2019. Nazarbayev initially
nongovernmental organization Human Rights Watch
maintained significant powers, leading some analysts to
assesses that Kazakhstan’s government has been engaging
term Kazakhstan’s government a “duopoly.” That changed
in a “multi-year crackdown on government critics.”
in January 2022, when initially peaceful demonstrations
Reporters Without Borders ranks Kazakhstan 122nd out of
over economic inequality and corruption became the largest
180 countries in its 2022 World Press Freedom Index.
and most violent protests in Kazakhstan’s history, leaving
over 200 dead. Tokayev referred to the events as an
Economic inequality and a perceived lack of government
“attempted coup.” Many analysts contend that figures
accountability have fueled grassroots discontent in recent
associated with Nazarbayev took advantage of genuine
years. In 2011, protests by oil workers in the western town
popular protests to pursue an intra-elite power struggle. As
of Zhanaozen turned violent, leaving at least 15
Tokayev moved to control the situation, he appealed for
demonstrators dead and dozens injured after police opened
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Kazakhstan
fire. In 2016, large-scale protests broke out against
an area of opportunity for U.S. firms as Kazakhstan seeks to
proposed changes to the country’s land code, which critics
reduce its dependence on extractive industries.
feared would lead to a Chinese takeover of Kazakhstan’s
agricultural land. Since 2018, there have been multiple
Foreign Policy and U.S. Relations
demonstrations by women protesting a perceived lack of
Multi-Vector Foreign Policy. Although Kazakhstan seeks
support from the state for single mothers and families with
to avoid alignment with any one power, the United States
many children. Nazarbayev’s 2019 resignation and the
and Kazakhstan have a strong and wide-ranging
subsequent snap presidential election catalyzed further
relationship, even as Kazakhstan maintains close economic,
protests and calls for transition to a parliamentary system.
political, and military ties with Russia. Some analysts
believe that Kazakhstan is distancing itself from Russia in
Kazakhstan at a Glance
light of the war in Ukraine. Kazakhstan has avoided
endorsing Russia’s ongoing aggression against Ukraine,
Land area: 2,699,700 sq. km.; 1.6 times the size of Alaska
and Kazakhstani officials have expressed support for
Population: 19.1 mil ion (2022 est.)
Ukraine’s territorial integrity.
Ethnicities: 70% Kazakh, 18% Russian, 3% Uzbek, 1.5% Uyghur,
Kazakhstan is developing closer economic ties with China,
1.3% Ukrainian, 6.9% Other (2022)
which is now Kazakhstan’s primary export destination.
Languages: Kazakh (official), Russian (official)
Kazakhstan is seen as a key country in the land-based Silk
Road Economic Belt—one of the main corridors of China’s
GDP/GNI per capita (2021): $197.11 bil ion/$8,880
BRI—and has received significant financing from Chinese
Data from World Bank and Kazakhstan’s Bureau of National Statistics
entities to construct transport and energy infrastructure.
Many analysts assess that Kazakhstan’s economic ties with
Economy
China make the country’s government wary of antagonizing
Kazakhstan is Central Asia’s most economically developed
its powerful eastern neighbor. In some segments of
country. Major exports include oil, copper, ferroalloys,
Kazakhstani society, there is resentment of Chinese migrant
uranium, and wheat. Dependence on oil exports renders
laborers as well as China’s repression of Muslims—
Kazakhstan vulnerable to external shocks, and
including ethnic Kazakhs—in Xinjiang.
Kazakhstan’s economy is closely tied to that of its primary
trading partner, Russia. The COVID-19 pandemic and the
Counterterrorism and Security. An estimated 150-600
related fall in oil prices caused significant economic
Kazakh citizens reportedly fought for the Islamic State (IS)
pressure. The World Bank estimates that Kazakhstan’s
in Syria and Iraq, but because many of them traveled to IS-
economy contracted by 2.5% in 2020 as a result of the
controlled territories with their families, the total number of
pandemic; the country last experienced negative economic
IS-associated Kazakhs is likely closer to 1,000. Between
growth in the late 1990s. Following a recovery of 4% GDP
2019 and 2021, Kazakhstan repatriated several hundred of
growth in 2021, the World Bank assesses that spillover
its citizens from Syria, primarily women and children, with
effects from Russia’s war against Ukraine led GDP growth
logistical support from the United States. Kazakhstan
to slow to 3% in 2022.
participates in the U.S.-led C5+1 regional initiative, which
has a counterterrorism component.
