Coastal Flood Resilience: Policy, Roles, and Funds
Updated July 6, 2015
Coastal Flood Resilience: Policy, Roles, and Funds
Congress and other policymakers are faced with how to
on U.S. coasts cumulatively during this century at $5
cost-effectively reduce coastal flood risk. Issues include
trillion (2014 dollars, discounted at 3%), if no adaptation
how to coordinate action and assign responsibilities for
measures are implemented; these impacts drop to $0.8
preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery; who
trillion if investments are made in cost-effective adaptations
bears the cost of impacts and long-term adjustments; and
and protections (see EPA, Climate Change in the United
how to finance actions to improve coastal flood resilience.
States: Benefits of Global Action, 2015). Awareness of
flood risk and its long-term fiscal impact historically has
States largely determine whether the approach to coastal
proven insufficient to motivate pre-disaster land use
flooding is to protect (e.g., constructed dunes, gates),
changes and investments in mitigation and protection.
accommodate (e.g., elevate structures and infrastructure), or
avoid and retreat (e.g., rolling easements that allow the
Federal Assistance
shore to migrate inland). A state’s approach can have
implications for disaster resilience (including for public
Most coastal flood-related federal spending since 2005 has
infrastructure), demand for federal assistance, and patterns
consisted of emergency funds concentrated on storm-
and rates of recovery. Federal programs and policies can
damaged areas, rather than competitively distributed.
provide incentives or disincentives for nonfederal
Support through the annual federal appropriations process
investment in coastal planning and risk reduction. The past
typically has been for planning and technical assistance,
decade has been marked by increased federal emergency
with some cost-shared investment in mitigation and
funding for areas hit by coastal storms and increasing
protection. For most years, annual spending for these
federal aid as a share of hurricane damages: 6% in 1955,
activities has totaled less than $200 million nationally for
50% in 2005, 69% in 2008, and more than 75% in 2012
agencies with related missions: NOAA, Federal Emergency
(see National Research Council, Reducing Coastal Risk,
Management Agency (FEMA), and U.S. Army Corps of
2014). To what extent various federal programs and funds
Engineers (Corps), as described below. State and local
promote resilience (i.e., ability to recover from disruptions
spending data on coastal flood activities is not available.
and adapt to changing conditions) is the subject of debate.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Coastal Flood Development and Risk
NOAA conducts a broad variety of activities that support
U.S. coastal development historically was dominated by
coastal resilience including scientific research, data
urban areas with ports and defense installations, such as
collection and monitoring, and coastal and ocean
Miami and Tampa–St. Petersburg, Florida; New York
management. The Office for Coastal Management and its
City/Newark, New York and New Jersey; New Orleans,
Coastal Zone Management, Coral Reef Conservation,
Louisiana; and Virginia Beach, Virginia. More recently,
Digital Coast, and National Estuarine Research Reserve
smaller settlements have transformed into higher-density
programs are the core of NOAA’s coastal resilience efforts.
resorts and urban complexes. The resulting trend is for
The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) provides
coastal flooding to threaten greater proportions of the
planning and technical services to assist states in protecting,
nation’s population, infrastructure, and investments. The
restoring, and developing coastal communities and
flood hazard is shaped by a locale’s meteorologic,
resources. Under CZMA’s voluntary program, states and
hydrologic, and geologic conditions and by broader trends
territories develop coastal management plans. Once these
in sea levels and conditions. Flooding occurs with not only
plans are federally approved, states become eligible for
storms but also regular high tides that produce “nuisance”
grants, and federal actions in the coastal zone are required
flooding. In 2014, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
to be consistent with state plans. Management of
Administration (NOAA) identified nonlinear increases in
development in high-hazard areas is a key element of most
coastal nuisance flooding.
state plans. CZMA grants are used to support state efforts to
reduce damages caused by coastal hazards ($17 million in
Flood vulnerability and consequences are shaped by land
FY2014). In 2015, NOAA established the Regional Coastal
use and building code practices, and investments in
Resilience Grants program to build community, ecosystem,
nonstructural protection (e.g., natural dunes, wetlands) and
and economic resilience, and it uses Digital Coast and its
structural measures (e.g., barriers/gates, engineered dunes).
partnerships to provide state and local coastal managers
Considerable variation exists across states and among local
with data, mapping services, training, and case studies.
jurisdictions in the adoption, use, and enforcement of these
measures. Variation also exists in the effort to maintain
Federal Emergency Management Agency
functional and intact wetlands and coastal forests as
FEMA’s most prominent roles in coastal resilience are
defenses from erosion and flooding. A U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) report estimated the potential
through the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (which is
future economic impacts of storm surge and sea-level rise
funded based on a formula derived from individual declared
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Coastal Flood Resilience: Policy, Roles, and Funds
disaster expenditures) and the Pre-Disaster Mitigation
Department of Energy. In 2014, the Department of Housing
program (PDM, which is annually appropriated). In recent
and Urban Development initiated a $1 billion National
years, the PDM program has been funded at $25 million to
Disaster Resilience Competition using Hurricane Sandy
$30 million annually. After years of not requesting PDM
supplemental funding in which state and local government
funds, the Administration requested $200 million for
applicants engage in risk assessment and planning
FY2016, signaling its increasing support for mitigation.
activities. Winning applicants are to be selected for design
Other efforts to support resilience through mitigation
and implementation funds. Another federal funding source
include FEMA’s incorporation of sea-level rise into the
for Gulf of Mexico coastal infrastructure projects derives
benefit-cost analyses used to evaluate mitigation projects.
from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill settlement.
