July 8, 2015
Kazakhstan
by Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries. Throughout the 20th
century, it was a major source of agricultural and energy
commodities for the Soviet Union. In contrast to other
countries’ post-Soviet periods, Kazakhstan’s transition was
entirely peaceful. The country’s leadership received praise
at the time, including from the United States, for
renouncing nuclear weapons and permitting the removal of
Kazakhstan’s large former Soviet nuclear stockpile. The
contemporary period has seen some market reforms,
development of the energy sector, and diversification of the
economy as a whole. However, democratic reforms have
not generally been implemented, despite years of promises
by political leaders. Corruption continues to be a chronic

problem throughout government and the private sector.
Notes: Graphic created by CRS. Map boundaries and information
Political Freedom: The Organization for Security and
generated by Hannah Fischer using Department of State Boundaries
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) stated that in the April 2015
(2011); Esri (2014); DeLorme (2014).
presidential elections, in which president Nazarbayev won
Political Background
97.7% of the vote, voters “were not offered a genuine
choice between political alternatives.” The OSCE added
Government: Kazakhstan has a hybrid presidential-
that “serious procedural deficiencies and irregularities were
parliamentary system, with a two chamber legislature, the
observed throughout the voting, counting and tabulation
Mazhilis. The first (and so far only) president, Nursultan
processes, including indications of ballot box stuffing....
Nazarbayev, was the Communist Party leader of Kazakh
Transparency of the process was limited.” The president’s
SSR, the region that became Kazakhstan after the Soviet
party, Nur Otan (“Light of the Fatherland”) won 81% of the
collapse. Nazarbayev also played a central role in forming
2012 parliamentary vote, with two smaller parties gaining a
the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which
total of 15 seats in the 107-member parliament. These
succeeded the Soviet Union. He has been reelected several
minority parties, Ak Jol (“Bright Path”) and the Communist
times since 1991 with little opposition. Nazarbayev and his
People’s Party, are both considered to be largely supportive
family have monopolized the political system and
of the Nazarbayev administration.
significant sectors of the economy. The Mazhilis has
limited influence on national decisionmaking.
Human Rights: In its 2014 Country Report on Human
Rights Practices, the Department of State credited
History: Kazakhstan was traditionally inhabited by Turkic
Kazakhstan’s government with taking some steps to limit
tribes through much of the medieval era, and was colonized
corruption and abuse of official power. However, the report
also confirmed the OSCE’s conclusions that recent
elections “fell short of international standards.”
Kazakhstan Overview
Land area: 2,699,700 sq. km.; about four times the size of
Kazakhstan’s “most significant” human rights problems
Texas
identified by the Department of State include a limited
Geography: Borders Caspian Sea to the west, Aral Sea and
ability to change the government through free and fair
Tian Shan mountain range to the south, and the Eurasian
elections, a limited right to free expression, and the absence
steppes in the north
of an independent judiciary or due process. The report
stated that a labor law passed in June 2014 “restricts
Population: 17.04 million
workers’ freedom of association” by forcing independent
Ethnicity: 64% Kazakh, 23% Russian, 3% Uzbek, 2% Ukrainian,
unions to affiliate with larger unions at the regional or
1% Uighur, 1% Tatar, 6% other
sectoral scale. Critics allege that these larger unions are too
Key industries: Oil, coal, natural gas, uranium, metals, wheat,
closely entangled with the political establishment to lobby
cotton, and increasingly manufacturing
effectively for workers’ rights.
GDP (2014): $212 billion; per capita GNI is $21,580 at PPP
Economy
Political Leaders: President Nursultan NAZARBAYEV (since
1991), Prime Minister: Karim MASSIMOV (first term 2007-
Key Sectors: Kazakhstan is one of the most economically
2012, second term began April 2014)
developed countries in Central Asia, and is a major regional
Data from World Bank
exporter of oil, gas, uranium, cotton, and wheat.
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Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan’s merchandise exports totaled approximately
New Silk Road (United States) and the Silk Road Economic
$78 billion in 2014 while imports totaled around $41
Belt (China). Both countries’ objectives involve the
billion. As of mid-2015, the Asian Development Bank
development of energy markets, trade and investment, and
projected Kazakhstan’s GDP growth to be 1.9% in 2015
infrastructure in Kazakhstan and neighboring countries.
and 3.8% in 2016.