Energy. Kazakhstan is a major energy exporter, producing
significant volumes of crude oil, natural gas, and coal. The
Nonproliferation. When the Soviet Union collapsed in
country is estimated to have the world’s 12th-largest oil
1991, Kazakhstan was left with 1,410 nuclear warheads on
reserves and 16th-largest natural gas reserves. Kazakhstan’s
its territory, but by 1995 it had transferred them all to
oil and gas resources attract significant investment from
Russia. Kazakhstan also dismantled Soviet nuclear testing
U.S., European, Russian, and Chinese partners. According
infrastructure. The United States provided $240 million in
assistance to Kazakhstan’s denuclearization efforts through
to the World Bank, hydrocarbon output accounted for 21%
of GDP and about 70% of exports in 2020.
the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program,
and the two countries continue to cooperate on nuclear
Kazakhstan holds 12% of the world’s uranium and has led
security. Kazakhstan hosts a low-enriched uranium bank
world uranium production since 2009. In 2022, a joint
owned by the International Atomic Energy Agency.
venture between state-owned nuclear energy company
Kazatomprom and China General Nuclear Power
U.S. Foreign Assistance. U.S. assistance to Kazakhstan
Corporation began producing nuclear fuel in Kazakhstan.
aims to encourage the country’s government to adopt
broader political reforms and liberalization, and to shift
away from Russia’s sphere of influence. Another focus of
Diversification. Kazakhstan’s government seeks to
diversify its economy away from hydrocarbons through
U.S. assistance to Kazakhstan is security cooperation,
ongoing structural and institutional reforms. Kazakhstan is
particularly strengthening military partnerships, fighting
implementing transport and logistics development and
transnational crime, and combatting weapons of mass
modernization projects with neighboring countries, mainly
destruction. The State Department requested $18.7 million
aligned with China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The
in appropriations for aid to Kazakhstan for FY2023, as
government seeks to turn Kazakhstan into a regional
compared to $10.7 million requested for FY2022 and $11.4
financial hub with the creation of the Astana International
million allocated in FY2021.
Finance Center and the Astana International Exchange. The
U.S. Department of Commerce has identified agriculture as
Maria A. Blackwood, Analyst in Asian Policy
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Kazakhstan
IF10251
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10251 · VERSION 13 · UPDATED
Updated January 11, 2023
Kazakhstan
Overview
assistance from the Collective Security Treaty Organization
Kazakhstan, a U.S. partner in areas such as
(CSTO), a Russia-led security alliance to which Kazakhstan
counterterrorism, regional security, and nuclear
belongs. In the first deployment in the organization’s
nonproliferation, is a strategically situated country with
history, a CSTO mission of roughly 2,500 mostly Russian
significant hydrocarbon and mineral resources. It shares
troops spent about two weeks in Kazakhstan.
borders with Russia to the north and China to the east (see
Figure 1). Although sparsely populated, Kazakhstan is the
In a move some analysts see as part of Tokayev’s efforts to
world’s ninth-largest country by land area. Previously a
reduce Nazarbayev’s influence, Kazakhstan held a
republic of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became
constitutional referendum on June 5, 2022. Voters approved
independent in 1991. Since then, the authoritarian
changes curtailing some presidential powers and removing
government has introduced market reforms, developed the
mentions of Nazarbayev from the constitution. Tokayev
energy sector, and moved to diversify its economy.
said the constitutional changes would shift Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan pursues a “multi-vector” foreign policy,
from a “super-presidential form of government to a
seeking to balance relations with major powers while
presidential republic with a strong parliament.” Following
actively participating in international organizations.
additional legislation extending the presidential term from
Following unprecedented unrest in January 2022, President
five years to seven and imposing a one-term limit, a snap
Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has moved to consolidate power
presidential election was held in November, two years
while his country confronts difficult geopolitical and
ahead of schedule, with Tokayev winning 81% of the vote.
economic dynamics in the wake of Russia’s February 2022
Observers from the Organization for Security and Co-
invasion of Ukraine.
operation in Europe (OSCE) deemed the electoral contest
“lacking competitiveness.”
