Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the World
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Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the World
Updated December 10, 2024
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R45483
Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the World
Congressional Research Service 1
Introduction
Women and girls make up half of the world’s population; however, in most countries, women are underrepresented in the political process at the national level. Possible causes include discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to health care, and the disproportionate effect of poverty on women. Many experts have found that women’s political participation, including representation in elected governments, contributes to the overall well-being of women and their communities.1
As this report shows, in 2024, women hold 27.0% of legislative seats around the world, an increase from 15.6% of such seats in 2004 (see Figure 1). As of October 1, 2024, women held 50% or more of the legislative seats in six countries: Rwanda, Cuba, Nicaragua, Mexico, Andorra, and the United Arab Emirates (see Table 3).
A 2023 report noted that 66 chambers in 52 countries held elections and that women’s representation increased in 32 of these chambers.2 The same report describes a trend of women leaving politics altogether due to “burnout and fatigue”3 and the “challenge of violence and personal attacks, which are becoming increasingly widespread and virulent with the advancement of digital tools.”4
At the national executive level, 34 countries currently have a female chief of state and/or head of government who won an election or was selected by elected bodies (see Table 6).
This report provides a snapshot of women’s political participation in national governments worldwide by compiling statistics and other information from a variety of sources, including the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, the CIA World Factbook, news reports, and other sources.5
Selected Congressional Action
Legislation has been enacted that, either directly or indirectly, addresses women’s political participation around the world. For example, from FY2014 through FY2024, a provision in Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) Appropriations Acts appropriated funds for women’s leadership. Most recently, the FY2024 SFOPS Appropriations Act states:
Of the funds appropriated under title III of this Act, not less than $50,000,000 shall be made available for the Madeleine K. Albright Women’s Leadership Program, as
1 For example, see U.N. document, A/RES/66/130, Women and Political Participation, adopted December 19, 2011; UN Women, “In Brief: Women’s Leadership and Political Participation;” U.S. Department of State, Office of Global Women’s Issues, “Cross-Cutting Issues, Women’s Leadership;” Aaron Reeves, Chris Brown, and Johanna Hanefeld, “Female Political Representation and the Gender Health Gap: A Cross-National Analysis of 49 European Countries,” European Journal of Public Health, vol. 32, no. 5 (October 2022): pp. 684-689; and Niharika Rustagi and Sonia Akter, “The Impact of Women’s Political Representation on Child Health Outcomes during 1990-2020: Evidence from a Global Dataset,” Social Science & Medicine, vol. 312 (November 2022).
2 IPU, Women in Parliament 2023, March 2024, p. 1.
3 Ibid., p. 26.
4 Ibid.
5 For information on global women’s issues more broadly, see CRS In Focus IF11804, Global Women’s Issues: Background and Selected U.S. Efforts.
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Congressional Research Service 2
established by section 7059(b) of the Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 2023 (division K of P.L. 117-328).6
Members have also enacted laws that address aspects and issues related to women’s political participation. For example, the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017 (P.L. 115-68), among other things, aims to increase the participation of women in conflict prevention and conflict resolution processes as a means to build more inclusive societies and to help stabilize countries and regions. The act expresses the sense of Congress that “the political participation, and leadership of women in fragile environments, particularly during democratic transitions, is critical to sustaining lasting democratic institutions.”7
Statistics on Selected Issues
Voting Rights
The right to vote is a primary step toward involving a populace in the political decisions of a government. In many countries, voting rights were originally granted only to adult men who owned property, then were eventually expanded to include adult male citizens regardless of property ownership, then to women, and finally to other underrepresented groups. Definitions of what constituted a “citizen” may also have changed over time, as they did in the United States, and become more inclusive of minority groups and Indigenous peoples.
Table 1 and Table 2, respectively, list the first and latest countries to extend the right and duty of voting to women according to the IPU. Although subnational regions (e.g., states, provinces) may have granted the right to vote earlier, the years in the tables below indicate when sex as a barrier to suffrage was removed from national elections. This does not mean that all women could vote, but that sex as a barrier to voting was removed. In the United States, for example, many women of color could not vote until the Civil Rights Act of 1965, even though women were granted the right to vote in federal elections in 1920.8
6 See Section 7059 of Division F of the Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2024 (P.L. 118-47).
7 P.L. 115-68, Section 3, Sense of Congress. For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12346, Women, Peace, and Security: Global Context and U.S. Policy.
8 Katherine Schaeffer, “Key Facts about Women’s Sufferage around the World, a Century after U.S. Ratified 19th Amendment,” Pew Research Center, October 5, 2020.
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Table 1. First Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year Country/Countries
1893 New Zealand
1902 Australia*
1906 Finland
1913 Norway
1915 Denmark, Iceland*
1917 Canada*
1918 Austria, Estonia, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Ireland,* Kyrgyz Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, United Kingdom*
1919 Belarus, Belgium,* Luxembourg, Netherlands, Sweden,* Ukraine
1920 Albania, Czech Republic, Iceland,** Slovak Republic, United States
1921 Armenia, Azerbaijan, Sweden**
Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) using information from IPU, “Women’s Sufferage,” accessed November 25, 2024. Notes: Some countries removed gender as a barrier to voting in stages. One asterisk (*) indicates the first year female citizens were allowed to vote in national elections with some limitations due to gender remaining; two asterisks (**) indicate when those limitations due to gender were removed. No asterisk indicates the year that gender as a barrier to voting was removed without stages. Note: female citizens in certain racial, ethnic, or economic groups may not have been able to vote due to legal barriers not due to gender.
Table 2. Most Recent Countries to Allow Women to Vote
Year Country/Countries
2015 Saudi Arabia
2008 Bhutan
2006 Montenegro, United Arab Emirates
2005 Kuwait
2003 Indonesia, Qatar, Oman
2002 Bahrain
Sources: Compiled by CRS using information from IPU, “Compare data on parliaments,” accessed November 25, 2024; Pamela Paxton, Melanie M. Hughes, and Tiffany D. Barnes, Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective, 4th ed., Rowman & Littlefield, 2021, pp. 43-44; CIA World Factbook’s “Suffrage” website, accessed January 5, 2023; and consultation with CRS analysts. Note: Newly independent countries (e.g., Kosovo, South Sudan) would be included only if women had not been granted suffrage under the preceding country. For example, because Sudan granted women the right to vote in 1964, South Sudan is not included in this list, even though it did not gain independence until 2011.
Legislative Representation
The following tables highlight women’s representation based in national legislatures, including data on quotas (described below). Several countries and political parties have instituted quotas to ensure that women are represented on the ballot or in the legislature, which may affect the statistics on women’s representation in national governments. Some governments also may use
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Congressional Research Service 4
quotas to ensure ethnic or religious diversity in their national legislatures (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq9).
