May 13, 2015
Coastal Flood Resilience: Policy, Roles, and Funds
Congress and other policymakers are faced with how to
surge and sea-level rise on U.S. coasts cumulatively during
cost-effectively reduce coastal flood risk. Issues include
this century at $1 trillion (nominal 2005 dollars,
how to coordinate action and assign responsibilities for
undiscounted), assuming use of economically efficient
preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery; who
protective responses (J. Neumann et al., “Joint effects of
bears the cost of impacts and long-term adjustments; and
storm surge and sea-level rise on U.S. Coasts: New
how to finance actions to improve coastal flood resilience.
economic estimates of impacts, adaptation, and benefits of
mitigation policy,” Climate Change, 2014). Awareness of
States largely determine whether the approach to coastal
flood risk and its long-term fiscal impact historically has
flooding is to protect (e.g., constructed dunes, gates),
proven insufficient to motivate pre-disaster land use
accommodate (e.g., elevate structures and infrastructure), or
changes and investments in mitigation and protection.
avoid and retreat (e.g., rolling easements that allow the
shore to migrate inland). A state’s approach can have
Federal Assistance
implications for disaster resilience (including for public
infrastructure), demand for federal assistance, and patterns
Most coastal flood-related federal spending since 2005 has
and rates of recovery. Federal programs and policies can
consisted of emergency funds concentrated on storm-
provide incentives or disincentives for nonfederal
damaged areas, rather than competitively distributed.
investment in coastal planning and risk reduction. The past
Support through the annual federal appropriations process
decade has been marked by increased federal emergency
typically has been for planning and technical assistance,
funding for areas hit by coastal storms and increasing
with some cost-shared investment in mitigation and
federal aid as a share of hurricane damages: 6% in 1955,
protection. For most years, annual spending for these
50% in 2005, 69% in 2008, and more than 75% in 2012
activities has totaled less than $200 million nationally for
(see National Research Council, Reducing Coastal Risk,
agencies with related missions: NOAA, Federal Emergency
2014). To what extent various federal programs and funds
Management Agency (FEMA), and U.S. Army Corps of
promote resilience (i.e., ability to recover from disruptions
Engineers (Corps), as described below. State and local
and adapt to changing conditions) is the subject of debate.
spending data on coastal flood activities is not available.
Coastal Flood Development and Risk
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. coastal development historically was dominated by
NOAA’s primary role in coastal resilience has been to
urban areas with ports and defense installations, such as
support planning and provide technical assistance,
Miami and Tampa–St. Petersburg, Florida; New York
traditionally through Coastal Zone Management Act
City/Newark, New York and New Jersey; New Orleans,
(CZMA; 16 U.S.C. 1451-1464) activities and more recently
Louisiana; and Virginia Beach, Virginia. More recently,
through the Digital Coast initiative. The CZMA
smaller settlements have transformed into higher-density
concentrates on protecting, restoring, and developing
resorts and urban complexes. The resulting trend is for
coastal communities and resources. Under CZMA’s
coastal flooding to threaten greater proportions of the
voluntary program, coastal states and territories develop
nation’s population, infrastructure, and investments. The
management plans. Once these plans are federally
flood hazard is shaped by a locale’s meteorologic,
approved, states become eligible for grants, and federal
hydrologic, and geologic conditions and by broader trends
actions in the coastal zone are required to be consistent with
in sea levels and conditions. Flooding occurs with not only
state plans. Managing development in high-hazard areas is
storms but also regular high tides that produce “nuisance”
a key element of most state plans. Coastal resilience has
flooding. In 2014, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
become one of NOAA’s funding priorities, and CZMA
Administration (NOAA) identified nonlinear increases in
grant program funding is used to support state efforts to
coastal nuisance flooding.
reduce damages caused by coastal hazards ($17 million in
FY2014). In 2015, NOAA established the Regional Coastal
Flood vulnerability and consequences are shaped by land
Resilience Grants program to build community, ecosystem,
use and building code practices and investments in
and economic resilience, and it requested $50 million for
nonstructural protection (e.g., natural dunes, wetlands) and
the program in FY2016. NOAA uses Digital Coast and its
structural measures (e.g., barriers/gates, engineered dunes).
partnerships to provide state and local coastal managers
Considerable variation exists across states and among local
with data, mapping services, training, and case studies.
jurisdictions in the adoption, use, and enforcement of these
measures. Variation also exists in the effort to maintain
Federal Emergency Management Agency
functional and intact wetlands and coastal forests as
defenses from erosion and flooding. One 2014 study
FEMA’s most prominent roles in coastal resilience are
estimated the potential future economic impacts of storm
through the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (which is
funded based on a formula derived from individual declared
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Coastal Flood Resilience: Policy, Roles, and Funds
disaster expenditures) and the Pre-Disaster Mitigation
utilities through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
program (PDM, which is annually appropriated). In recent
and energy systems through the Department of Energy. In
years, the PDM program has been funded at $25 million to
2014, the Department of Housing and Urban Development
$30 million annually. After years of not requesting PDM
initiated a $1 billion National Disaster Resilience
funds, the Administration requested $200 million for
Competition using Hurricane Sandy supplemental funding
FY2016, signaling its increasing support for mitigation.
in which state and local government applicants engage in
Other efforts to support resilience through mitigation
risk assessment and planning activities. Winning applicants
include FEMA’s incorporation of sea-level rise into the
are to be selected for design and implementation funds.
benefit-cost analyses used to evaluate mitigation projects.