Some Members of Congress express interest in expanding
U.S. engagement with Kazakhstan, supporting its political
Figure 1. Map of Kazakhstan
reform process, and encouraging democratization.
Kazakhstan has refused to endorse Russia’s invasion and
provided humanitarian assistance to Ukraine, leading some
analysts to suggest that Kazakhstan is moving away from
Russia’s influence, which may present new opportunities
for U.S. engagement. Other Members express concern
about Kazakhstan’s human rights record and have called for
a review of U.S. security assistance in the wake of the
January 2022 unrest.
Political Background
Reforms introduced by Tokayev are aimed at restructuring
Kazakhstan’s political system and annulling the privileged
position of former President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who
Source: CRS
held office for nearly three decades until his 2019
resignation. While authorities tout ongoing reforms as
Human Rights and Civil Society. According to the U.S.
moving the country in a more democratic direction, skeptics
State Department, serious human rights issues in
question the degree to which Kazakhstan will implement
Kazakhstan include restrictions on freedoms of expression,
genuine democratization.
peaceful assembly, and association; the absence of an
independent judiciary; and arbitrary detention, torture, and
Tokayev, seen as Nazarbayev’s hand-picked successor, won
unlawful or arbitrary killings by police. The
a snap presidential election in 2019. Nazarbayev initially
nongovernmental organization Human Rights Watch
maintained significant powers, leading some analysts to
assesses that Kazakhstan’s government has been engaging
term Kazakhstan’s government a “duopoly.” That changed
in a “multi-year crackdown on government critics.”
in January 2022, when initially peaceful demonstrations
Reporters Without Borders ranks Kazakhstan 122nd out of
over economic inequality and corruption became the largest
180 countries in its 2022 World Press Freedom Index.
and most violent protests in Kazakhstan’s history, leaving
over 200 dead. Tokayev referred to the events as an
Economic inequality and a perceived lack of government
“attempted coup.” Many analysts contend that figures
accountability have fueled grassroots discontent in recent
associated with Nazarbayev took advantage of genuine
years. In 2011, protests by oil workers in the western town
popular protests to pursue an intra-elite power struggle. As
of Zhanaozen turned violent, leaving at least 15
Tokayev moved to control the situation, he appealed for
demonstrators dead and dozens injured after police opened
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Kazakhstan
fire. In 2016, large-scale protests broke out against
an area of opportunity for U.S. firms as Kazakhstan seeks to
proposed changes to the country’s land code, which critics
reduce its dependence on extractive industries.
feared would lead to a Chinese takeover of Kazakhstan’s
agricultural land. Since 2018, there have been multiple
Foreign Policy and U.S. Relations
demonstrations by women protesting a perceived lack of
Multi-Vector Foreign Policy. Although Kazakhstan seeks
support from the state for single mothers and families with
to avoid alignment with any one power, the United States
many children. Nazarbayev’s 2019 resignation and the
and Kazakhstan have a strong and wide-ranging
subsequent snap presidential election catalyzed further
relationship, even as Kazakhstan maintains close economic,
protests and calls for transition to a parliamentary system.
political, and military ties with Russia. Some analysts
believe that Kazakhstan is distancing itself from Russia in
Kazakhstan at a Glance
light of the war in Ukraine. Kazakhstan has avoided
endorsing Russia’s ongoing aggression against Ukraine,
Land area: 2,699,700 sq. km.; 1.6 times the size of Alaska
and Kazakhstani officials have expressed support for
Population: 19.1 mil ion (2022 est.)
Ukraine’s territorial integrity.
Ethnicities: 70% Kazakh, 18% Russian, 3% Uzbek, 1.5% Uyghur,
Kazakhstan is developing closer economic ties with China,
1.3% Ukrainian, 6.9% Other (2022)
which is now Kazakhstan’s primary export destination.