Gender Quotas
The Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas explains that “[g]ender quotas are numerical targets that stipulate the number or percentage of women that must be included in a candidate list or the number of seats to be allocated to women in a legislature. They aim to reverse discrimination in law and practice and to level the playing field for women and men in politics.”10
Three main types of gender quotas are generally recognized, and they may be used at the national or subnational level, or both:
This report provides an overview of women's roles in national governments and looks at suffrage, representation at the legislative and executive levels, gender quotas, and violence against women in elections. Women and girls make up half of the world's population. However, in most countries, women are underrepresented in the political process at the national level. Possible causes include discriminatory laws and practices, gender stereotypes, low levels of education, and the disproportionate effect of poverty on women. Many experts have found that women's political participation, including representation in elected governments, contributes to the overall well-being of women and their communities.1 This report provides a snapshot of women's political participation in national governments worldwide by compiling statistics and other information from a variety of sources, including the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, news reports, and other sources. Members have also enacted laws that address women's political participation. For example, Section 7059(e) of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2026 (Division F of P.L. 119-75), stated: Women, Peace, and Security [WPS]—Of the funds appropriated by this Act under the headings "National Security Investment Programs" and "International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement", $112,500,000 should be made available to support a multi-year strategy to expand, and improve coordination of, United States Government efforts to empower women as equal partners in conflict prevention, peace building, transitional processes, and reconstruction efforts in countries affected by conflict or in political transition, and to ensure the equal provision of relief and recovery assistance to women and girls.5 Congressional hearings involving WPS have been held since the 111th Congress (2009-2010).6 P.L. 115-68, the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, stressed the importance of "the participation of women in conflict prevention, management, and resolution and post-conflict relief and recovery efforts." This legislation directed the U.S. Department of State, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD),7 and the U.S. Agency for International Development to promote WPS and urged the President to "promote women's participation in conflict prevention." U.S. Secretary of Defense Pete Hegseth8 announced the end of WPS within DOD on April 29, 2025.9 Several bills have been introduced expressing support for WPS programs since that date.10 In 2016, the IPU published a report about discrimination, harassment and violence against women parliamentarians and women parliamentary staff. Since 2016, the IPU has published regional updates for Europe, Africa, and the Asia-Pacific.11 In the United States, the House Committee on Ethics released a press release stating that the committee is dedicated to maintaining a congressional workplace free from sexual misconduct and ensuring that any individuals responsible for misconduct are held responsible for their behavior. There should be zero tolerance for sexual misconduct, harassment, or discrimination in the halls of Congress, or in any employment setting…. Regardless of whether a claim is brought through formal channels, individuals who have been the victim of or who are otherwise aware of any sexual misconduct, regardless of whether they are a House employee, can submit a complaint with the Committee at any time through the Committee's website (here).12 The House Committee on Ethics also released a "Historical Chart of Sexual Misconduct Matters," dealing with "publicly disclosed investigative matters involving alleged sexual misconduct by member[s.]"13 It provides the subject, allegations, and the outcome of each investigation. These include sexual harassment of congressional staff and other forms of misconduct. The right to vote is a primary step toward involving a populace in the political decisions of a government. In many countries, voting rights for citizens have been restricted by gender and "other demographic factors such as race, age, education level or marital status."14 Definitions of what constituted a "citizen" may also have changed over time, for example, by including minority groups and Indigenous peoples, as was done in the United States. Some countries granted women the right to vote in stages. For example, in Canada in 1917, "women who served in the military or who had a close male relative serving in the military (i.e., a father, husband or son) were granted the right to vote." By 1918, the restrictions related to non-military service were removed, although Indigenous women still could not vote.17 Year Country/Countries 1893 New Zealand 1902 Australia* 1906 Finland 1913 Norway 1915 Denmark, Iceland* 1917 Canada* 1918 Austria, Canada,** Estonia, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Ireland,* Kyrgyz Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, United Kingdom* 1919 Belarus, Belgium,* Luxembourg, Netherlands, Sweden,* Ukraine 1920 Albania, Czech Republic, Iceland,** Slovak Republic, United States 1921 Armenia, Azerbaijan, Sweden** Notes: Some countries granted women the right to vote in stages. For such countries, one asterisk (*) indicates the first year female citizens were granted the right to vote in national elections, even though some limitations related to gender may have persisted. Two asterisks (**) indicate when residual gender-related voting restrictions were removed. No asterisk indicates that the right to vote was granted to women without any restrictions. Additionally, despite residing in countries that have granted women the right to vote, some women may have faced barriers to voting due to their race, ethnicity, religion, class, or other characteristics. Year Country/Countries 2002 Bahrain 2003 Indonesia, Qatar, Oman 2005 Kuwait 2006 Montenegro, United Arab Emirates 2008 Bhutan 2015 Saudi Arabia Note: Countries that gained their independence since 2000 (e.g., Kosovo, South Sudan) are included in Table 2 only if women had not been granted suffrage before the country gained independence. For example, because Sudan granted women the right to vote in 1964, South Sudan, which gained independence in 2011, is not included in this list. Tables 3-5 highlight women's representation in national legislatures. Several countries and political parties have gender quotas that mandate women's representation on a ballot or in the legislature. Some governments may also use quotas to ensure ethnic or religious diversity in their national legislatures (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq).18 Although women may benefit from these quotas, only gender quotas are included in the tables. The Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas explains that "[g]ender quotas are numerical targets that stipulate the number or percentage of women that must be included in a candidate list or the number of seats to be allocated to women in a legislature. They aim to reverse discrimination in law and practice and to level the playing field for women and men in politics."19 Three main types of gender quotas are generally recognized, and they may be used at the national and subnational levels:•
Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the World
Updated May 7, 2026
(R45483)
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Contents
Figures
Tables
Summary
Women and girls make up half of the world's population. However, in most countries, women are underrepresented in the political process at the national level. As this report shows, on April 1, 2026, women held 27.4% of legislative seats around the world, an increase from 16.6% of legislative seats in April 31, 2006 (see Figure 1). As of April 1, 2026, women held 50% or more of the legislative seats in eight countries: Rwanda, Cuba, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Mexico, Andorra, and the United Arab Emirates (see Table 3). At the executive level, 37 women in 33 countries were elected or selected by elected bodies to serve as heads of state and/or heads of government as of May 1, 2026 (see Table 6).
Introduction
Source: Compiled by CRS using information from Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Women's Suffrage," http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/suffrage.htm.
Sources: Compiled by CRS using information from Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Compare Data on Parliaments," https://data.ipu.org/compare; Pamela Paxton et al., Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective, 4th ed. (Rowman and Littlefield, 2021), pp. 43-44.
legislationlaws to regulate the gender composition of the ballot.
•2. Legislated “"reserved seats.”." These quotas reserve a specific number or percentagenumbers or percentages of seats in the legislaturelegislatures for women members. The quotas are mandated through national constitutions or legislationlaws and are implemented through special electoral procedures.