Kazakhstan’s ambassador to the United States praised the
U.S. initiative in 2013, saying “The New Silk Road vision
Petroleum: Kazakhstan possesses an estimated 3.9 billion
complements Kazakhstan’s efforts to transform itself from
tons of proved oil reserves (30 billion barrels, or about
a ‘land-locked’ to ‘land-linked’ country and serve as a land
1.8% of world total). It produced 83.8 million tons and
bridge between Asia and Europe.” In May 2015,
consumed 13.8 million tons in 2013. China plays an
Kazakhstan’s President Nazarbayev also praised China’s
increasingly important role in the oil sector: in April 2014,
Silk Road Economic Belt and Asian Infrastructure
Chinese state-owned enterprise Sinopec paid $1.2 billion
Investment Bank, stating that they would “bring a wealth of
for Russian firm Lukoil’s assets in Kazakhstan.
opportunities” to the region. Kazakhstan is also a key
member of the Russian-led Eurasian Economic Union
Natural Gas: Kazakhstan has nearly 2,000 billion cubic
(EEU), which aims to turn much of the former Soviet
meters (bcm) of proved gas reserves (68.51 trillion cubic
Union into a cohesive economic bloc akin to the European
feet or about 0.8% of world total). Research firm Cedigaz
Union.
estimates that the country produced 39.3 bcm in 2013. U.S.,
European, Russian, and Chinese foreign direct investment
Terrorism and narco-trafficking: Kazakhstan was highly
has been instrumental in building up Kazakhstan’s
supportive of the United States in the wake of the
hydrocarbon sector.
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, and supported the
shipment of supplies to NATO and U.S. operations in
Uranium: With 651,000 tons of reserves according to
Afghanistan. That network has diminished in significance
World Nuclear Association figures (12% of world total),
with the downsizing of the international security mission in
Kazakhstan is the world’s leading producer of uranium. All
Afghanistan at the end of 2014. Kazakhstan shares U.S.
of Kazakhstan’s uranium is exported, and according to
interests in combatting radical Islamist movements, and has
officials from state-owned mining firm Kazatomprom, 55%
publicly condemned the Islamic State in Iraq and the
of production is sent to China. Europe is also a major export
Levant (ISIL). According to the Department of State’s 2014
destination for Kazakhstan’s uranium mining sector. The
Country Report on Terrorism, Kazakhstan government
industry has seen a reduction in growth following the 2011
sources estimate that about 300 Kazakhstan citizens are
Fukushima disaster in Japan, a key former export partner.
members of ISIL. In addition to terrorist threats, the
government remains concerned over Afghan drug
Diversification: Under the “Kazakhstan 2050” strategy, the
production and a potential increase following the
government has announced several goals intended to wean
withdrawal of NATO forces.
Kazakhstan’s economy off its current resource focus. In his
State of the Nation addresses, President Nazarbayev has
Non-proliferation: Since 1993, the United States and
pushed for a policy of “universal economic pragmatism,”
Kazakhstan have worked together under the Cooperative
involving strategic management of hydrocarbon resources,
Threat Reduction (CTR) program to eliminate Soviet-era
development of alternative energy, improvement of
weapons of mass destruction and related infrastructure. In
corporate governance, and development of non-energy
addition to removing nuclear warheads, this cooperation has
export sectors to adapt better to Kazakhstan’s presumed
included dismantling intercontinental ballistic missiles and
future accession to the WTO.
silos; closing the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site; removing
and down-blending weapons-usable highly enriched
Trade Liberalization: Kazakhstan is eager to join the
uranium; destroying Soviet biological weapons production
World Trade Organization (WTO) and the United States
facilities; border and customs training; and civilian
has provided some technical assistance in this regard.
employment programs for former weapons scientists. The
However, U.S.-Kazakhstan trade remains subject to the
CTR program is currently building a central reference
Jackson-Vanik amendment of the 1974 Trade Act, which
laboratory for securing biological pathogens in Almaty,
prevents the extension to Kazakhstan of the permanent
which is expected to open in 2015. The United States has
normal trade relations (PNTR) treatment required under the
spent $240 million to assist Kazakhstan with CTR
WTO. Therefore, were Kazakhstan to accede to the WTO,
initiatives.
Congress would have to pass legislation granting
Kazakhstan PNTR status, or WTO rules would not apply to
Christopher T. Mann, cmann@crs.loc.gov, 7-0451
U.S.-Kazakh trade.
Gabriel M. Nelson, gnelson@crs.loc.gov, 7-1912
Bolko J. Skorupski, bskorupski@crs.loc.gov, 7-9450
Foreign Policy

Regional neighbors: Kazakhstan is attempting to balance
IF10251
its relations with regional powers, Russia and China, as
well as with the United States. The United States and China
have both announced separate “Silk Road” initiatives—the
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