Also, pursuant to the 2013 E.O. 13653, FEMA in 2015
updated guidance to require that state hazard mitigation
Many Obama Administration coastal resilience actions are
plans (which are required for mitigation funding eligibility)
related to climate change efforts. E.O. 13690 established a
as of 2016 consider long-term risk probabilities of future
federal flood risk management standard for federal actions.
hazard events as well as changing future conditions.
The State, Local, and Tribal Leaders Task Force on Climate
Preparedness and Resilience has recommended how to
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Civil Works)
remove barriers to resilient investments and modernize
federal grants and loans.
Since the 1950s, Congress has authorized the Corps to
construct specific coastal storm damage reduction projects.
Policy Challenges and Questions
The Corps also provides flood risk reduction technical
assistance and leads the interagency Silver Jackets program,
In 2014, the National Research Council recommended
which is operating in 44 states. Silver Jackets consists of
developing a unifying policy on coastal risk and assessing
state-specific partnerships that focus federal assistance on
the nation’s risk, and the American Society of Civil
state flood priorities. In response to congressional direction,
Engineers published Flood Risk Management: Call for a
the Corps published a concept for a comprehensive
National Strategy. In 2013, the Association of State
response for the North Atlantic coast in 2015. The broad
Floodplain Managers Foundation recommended a holistic
vision, strategy, and priorities for the federal role in coastal
coastal approach to achieve resilience. Such
storm damage reduction projects nonetheless remain ill-
recommendations raise a basic question: How can local
defined. There is no guiding policy for categories of
conditions and state and local autonomy be respected while
projects—shoreline protection, erosion control, and tide-
attempting to both control federal disaster costs and create
related measures—although at congressional direction the
consistent, equitable policies that promote accountability
agency constructs such projects.
and reward proactive resilience actions? To address this
challenge, some stakeholders are pursuing innovations in
Since 2005, Corps coastal storm damage reduction funding
project financing, especially for projects that integrate
has been dominated by the $20 billion in emergency funds
natural and built coastal environments that cut across
concentrated on projects in areas affected by Hurricanes
traditional federal agency missions and programs. Others
Katrina and Sandy. The demand for Corps construction
are concerned with more clearly defining federal and
projects is much greater than annual appropriations. The
nonfederal responsibilities.
Corps coastal storm damage reduction annual
appropriations for FY2009 to FY2015 totaled $0.6 billion
Other challenging policy questions include the following:
(nominal dollars). The 113th Congress (P.L. 113-121)
What role could federal, state, and local tax reform and
authorized expanded flexibility and opportunities for
flood insurance have in eliminating incentives that increase
financing Corps projects (e.g., public-private partnerships,
coastal flood risk? Are federal policies promoting
loan guarantees). What role these new authorities may play
appropriately resilient adaptations for long-term community
in enabling investments in coastal resilience projects
resilience? What are the lessons from the federal assistance
remains unknown.
restriction for certain areas under the Coastal Barrier
Resources Act of 1982 (P.L. 97-348)? What would a
Other Federal Assistance and Activities
coastal risk management assessment identify as priority
data and mitigation investments? What are the coastal flood
Timely and accurate information on coastal flooding can
liability concerns associated with federal projects and
alter the near-term human impacts (e.g., by informing local
activities? How will the federal government address the
evacuation) and long-term property losses (e.g., by
financing challenge of protecting federally owned
providing estimates of combined effects of sea-level rise
properties, assets, and their functions? Would changes to
and storm surge). In 2015, the National Hurricane Center is
federal involvement in disaster response and recovery alter
to test new storm surge watch and warning maps. Coastal
state and local decisions and investments so that coastal
flood science relies on federal investments in data from
resilience is a local enterprise receiving national assistance?
remote observations (e.g., satellites), surface observations,
and complex models. Notable gaps remain in understanding
Nicole T. Carter, Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
current and future coastal flood risks.
Harold F. Upton, Analyst in Natural Resources Policy
Significant public infrastructure is vulnerable to coastal
Francis X. McCarthy, Analyst in Emergency Management
floods. Flood resilience efforts are under way for highways
Policy
and transit through the Department of Transportation; water
IF10225
utilities through EPA; and energy systems through the
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Coastal Flood Resilience: Policy, Roles, and Funds
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