•3. Party quotas (also known as voluntary party quotas). Political. Individual political parties may adopt these quotas through the party’sparty statutes and rules. Such adoption is the prerogative of each party, and some parties in a country may adopt quotas while other parties choose not to do so.11
others may not.20 A 2026 report from the IPU notes that quotas were "a significant driver of women's representation in parliament in 2025. In the 36 chambers that had some form of quotas, the average share of elected or appointed seats held by women reached 30.9%, versus an average of 23.3% in chambers with no quotas. The average share of women elected was the highest (37.3%) in chambers that had both legislated and voluntary quotas."21
Table 3. National Legislatures with Women Holding 40% or More of T otal Seats
As of October 1, 2024
IPU Global
Country
Rank by % of
Total Seats
Held by
Womena Country
Type of
Type of Legislative
System Gender Quota Codesb Held Legislative Seats (#)cSeats Held by Women (#)
System
National
Level Gender
Quota
Codesb
Total
Legislative
Seats
Total Seats
Held by
Women
% of Total
Seats Held
Seats Held by Women (%) Rwanda Bicameral RS 106 63 59.4% #2 Cuba Unicameral ND 467 267 57.2% #3 Nicaragua Unicameral CQ 91 51 56.0% #4 Costa Rica Unicameral CQ, PQ 57 30 52.6% #5 Bolivia Bicameral CQ 166 87 52.4% #6 Mexico Bicameral CQ 628 317 50.5% #7 Andorra Unicameral CQ, PQ 28 14 50.0% #8 United Arab Emirates Unicameral RS 40 20 50.0% #9 Australia Bicameral PQ 226 112 49.6% #10 Denmark Unicameral ND 179 86 48.0% #11 New Zealand Unicameral PQ 123 57 46.3% #12 Iceland Unicameral PQ 63 29 46.0% #13 Cabo Verde Unicameral CQ 72 33 45.8% #14 Monaco Unicameral ND 24 11 45.8% #15 Finland Unicameral ND 200 91 45.5% #16 Sweden Unicameral PQ 349 156 44.7% #17 South Africa Bicameral PQ 452 201 44.5% #18 Belgium Bicameral CQ 209 92 44.0% #19 Spain Bicameral CQ, PQ 615 266 43.3% #20 Netherlands Bicameral PQ 225 97 43.1% #21 Ecuador Unicameral CQ 151 65 43.0% #22 Norway Unicameral PQ 169 72 42.6% #23 Argentina Bicameral CQ, PQ 329 138 41.9% #24 Peru Unicameral CQ 130 54 41.5% #25 Angola Unicameral PQ 220 91 41.4% #26 Senegal Unicameral CQ 165 68 41.2% #27 Dominica Unicameral ND 32 13 40.6% #28 Burundi Bicameral CQ 124 50 40.3% Notes:. As of April 1, 2026 Country Type of Legislative System Seats Held by Women (#) Seats Held by Women (%) #6 Mexico Bicameral CQ 628 317 50.5% #9 Australia Bicameral PQ 226 112 49.6% #17 South Africa Bicameral PQ 452 201 44.5% #23 Argentina Bicameral CQ, PQ 329 138 41.9% #37 France Bicameral CQ, PQ 923 342 37.1% #43 Canada Bicameral PQ 438 156 35.6% #44 United Kingdom Bicameral PQ 1,472 524 35.6% #52 Italy Bicameral CQ, PQ 605 206 34.0% #58 Germany Bicameral PQ 699 229 32.8% #85 United States Bicameral No Quota 150 28.2% #91 China Unicameral RS 2,977 790 26.5% #112 Indonesia Unicameral CQ 580 129 22.2% #121 South Korea Unicameral CQ, PQ 298 62 20.8% #127 Türkiye Unicameral PQ 592 118 19.9% #128 Japan Bicameral PQ 713 142 19.9% #129 Saudi Arabia Unicameral RS 151 30 19.9% #133 Russia Bicameral ND 599 110 18.4% #139 Brazil Bicameral CQ, PQ 594 103 17.3% #163 India Bicameral RS 787 75 9.5% Notes: As of April 1, 2026 Country Type of Legislative System Seats Held by Women (#) Seats Held by Women (%) #161 Samoa Unicameral RS 51 5 9.8% #162 Sri Lanka Unicameral Sub only 225 22 9.8% #163 India Bicameral RS 787 75 9.5% #164 Fiji Unicameral ND 55 5 9.1% #165 Botswana Unicameral PQ 67 6 9.0% #166 The Gambia Unicameral ND 58 5 8.6% #167 Bhutan Bicameral ND 72 5 6.9% #168 Algeria Bicameral CQ, PQ 571 36 6.3% #169 Lebanon Unicameral ND 128 8 6.3% #170 Qatar Unicameral ND 49 3 6.1% #171 Solomon Islands Unicameral CQ 50 3 6.0% #172 Syria Unicameral ND 122 6 4.9% #173 Iran Unicameral ND 285 14 4.9% #174 Nigeria Bicameral ND 463 19 4.1% #175 Tonga Unicameral ND 27 1 3.7% #176 Maldives Unicameral Sub only 93 3 3.2% #177 Papua New Guinea Unicameral RS 111 3 2.7% #178 Bangladesh Unicameral RS 296 7 2.4% #179 Vanuatu Unicameral Sub only 52 1 1.9% #180 Yemen Bicameral ND 335 1 0.3% #181 Tuvalu Unicameral ND 16 0 0.0% Notes:
Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Monthly Ranking of Women in National Parliaments," https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking/; and International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, "Gender Quotas Database," https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas-database.
Quota Codesb
Held Legislative Seats (#)c
532d
Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), "Monthly Ranking of Women in National Parliaments," https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking/; and International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, "Gender Quotas Database," https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas-database.
Quota Codesb
Held Legislative Seats (#)c
Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), "Monthly Ranking of Women in National Parliaments," https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking/; and International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, "Gender Quotas Database," https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotas-database.
by Women
#1 Rwanda Bicameral RS 106 65 61.3%
#2 Cuba Unicameral No Quota 470 262 55.7%
#3 Nicaragua Unicameral CQ 91 49 53.8%
#4 Mexico Bicameral CQ 628 315 50.2%
#5 Andorra Unicameral CQ, PQ 28 14 50.0%
#6 United Arab Emirates Unicameral RS 40 20 50.0%
#7 Costa Rica Unicameral CQ, PQ 57 28 49.1%
#8 Boliva Bicameral CQ 166 80 48.2%
#9 Iceland Unicameral PQ 63 30 47.6%
9 “Bosnia and Herzegovina,” CIA World Factbook, accessed on November 25, 2024 and “Iraq,” CIA World Factbook, accessed on November 25, 2024.
10 Drude Dahlerup et al., Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, June 2014, p. 16.
11 Ibid.
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IPU Global
Rank by % of
Total Seats
Held by
Womena Country
Type of
Legislative
System
National
Level Gender
Quota
Codesb
Total
Legislative
Seats
Total Seats
Held by
Women
% of Total
Seats Held
by Women
#10 Sweden Unicameral PQ 349 163 46.7%
#11 Senegal Unicameral CQ 165 76 46.1%
#12 Finland Unicameral No Quota 200 92 46.0%
#13 Monaco Unicameral No Quota 24 11 45.8%
#14 New Zealand Unicameral PQ 123 56 45.5%
#15 Denmark Unicameral No Quota 179 81 45.3
#16 South Africa Bicameral PQ 444 200 45.0%
#17 Norway Unicameral PQ 169 75 44.4%
#18 Australia Bicameral PQ 226 100 44.2%
#19 Spain Bicameral CQ, PQ 615 267 43.4%
#20 Mozambique Unicameral PQ 250 108 43.2%
#21 Argentina Bicameral CQ, PQ 329 142 43.2%
#22 Ecuador Unicameral CQ 137 59 43.1%
#23 Belgium Bicameral CQ 209 90 43.1%
#24 Republic of Moldova Unicameral CQ, PQ 98 40 40.8%
Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from the IPU’s Monthly Ranking of Women in National Parliaments and the Gender Quotas Database, published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, accessed November 24, 2024. Notes: The table above does not include vacancies as of October 1, 2024. A given legislature could have a greater total number of seats than those shown, if seats were vacant. Also, the countries listed here include those identified by the IPU where women hold 40% or more of the total seats in the national legislative chamber(s). a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 193 countries listed in the complete IPU list of Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments. Data was available for only 185 countries. Five countries (Eritrea, Haiti, Kuwait, Niger, and Venezuela) had no values recorded and three countries (Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Sudan) were recorded as having suspended legislatures.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; Sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database.