Languages: Kazakh (official), Russian (official)
Kazakhstan is seen as a key country in the land-based Silk
Road Economic Belt—one of the main corridors of China’s
GDP/GNI per capita (2021): $197.11 bil ion/$8,880
BRI—and has received significant financing from Chinese
Data from World Bank and Kazakhstan’s Bureau of National Statistics
entities to construct transport and energy infrastructure.
Many analysts assess that Kazakhstan’s economic ties with
Economy
China make the country’s government wary of antagonizing
Kazakhstan is Central Asia’s most economically developed
its powerful eastern neighbor. In some segments of
country. Major exports include oil, copper, ferroalloys,
Kazakhstani society, there is resentment of Chinese migrant
uranium, and wheat. Dependence on oil exports renders
laborers as well as China’s repression of Muslims—
Kazakhstan vulnerable to external shocks, and
including ethnic Kazakhs—in Xinjiang.
Kazakhstan’s economy is closely tied to that of its primary
trading partner, Russia. The COVID-19 pandemic and the
Counterterrorism and Security. An estimated 150-600
related fall in oil prices caused significant economic
Kazakh citizens reportedly fought for the Islamic State (IS)
pressure. The World Bank estimates that Kazakhstan’s
in Syria and Iraq, but because many of them traveled to IS-
economy contracted by 2.5% in 2020 as a result of the
controlled territories with their families, the total number of
pandemic; the country last experienced negative economic
IS-associated Kazakhs is likely closer to 1,000. Between
growth in the late 1990s. Following a recovery of 4% GDP
2019 and 2021, Kazakhstan repatriated several hundred of
growth in 2021, the World Bank assesses that spillover
its citizens from Syria, primarily women and children, with
effects from Russia’s war against Ukraine led GDP growth
logistical support from the United States. Kazakhstan
to slow to 3% in 2022.
participates in the U.S.-led C5+1 regional initiative, which
has a counterterrorism component.
Energy. Kazakhstan is a major energy exporter, producing
significant volumes of crude oil, natural gas, and coal. The
Nonproliferation. When the Soviet Union collapsed in
country is estimated to have the world’s 12th-largest oil
1991, Kazakhstan was left with 1,410 nuclear warheads on
reserves and 16th-largest natural gas reserves. Kazakhstan’s
its territory, but by 1995 it had transferred them all to
oil and gas resources attract significant investment from
Russia. Kazakhstan also dismantled Soviet nuclear testing
U.S., European, Russian, and Chinese partners. According
infrastructure. The United States provided $240 million in
assistance to Kazakhstan’s denuclearization efforts through
to the World Bank, hydrocarbon output accounted for 21%
of GDP and about 70% of exports in 2020.
the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program,
and the two countries continue to cooperate on nuclear
Kazakhstan holds 12% of the world’s uranium and has led
security. Kazakhstan hosts a low-enriched uranium bank
world uranium production since 2009. In 2022, a joint
owned by the International Atomic Energy Agency.
venture between state-owned nuclear energy company
Kazatomprom and China General Nuclear Power
U.S. Foreign Assistance. U.S. assistance to Kazakhstan
Corporation began producing nuclear fuel in Kazakhstan.
aims to encourage the country’s government to adopt
broader political reforms and liberalization, and to shift
away from Russia’s sphere of influence. Another focus of
Diversification. Kazakhstan’s government seeks to
diversify its economy away from hydrocarbons through
U.S. assistance to Kazakhstan is security cooperation,
ongoing structural and institutional reforms. Kazakhstan is
particularly strengthening military partnerships, fighting
implementing transport and logistics development and
transnational crime, and combatting weapons of mass
modernization projects with neighboring countries, mainly
destruction. The State Department requested $18.7 million
aligned with China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The
in appropriations for aid to Kazakhstan for FY2023, as
government seeks to turn Kazakhstan into a regional
compared to $10.7 million requested for FY2022 and $11.4
financial hub with the creation of the Astana International
million allocated in FY2021.
Finance Center and the Astana International Exchange. The
U.S. Department of Commerce has identified agriculture as
Maria A. Blackwood, Analyst in Asian Policy
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Kazakhstan
IF10251
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10251 · VERSION 13 · UPDATED