Another federal funding source for Gulf of Mexico coastal
Also, pursuant to the 2013 E.O. 13653, FEMA in 2015
infrastructure projects derives from the Deepwater Horizon
updated guidance to require that state hazard mitigation
oil spill settlement.
plans (which are required for mitigation funding eligibility)
as of 2016 consider long-term risk probabilities of future
Many Obama Administration coastal resilience actions are
hazard events as well as changing future conditions.
related to climate change efforts. E.O. 13690 established a
federal flood risk management standard for federal real
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Civil Works)
property and actions. The State, Local, and Tribal Leaders
Task Force on Climate Preparedness and Resilience has
Since the 1950s, Congress has authorized the Corps to
recommended how to remove barriers to resilient
construct specific coastal storm damage reduction projects.
investments and modernize federal grants and loans.
The Corps also provides flood risk reduction technical
assistance through various authorities. It leads the
Policy Challenges and Questions
interagency Silver Jackets program, which is operating in
44 states; Silver Jackets consists of state-specific
In 2014, the National Research Council recommended
partnerships that focus federal assistance on state flood risk
developing a unifying policy on coastal risk and assessing
management priorities. In response to congressional
the nation’s risk, and the American Society of Civil
direction, the Corps published a concept for a
Engineers published Flood Risk Management: Call for a
comprehensive response for the North Atlantic coast in
National Strategy. In 2013, the Association of State
2015. The broad vision, strategy, and priorities for the
Floodplain Management Foundation recommended a
federal role in coastal storm damage reduction projects
holistic coastal approach to achieve resilience. Such
nonetheless remain ill-defined. There is no guiding policy
recommendations raise a basic question: How can local
for categories of projects—shoreline protection, erosion
conditions and state and local autonomy be respected while
control, and tide-related measures—although at
attempting to both control federal disaster costs and create
congressional direction the agency constructs such projects.
consistent, equitable policies that promote accountability
and reward proactive resilience actions? To address this
Since 2005, the Corps coastal storm damage reduction
challenge, some stakeholders are pursuing innovations in
funding has been dominated by the $20 billion in
project financing, especially for projects that integrate
emergency funds concentrated on projects in areas affected
natural and built coastal environments that cut across
by Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy. The demand for Corps
traditional federal agency missions and programs. Others
construction projects is much greater than annual
are concerned with more clearly defining federal and
appropriations. The Corps coastal storm damage reduction
nonfederal responsibilities.
annual appropriations for FY2009 to FY2015 totaled $0.6
billion (nominal dollars). The 113th Congress (P.L. 113-
Other challenging policy questions include the following:
121) authorized expanded flexibility and opportunities for
What role could federal, state, and local tax reform and
financing Corps projects (e.g., public-private partnerships,
flood insurance have in eliminating incentives that increase
loan guarantees). What role these new federal authorities
coastal flood risk? Are federal policies promoting
may play in enabling investments in coastal resilience
appropriately resilient adaptations for long-term community
infrastructure projects remains unknown.
resilience? What would a coastal risk management
assessment identify as priority data and mitigation
Other Federal Assistance and Activities
investments? What are the coastal flood liability concerns
associated with federal projects and activities? How will the
Timely and accurate information on coastal flooding can
federal government address the financing challenge of
alter the near-term human impacts (e.g., by informing local
protecting federally owned properties, assets, and their
evacuation) and long-term property losses (e.g., by
functions? Would changes to federal involvement in
providing estimates of combined effects of sea-level rise
disaster response and recovery alter state and local
and storm surge). In 2015, the National Hurricane Center is
decisions and investments so that coastal resilience is a
to test new storm surge watch and warning maps. Coastal
local enterprise receiving national assistance?
flood science relies on federal investments in data from
remote observations (e.g., satellites), surface observations,
Nicole T. Carter, ncarter@crs.loc.gov, 7-0854
and complex models. Notable gaps remain in understanding
Harold F. Upton, hupton@crs.loc.gov, 7-2264
current and future coastal flood risks.
Francis X. McCarthy, fmccarthy@crs.loc.gov, 7-9533

Significant public infrastructure is vulnerable to coastal
floods. Flood resilience efforts are under way for highways
IF10225
and transit through the Department of Transportation; water
www.crs.gov | 7-5700

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