Table 4 shows the number of seats held by women in the national legislative chambers of the 19 members of the “Group of 20” (G-20), a forum for advancing international economic cooperation and coordination among certain countries.12 According to the IPU, women hold 40% or more of the total seats in the national legislatures of four G-20 countries (Mexico, South Africa, Australia, and Argentina), and these countries appear in both Table 3 and Table 4.
12 The European Union and the African Union, which are members of the G-20, are excluded from the table as the IPU’s Monthly Ranking of Women in National Parliaments does not include international parliaments, such as the European Parliament and the Pan-African Parliament.
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Table 4. Women in National Legislatures of G-20 Countries
As of October 1, 2024
IPU Global
Rank by % of
Total Seats
Held by
Womena Country
Type of
Legislative
System
National
Level Gender
Quota
Codesb
Total
Legislative
Seats
Total Seats
Held by
Women
% of Total
Seats Held
by Women
#4 Mexico Bicameral CQ 628 315 50.2%
#16 South Africa Bicameral PQ 444 200 45.0%
#18 Australia Bicameral PQ 226 100 44.2%
#21 Argentina Bicameral CQ, PQ 329 142 43.2%
#41 Canada Bicameral PQ 436 158 36.2%
#42 France Bicameral CQ, PQ 925 334 36.1%
#44 Germany Bicameral PQ 805 286 35.5%
#46 United Kingdom Bicameral PQ 1,435 491 34.2%
#50 Italy Bicameral CQ, PQ 605 203 33.6%
#80 United States Bicameral No Quota 532c 151 28.4%
#92 China Unicameral RS 2,977 790 26.5%
#117 Indonesia Unicameral CQ 580 122 21.0%
#128 South Korea Unicameral CQ, PQ 300 60 20.0%
#130 Saudi Arabia Unicameral RS 151 30 19.9%
#131 Türkiye Unicameral PQ 599 119 19.9%
#139 Brazil Bicameral CQ, PQ 594 104 17.5%
#141 Russia Bicameral No Quota 619 106 17.1%
#145 Japan Bicameral PQ 712 116 16.3%
#152 India Bicameral RS 776 113 14.6%
Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from the IPU’s Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments and the Gender Quotas Database, published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, accessed November 24, 2024. Notes: The table above does not include vacancies as of October 1, 2024. A given legislature could have a greater total number of seats than those shown, if seats were vacant. Also, this list includes the 19 member nations of the G-20 and excludes the European Union and the African Union. a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 193 countries listed in the complete IPU list of Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments. Data was available for only 185 countries. Five countries (Eritrea, Haiti, Kuwait, Niger, and Venezuela) had no values recorded and three countries (Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Sudan) were recorded as having suspended legislatures.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: CQ=legislated quotas for candidates on the ballot level; RS=legal quotas for reserved seats, whether legislated or mandated by the executive branch; PQ=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database.
c. The total number of seats in the U.S. Congress is 535. On October 1, 2024, IPU data recorded that three seats were vacant. See CRS Report R47470, Membership of the 118th Congress: A Profile, by Jennifer E. Manning.
Table 5 lists countries where women hold 10% or less of the total legislative seats according to the IPU.
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Table 5. Countries Where Women Hold 10% or Less of T otal Legislative Seats
As of October 1, 2024
IPU Global
Rank by %
of Total
Seats Held
by Womena Country
Type of
Legislative
System
National
Level
Gender
Quota
Codesb
Total
Legislative
Seats
Total Seats
Held by
Women
% of Total
Seats Held
by Women
#165 Guinea- Bissau Unicameral CQ 102 10 9.8%
#167 Syria Unicameral No Quota 250 24 9.6%
#168 Fiji Unicameral No Quota 55 5 9.1%
#169 The Gambia Unicameral No Quota 58 5 8.6%
#170 Tonga Unicameral No Quota 28 2 7.1%
#171 Bhutan Bicameral No Quota 72 5 6.9%
#172 Palau Bicameral No Quota 29 2 6.9%
#173 Algeria Bicameral CQ, PQ 577 39 6.8%
#174 Tuvalu Unicameral No Quota 16 1 6.3%
#175 Lebanon Unicameral No Quota 128 8 6.3%
#176 Solomon Islands Unicameral CQ 50 3 6.0%
#177 Sri Lanka Unicameral Sub only 225 12 5.3%
#178 Iran Unicameral No Quota 290 14 4.8%
#179 Qatar Unicameral No Quota 45 2 4.4%
#180 Nigeria Bicameral No Quota 467 18 3.9%
#181 Maldives Unicameral Sub only 93 3 3.2%
#182 Papua New Guinea Unicameral RS 111 3 2.7%
#183 Vanuatu Unicameral Sub only 51 1 2.0%
#184 Yemen Bicameral No Quota 335 1 0.3%
#185 Tuvalu Unicameral No Quota 16 0 0.0%
Sources: Compiled by CRS using data from the IPU’s Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments and the Gender Quotas Database, published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, accessed September 19, 2024. Notes: The table above does not include vacancies as of October 1, 2024. A given legislature could have a greater total number of seats than those shown, if seats were vacant. a. The rankings by percentage of total seats held by women are based on the 193 countries listed in the complete IPU list of Montlhy Ranking of Women in National Parliaments. Data was available for only 185 countries. Five countries (Eritrea, Haiti, Kuwait, Niger, and Venezuela) had no values recorded and three countries (Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Sudan) were recorded as having suspended legislatures.
b. Four codes indicate the type of gender quota used in the country: C=legislated quotas for candidates on the ballot level; RS=legislated quotas for reserved seats; P=voluntary party quotas; sub only=quotas at the subnational level only, as identified by the Gender Quotas Database, accessed Novmber 24, 2024.
According to the IPU, over a 20-year period, the percentage of seats held by women in national legislatures has risen worldwide from 15.6% in October 2004 to 27.0% in October 2024 (see Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Worldwide Percentage of Seats Held
Percentage of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures
WorldwideApril 2006 Through April 2026
Source: Created by CRS using data from Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), "Archived Data: World and Region Averages," http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/world-arc.htm; and IPU, "Global and Regional Averages of Women in National Parliaments," https://data.ipu.org/women-averages/.October 2004 - October 2024
Source: Created by CRS using data from the IPU.
According to the IPU, in
October 2004April 2006, Europe and the Americas were the only regions where women held 18% or more ofthe average percentage of women holding legislative seats at the national level exceeded 18%, as shown in Figure 2. By 2026, all regions except the Middle East and North Africa had an average of 18% or more women holding seats in national legislatures. On average, women holding legislative seats in the Middle East and North Africa increased from 8.8% in 2006 to 16.2% in 2026.
as shown in Figure 2. In 2024, women legislators in five regions hold more than 20% of the legislative seats. The Middle East/Northern Africa is the only region with less than 20% of legislative seats held by women, although women have increased their representation since 2004 from 6.9% to 16.8%.
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Figure 2. Regional Percentages of Seats Held by Women in National Legislatures
October 2004 - October 2024
Source: Created by CRS using data from the IPU.
Gender-Sensitive Parliaments
April 2006 compared to April 2026The IPU defines a gender-sensitive
“"one that responds to the needs and interests of both men and women in its structures, operations, methods, and work.”13"23 IPU research focuses on ways that parliaments can “"create the mechanisms required to mainstream gender equality concerns throughout their legislative, oversight and administrative work.”14
In 2012 and thenagain in 2017, the IPU published its "Plan of Action for Gender-Sensitive Parliaments,," which includes the following action areas:
• increasingIncreasing the number of women in parliament and achieving equality in participation;
• strengthening
Strengthening gender equality legislation and policy;
• mainstreaming
Mainstreaming gender equality throughout all parliamentary work;
• insituting
Instituting or improving gender-sensitive infrastructure and parlimentaryparliamentary culture;
• ensuring
Ensuring that responsibility for gender equality is shared by all parliamentarians – —men and women;
• encouraging
Encouraging political parties to be champions of gender equality; and
• enhancing
Enhancing the gender sensitivity of, and gender equality among, parlimentary staff.15
13 Sonia Palmieri, Gender-Sensitive Parliaments: A Global Review of Good Practice, IPU, 2011, p. v.
14 Ibid., p. v.
15 IPU, Plan of Action for Gender-Sensitive Parliaments, 2017, p. 1.
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In October 2022, at the end ofparliamentary staff25In October 2022, the 145th IPU Assembly in Kigali, Rwanda, adopted the Kigali Declaration, titled "Gender Equality and Gender-Sensitive Parliaments as Drivers of Change for a More Resilient and Peaceful World, was adopted.." It made the following recommendations:
• achieving
Achieve parity in political decisionmakingdecision-making, including by using electoral gender quotas and ensuring that other electoral quotas always have a gender parity provision;
• ensuring.
Ensure our law-making, law-enforcement, and budgeting are gender-responsive across all policy fields;
• placing.
Put vulnerable populations at the centre of our parliamentary functions of legislation, oversight, resource allocation, and representation;
• ending.
End gender-based discrimination, violence, and other harmful practices, and ensuringensure access to sexual and reproductive health, rights, and justice for all women and girls; and
• advancing.
Advance equality in caring responsibilities among men and women and settingset an example in our societies by undertaking 50% of the daily care work for MP’sour families, regardless of beingwhether we are male or female MPs.16
Hybrid work is being examined as a gender-sensitive mechanism. “During the pandemic, 84% of parliaments introduced new systems that were previously unplanned.”17 These changes are considered “gender-responsive,” and “parliaments are considering to what extent hybird26
Hybrid work—that is, a combination of remote work and in-person work—is being examined as a gender-sensitive mechanism. According to a 2024 IPU report, "over two thirds of parliaments (68%) now have multi-year digital strategies and 73% have formal modernization programmes" to promote hybrid work.27 A 2023 IPU report noted that these changes were considered "gender-responsive" and that parliaments were "considering to what extent hybrid working makes parliaments more modern, gender-sensitive and family-friendly workplaces.”18 A"28 The 2024 IPU report notesstated that “"as digital technology becomes increasingly strategic to parliaments, gender balance and gender-responsive digital initiatives are likely to become increasingly important aspects of inclusive governance.”19"29
Another 2024 IPU report discussed the “"Women in Politics: To Stay or Not to Stay”" session aat the 147th IPU Assembly in October 2023. The panel discussion emphasized peer-to-peer support and building “"more solidarity among women across party lines.”20
Various international organizations have published additional research and guidelines to assist parliaments in achivingachieving gender- sensitivity.21
The term executive refers to a person identified as either the head of state or head of government of a country. The EBSCO Advantage Politics and Government database defines head of state as the person "who represents the government symbolically, but does not manage the country's daily activities. A head of state advances national pride and identity, hosts foreign ambassadors, and serves as a symbol of the country. The head of state does not pass any legislation."32 The head of government is the "chief officer of the executive branch of a government. They are responsible for overseeing the daily executive and legislative activities in their country. Typically, the head of government appoints members of the government, oversees governmental agencies, and oversees the operations of the civil service."33
Executives may be selected through various methods: directly elected from a ballot dedicated to the executiveExecutive Representation
Voters in at least 70 countries have chosen a woman as their executive since 1960, when Sri Lanka selected Sirima Bandaranaike as the world’s first female prime minister. Executives may be selected through various methods: directly elected from a ballot dedicated to the executive
16 IPU, Gender Equality and Gender-Sensitive Parliaments as Drivers of Change for a More Resilient and Peaceful World, October 2022, p. 2.
17 IPU, World e-Parliament Report 2022, 2022, p. 12.
18 IPU, Women in Parliament 2022, 2023, p. 20.
19 IPU, World e-Parliament Report 2024, 2024, p. 62.
20 IPU, Women in Parliament 2023, 2024, p. 27.
21 For examples not mentioned previously, see IPU, Equality in Politics: A Survey of Women and Men in Parliaments, 2008; IPU, Evaluating the Gender Sensitivity of Parliments: A Self-Assessment Toolkit, 2016; Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (CPA), Gender Sensitising Parliments Guidelines: Standards and a Checklist for Parliamentary Change, 2020; IPU, Guidelines for the Elimination of Sexism, Harassment, and Violence against Women in Parliament, 2019; CPA, Gender Sensitising Parliaments: A Seven-Step Field Guide, 2022; and “Chapter 4: Gender-Sensitive Practices in Parliaments” in OECD, Toolkit for Mainstreaming and Implementing Gender Equality 2023, 2023.
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office; indirectly elected by the legislature; appointed, following legislative elections, as the leader of the majority political party or majority coalition; or through other means.
The term “executive” refers to persons identified as either the chief of state or head of government of a country. The CIA World Factbook defines the chief of state as “the titular leader of the country who represents the state at official and ceremonial functions but may not be involved with the day-to-day activities of the government.” The head of government is “the person designated to manage the executive branch of the government.” In some countries, a monarch is identified as the “chief of state,” whereas an elected official (such as the prime minister, premier, or administrator) is the “head of government.” Other countries, such as the United States, have one person, the President, filling both positions. Many countries have a “chief of state,” such as a president, and another person as “head of government,” such as a prime minister, who won their offices through different processes.22
According to 2024 analysis from the Pew Research Center, 60 United Nations member states (31%) have had a female head of government, just over one-third of the 193 member states.23
According to a 2026 analysis from the Pew Research Center, 63 out of 193 United Nations member states (32.6%) have had female heads of government since 1960, when Sri Lankan Sirima Bandaranaike was elected the world's first female prime minister.34
Women Leaders in the 21st Century Table 6 lists alphabetically countries with heads of state and/or heads of government, excluding monarchs, who are women. Table 6. Countries with Women ExecutivesAs of May 1, 2026
Country
Name
Title
In Office Since
Premier
Feb. 27, 2025
Barbados
Prime Minister
May 25, 2018
Barbados
President
Nov. 30, 2021
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Nov. 16, 2022
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Jan. 25, 2023
Bulgaria
President
Jan. 23, 2026
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Prime Minister
May 29, 2024
Denmark
Mette Frederiksen
June 27, 2019
Dominica
President
Oct. 2, 2023
Iceland
Halla Tomasdottir
President
Aug. 1, 2024
Iceland
Kristrun Frostadottir
Prime Minister
Dec. 21, 2024
India
President
July 25, 2022
Ireland
Catherine Connolly
President
Nov. 11, 2025
Italy
Prime Minister
Oct. 22, 2022
Japan
Prime Minister
Oct. 21, 2025
Kosovo
Albulena Haxhiu
Apr. 4, 2026
Latvia
Evika Siliņa
Prime Minister
Sept. 15, 2023
Liechtenstein
Prime Minister
April 10, 2025
Lithuania
Inga Ruginiene
Prime Minister
Sept. 25, 2025
Malta
Myriam Spiteri Debono
President
Apr. 4, 2024
Marshall Islands
President
Jan. 3, 2023
Mexico
President
Oct. 1, 2024
Moldova
President
Dec. 24, 2020
Mozambique
Maria Benvinda Delfina Levi
Prime Minister
Jan. 17, 2025
Namibia
President
Mar. 21, 2025
North Macedonia
President
May 12, 2024
San Marino
Alice Mina
April 1, 2026
Slovenia
President
Dec. 23, 2022
Sri Lanka
Prime Minister
Sept. 24, 2024
Suriname
President
July 16, 2025
Tanzania
President
Mar. 19, 2021
Trinidad and Tobago
Christine Carla Kangaloo
President
Mar. 20, 2023
Trinidad and Tobago
May 1, 2025
Tunisia
Sarra Zaafrani Zenzri
Prime Minister
Mar. 21, 2025
Uganda
Prime Minister
June 14, 2021
Ukraine
Yulia Svyrydenko
Prime Minister
July 17, 2025
Venezuela
January 5, 2026
Notes: Surnames appear in bold face.
a. This person is the first woman to hold this position in her country's history. b. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rotating three-member presidency. Željka Cvijanović is the Serb member of the presidency. From November 16, 2024, through July 16, 2025, she was chairperson of the presidency. c. The chair of the Council of Ministers is the head of government in Bosnia and Herzegovina. d. Mette Frederiksen has served as prime minister of Denmark since June 27, 2019. After the election on March 25, 2026, Frederiksen stepped down as prime minister but has been serving as interim prime minister as negotiations to form a new government continue. e. Sylvanie Burton is the first woman and the first member of the indigenous Kalinago community to be elected president. f. Droupadi Murmu is the second woman and first member belonging to a tribal community to be elected president in India. g. The term of the most recent president of Kosovo ended April 4, 2026. Albulena Haxhiu, the speaker of the assembly of the Republic of Kosovo, is serving as acting president until the assembly selects a new president. h. San Marino has co-chiefs of state called captains regent. Alice Mina is one of the current captains regent. i. Prime Minister Persad-Bissessar is the second Trinidadian and Tobagonian prime minister to serve non-consecutive terms. Although this is her second time being prime minister, she was the first female prime minister in Trinidad and Tobago during her first term from 2010 through 2015. j. The U.S. military captured President Nicolás Maduro and his wife, Cilia Flores, on January 3, 2026. Delcy Rodríguez was sworn in as interim president on January 5, 2026. For more information, see CRS Insight IN12618, U.S. Capture of Venezuela's Nicolás Maduro: Considerations for Congress, by Clare Ribando Seelke. Women Leaders of the 20th Century Table 7 identifies several notable female executives who held office in the 20th century with explanatory notes. Table 7. Selected Notable Women Executives, 1960-2000Listed Chronologically by Years in Office
|
Country |
Name |
Title |
Years in Office |
|
Sri Lanka |
Sirimavo Bandaranaike |
Prime Minister |
1960-1965; 1970-1977; 1994-2000 |
|
Bandaranaike was the world's first female prime minister. |
|||
|
India |
Indira Gandhi |
Prime Minister |
1966-1977 and 1980-1984 |
|
Gandhi was India's first and only female prime minister, assassinated while in office, and succeeded by her son, Rajiv. She was also the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India. |
|||
|
Israel |
Golda Meir |
Prime Minister |
1969-1974 |
|
Meir and her husband immigrated to then Palestine in 1921. She was a founder of the state of Israel and its fourth prime minister, the first and only one to be female. |
|||
|
Argentina |
Isabel Martinez de Perón |
President |
1974-1976 |
|
Perón was the world's first female president when, as vice president, she succeeded her husband, President Juan Perón, upon his death. |
|||
|
United Kingdom |
Margaret Thatcher |
Prime Minister |
1979-1990 |
|
Thatcher became the first female prime minister in Europe and was the only British prime minister in the 20th century to be elected to three consecutive terms. |
|||
|
Iceland |
Vigdis Finnbogadottir |
President |
1980-1996 |
|
Finnbogadottir was the first woman in the world to be elected head of state in a national election. |
|||
|
Philippines |
Corazon Aquino |
President |
1986-1992 |
|
Aquino restored democratic rule after the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos. |
|||
|
Pakistan |
Benazir Bhutto |
Prime Minister |
1988-1990 and 1993-1996 |
|
Bhutto was the first female prime minister of a majority-Muslim country. |
|||
Source: Compiled by CRS using news and research databases.
Note: Surnames appear in bold face.
Women Leaders in the 21st Century
Table 6 lists women who are currently the chief of state and/or head of government of their country, excluding monarchs, and are listed alphabetically by country.
Table 6. Current Women Executives
As of December 4, 2024
Country Name Title Dates in Office
Aruba Evelyn Wever-Croesa Prime Minister Nov. 17, 2017–present
Barbados Mia Mottleya Prime Minister May 25, 2018–present
Barbados Sandra Masona President Nov. 30, 2021–present
Bosnia and Herzegovina Željka Cvijanovića Member of the Presidencyb Nov. 16, 2022–present
Bosnia and Herzegovina Borjana Krišto Chair of the Council of Ministersc
January 25, 2023–present
Cayman Islands Julianna O'Connor- Connollyd
Premier November 15, 2023– present
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Judith Suminwa Tulukaa Prime Minister May 29, 2024–present
Denmark Mette Frederiksen Prime Minister June 27, 2019–present
Dominica Sylvanie Burtone President October 2, 2023-present
Estonia Kaja Kallasa Prime Minister Jan. 26, 2021–present
Georgia Salome Zourabichvilia President Dec. 16, 2018–present
Greece Katerina Sakellaropouloua
President Mar. 13, 2020–present
Honduras Xiomara Castro de Zelayaa
President Jan. 27, 2022–present
22 Drawn from CIA World Factbook, executive branch field listing, accessed on November 23, 2024.
23 Laura Clancy and Anna Jackson, “About a Third of UN Member States Have Ever Had a Woman Leader,” Pew Research Center, October 3, 2024.
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Country Name Title Dates in Office
India Droupadi Murmuf President July 25, 2022–present
Italy Giorgia Melonia Prime Minister Oct. 22, 2022–present
Kosovo Vjosa Osmani-Sadriu President Apr. 4, 2021–present
Latvia Evika Siliņa Prime Minister September 15, 2023– present
Lithuania Ingrida Simonyte Prime Minister Nov. 24, 2020–present
Malta Myriam Spiteri Debono President April 4, 2024–present
Marshall Islands Hilda C. Heinea President January 3, 2023–present
Mexico Claudia Sheinbaum Pardoa
President October 1, 2024–present
Moldova Maia Sandua President Dec. 24, 2020–present
Namibia Saara Kuugongelwa- Amadhilaa
Prime Minister Mar. 21, 2015–present
North Macedonia Gordana Siljanovska- Davkovaa
President May 12, 2024–present
Peru Dina Boluartea Presidenth Dec. 7, 2022–present
Samoa Fiame Naomi Mata’afaa Prime Minister May 24, 2021–present
San Marino Francesca Civerchia Captain Regenti October 1, 2024–present
Serbia Ana Brnabića Prime Minister June 29, 2017–present
Slovenia Nataša Pirc Musara President December 23, 2022– present
Sri Lanka Harini Amarasuriyaa Prime Minister September 24, 2024– present
Switzerland Viola Amherd President January 1, 2024–present
Tanzania Samia Suluhu Hassana President Mar. 19, 2021–present
Thailand Paetongtarn Shinawatra Prime Minister August 18, 2024–present
Togo Victoire Tomegah Dogbea
Prime Minister Sept. 28, 2020–present
Trinidad and Tobago Christine Kangaloo President March 20, 2023–present
Uganda Robinah Nabbanjaa Prime Minister June 21, 2021–present
Sources: Compiled by CRS using information from the CIA World Factbook, the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap 2024, IPU’s Women in Parliament 2023, government websites, and consultation with CRS analysts. Notes: Surnames appear in bold face. a. This person is the first woman to hold this position in her country.
b. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rotating three-member presidency. Željka Cvijanović is the Serb member of the presidency. Since November 16, 2024, she has been Chairperson of the Presidency.
c. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is the head of government in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
d. Julianna O'Connor-Connolly was the first woman to hold this position from December 19, 2012, through May 29, 2013. She is also the second woman to hold this position (in a nonconsecutive term) since November 15, 2023.
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e. Sylvanie Burton is the first woman and the first member of the indigenous Kalinago community to be elected President.
f. Droupadi Murmu is the second woman and first member belonging to a tribal community to be elected President in India.
g. Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah was declared the winner of the Naimbian presidency December 4, 2024.
h. President Boluarte took office December 7, 2022 after the Peruvian Congress removed the former president Pedro Castillo from office. She had been serving as First Vice President.
i. San Marino has co-chiefs of state called Captains Regent. Francesca Civerchia is one of the current Captains Regent.
Table 7 lists selected women who formerly served as the executive of their country since 2000 and are listed alphabetically by country.
Table 7. Selected Women Who Served as Chief of State or Head of Government
(Executives) from 2000-Present
Country Name Title Years in Office
Argentina Cristina Fernandez De Kirchner
President 2007-2015
Austria Brigitte Bierlein Chancellor 2019-2020
Bangladesh Khaleda Zia Prime Minister 1991-1996 and 2001-2006
Brazil Dilma Rousseff President 2011-2016
Burma Aung San Suu Kyi State Counsellor 2016-2021
Chile Michelle Bachelet President 2006-2010 and 2014-2018
Croatia Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovica President 2015-2020
Estonia Kersti Kaljulaid President 2016-2021
Equatorial Guinea Manuela Roka Boteyb Prime Minister February 1, 2023–August 17, 2024
Ethiopia Sahle-Work Zewdeb President Oct. 25, 2018–October 7, 2024
Finland Sanna Mirella Marin Prime Minister Dec. 10, 2019–June 20, 2023
Gabon Rose Christiane Ossouka Rapondac
Prime Minister July 16, 2020–Jan. 9, 2023
Germany Angela Merkel Chancellor 2005–2021
Hungary Katalin Novakb President May 10, 2022–Feburary 10, 2024
Iceland Katrin Jakobsdóttir Prime Minister Nov. 30, 2017–April 9, 2024
India Pratibha Patil President 2007-2012
Indonesia Megawati Sukarnoputri President 2001-2004
Jamaica Portia Simpson-Miller Prime Minister 2006-2007 and 2012-2016
Liberia Ellen Johnson Sirleaf President 2006-2018
Lithuania Dalia Grybauskaite President 2009-2019
Malawi Joyce Banda President 2012-2014
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Country Name Title Years in Office
Malta Marie-Louise Coleiro Preca President 2014-2019
Nepal Bidhya Devi Bandhari President 2015-2023
New Zealand Helen Clark Prime Minister 1999-2008
New Zealand Jacinda Ardern Prime Minister 2017-2023
Norway Erna Solberg Prime Minister 2013-2021
Panama Mireya Moscoso President 1999-2004
Philippines Gloria Macapagal Arroyo President 2001-2010
Singapore Halimah Yacob President Sept. 14, 2017–Sept. 14, 2023
Sint Maarten Silveria Jacobs Prime Minister Mar. 28, 2020–May 3, 2024
Slovakia Zuzana Čaputováb President June 15, 2019–June 24, 2024
South Korea Park Geun-hye President 2013-2017
Sweden Magdalena Anderssonb Prime Minister Nov. 30, 2021–Oct. 18, 2022
Taiwand Tsai Ing-wenb President May 20, 2016–May 20, 2024
Thailand Yingluck Shinawatra Prime Minister 2011-2014
Trinidad and Tobago Paula-Mae Weeks President 2018-2023
Tunisia Najla Bouden Romdhane Prime Minister 2021-2023
Turks and Caicos Islands Sharlene Cartwright- Robinson
Premier 2016-2021
United Kingdom Theresa May Prime Minister 2016-2019
United Kingdom Mary Elizabeth “Liz” Truss Prime Minister September 6–October 25, 2022
Source: Compiled by CRS using media reports, government websites, and consultation with CRS analysts. Notes: Surnames appear in bold face. Hong Kong, although not a country, had female Chief Executive named Carrie Lam from July 1, 2017 through June 30, 2022. a. Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovic is the first woman to be elected President of Croatia since the first multiparty elections in 1990 and independence from Yugoslavia in 1991.
b. This person is the first woman to hold this position in her country.
c. Rose Christiane Ossouka Raponda was the first woman to hold this position in her country. From January 9, 2020, through August 30, 2023, she served as the first female Vice President of Gabon before being removed from power by a coup.
d. Taiwan officially calls itself the Republic of China (ROC), For information on the status of Taiwan, see CRS In Focus IF10275, Taiwan: Background and U.S. Relations, by Susan V. Lawrence.
Women Leaders of the 20th Century
Table 8 identifies several female executives who held office in the 20th century with notes describing notable facts.
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Table 8. Selected Notable Women Executives from 1960 to 2000
Executives are listed chronologically by their years in office.
Country Name Title Years in Office
Sri Lanka Sirimavo Bandaranaike Prime Minister 1960-1965; 1970-1977; 1994-2000
Bandaranaike was the world’s first female Prime Minister.
India Indira Gandhi Prime Minister 1966-1977 and 1980-1984
Gandhi was assassinated while in office; she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv.
Israel Golda Meir Prime Minister 1969-1974
Meir and her husband immigrated to then Palestine in 1921. She was a founder of the State of Israel and the fourth prime minister.
Argentina Isabel Martinez de Perón President 1974-1976
Perón was the world’s first female president when, as vice president, she succeeded her husband, President Juan Perón, upon his death.
United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher Prime Minister 1979-1990
Thatcher became the first female prime minister in Europe and was the only British prime minister in the 20th century to be elected to three consecutive terms.
Iceland Vigdis Finnbogadottir President 1980-1996
Finnbogadottir was the first woman in the world to be elected head of state in a national election.
Philippines Corazon Aquino President 1986-1992
Aquino restored democratic rule after the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos.
Pakistan Benazir Bhutto Prime Minister 1988-1990 and 1993-1996
Bhutto was first female prime minister of a majority-Muslim country.
Source: Compiled by CRS using news and research databases. Note: Surnames appear in bold face.
Violence Against Women in Politics
Some experts and observers have found that, while any candidate or elected politician may experience violence, women politicians can be targeted because of their gender and subjected to sexist threats, sexual harassment, and violence.2435 Violence may occur during the registration and voting processes, while campaigning and running for office, and/or while serving in a government.2536 Perpetrators may include both state and non-state actors, such as members of
24 An article in the Journal of Democracy noted that actions to threaten, intimidate, or harass women who are participating in the political process are attempts to “deter women’s electoral participation, and reinforce prevailing gender norms.” Such activities “should thus be seen as a serious threat and affront to democracy.” See Mona Lena Krook, “Violence Against Women in Politics,” Journal of Democracy, January 2017, p. 74-75. The Kofi Annan Foundation cited research that determined “general political violence occurred against both men and women,” but that women were “much more likely to experience sexualized forms of violence.” See Carmen Alanis, Violence Against Women in Politics, Kofi Annan Foundation, November 2020, p. 31.
25 United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, A/73/301, Violence against Women in Politics, August 6, 2018, p. 9.
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political parties, other parliamentarians, members of the public, media representatives, and religious or community leaders.26
Underreporting incidents of violence against women in politics makes addressing the issue particularly challenging. Information about the problem tends to be anecdotal rather than statistical, making it difficult to determine the extent and prevalence of the problem. In addition, many women may be reluctant to report violence out of the belief that doing so may limit a woman’s political aspirations, and out of fear of reprisals, threats, and possible increased harassment.27 According to a 2018 United Nations report, “women of color appear to be disproportionately affected, and risks are likely higher for women of marginalized communities.”28
Figure 3 indicates the prevalence of attacks of “political violence targeting women in politics” (PVTWIP). PVTWIP affects those who participate in various functions in the political process according to the Political Violence Targeting Women Research Hub from Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED). Trends in Figure 3 reflect data gathered periodically from women in 190 countries from January 2, 2021, through November 14, 2024. Globally, women candidates for office, whether for local, regional, or national government, experienced up to 117 PVTWIP attacks (9.8%), while female politicians, those women currently serving in an elected governmental position, experienced 175 PVTWIP attacks (14.7%). Political party supporters, such as women who campaign and actively support a political party or candidate, faced 162 PVTWIP attacks (13.6%), while women voters underwent 5 PVTWIP attacks (0.5%). Government officials, women who work in nonelected government positions, including public and civil servants, experienced up to 326 PVTWIP attacks (27.4%). Protestors experienced 34 PVTWIP attacks (2.9%). The largest group of women in public life, who experienced 369 PVTW attacks (31.1%), includes activists, human rights defenders, and social leaders.29
26 United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, A/73/301, Violence against Women in Politics, August 6, 2018, p. 6.
27 UN Women, Data and Violence against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations, December 4-5, 2019, pp. 9-13.
28 United Nations, Violence against Women in Politics Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations, New York, NY, March 8-9, 2018, p. 6.
29 “Political Violence Targeting Women,” Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project, accessed November 24, 2024.
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Figure 3. Trends in Political Violence Targeting Women in Politics, by Role in
Political Process
January 2, 2021 through November 14, 2024
Source: Created by CRS, based on aggregate data from “Political Violence Targeting Women,” Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED), accessed November 24, 2024. Notes: Data on violence targeting women in politics are restricted to acts of physical violence that take place in a public setting on women who engage in the political process. This does not include acts of bullying or intimidation, cases of domestic violence, or virtual aggressive actions.
In October 2016, the IPU published the results of a survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries on their experiences of harassment, intimidation, or violence based on their gender.30 Tables 9 to 12 illustrate the findings of this survey. Broadly, almost 82% of the women surveyed reported they had personally experienced psychological violence, almost 22% reported incidents of sexual violence, 25.5% reported experiencing physical violence, and almost 33% had been subjected to economic violence.
Table 9. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Women Legislators
2016 IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
% of Respondents Answering “Yes”
Type of Violence
“Have you been
subject to one or more acts of this
kind of violence?”
“Have you witnessed
acts of this violence
committed against
one or more of your
female colleagues?”
Psychological violence (see Table 10 for details) 81.8% 78.1%
Sexual violence (e.g., sexual harassment; efforts to force sexual relations inappropriate and unwanted gestures or physical contact; requests for sexual relations in exchange for material or political advantages
21.8% 32.7%
Physical violence (e.g., actions that inflict or attempt to inflict bodily injury to a legislator, or to friends or members of her family)
25.5% 20.0%
Economic violence (e.g., denied funds and other resources that legislators are entitled to such as salary, offices, computers, staff, security; damage to or destruction of personal property)
32.7% 30.9%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016. Note: Definitions of the various kinds of violence are included in the report.
30 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016. Survey participants included 18 from Africa, 15 from Europe, 10 from the Asia-Pacific region, 8 from the Americas, and 4 from Arab countries.
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The 81.8% of respondents in Table 9 who reported they had experienced psychological violence identified the manifestations of this violence in Table 10.
Table 10. Psychological Violence: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 81.8% of 2016 IPU survey respondents who reported they had experienced
psychological violence
Actions of Psychological Violence
Information about violence against women in politics tends to be based on anecdotal evidence, making it difficult to determine the extent and prevalence of the problem. In addition, some women may be reluctant to report violence out of fear that doing so may limit their political aspirations and lead to reprisals, threats, and possible increased harassment.38 According to a 2018 United Nations report, "women of color appear to be disproportionately affected, and risks are likely higher for women of marginalized communities."39
In October 2016, the IPU published the results of a survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries on their experiences of harassment, intimidation, or violence based on their gender.40 Tables 9-12 illustrate the findings of this survey. Broadly, almost 82% of the women surveyed reported psychological violence, almost 22% reported incidents of sexual violence, 26% reported experiencing physical violence, and almost 33% had been subjected to economic violence.41
Figure 3. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Women Legislators, 2016 Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians," October 2016, https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download.
Note: The report defines various kinds of violence.
The 81.8% of respondents in Figure 3 who reported psychological violence identified the manifestations of this violence in Table 8. Table 8. Psychological Violence: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors, 2016|
Actions of Psychological Violence |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
Humiliating sexual or sexist remarks |
65.5% |
|
Images or disrespectful comments with sexual connotations about you in the traditional media |
27.3% |
|
Extremely humiliating or sexual images of you distributed through social media |
41.8% |
|
Threats of death, rape, beatings, or abduction |
44.4% |
|
Harassment (e.g. exposure to insistent and uninvited behavior, including unwanted attention, unwelcome verbal contact, or interaction that may have frightened you) |
32.7% |
|
Reasons for violence, as reported by women legislators subjected to gender-based violent acts and behavior |
% of Survey Respondents |
|
Intention to dissuade them and other women from participating in politics |
61.5% |
|
Political rivalry |
41.7% |
|
Positions of women legislators on specific issues |
60.5% |
|
Reactions of Women in Politics Subjected to Violent Acts |
% of Survey Respondents |
|
Distressed over the experience |
66.7% |
|
Concerned for the security of themselves, their friends, and family members |
46.7% |
|
Felt weakened in their ability to complete their mandates and to express their opinions |
38.7% |
|
Reported incidents to the legislative security services or the police |
51.7% |
|
Strengthened their determination as a legislator |
80.0% |
The IPU released regional updates on sexism, harassment and violence against women in parliaments for Europe (2018), Africa (2021), and the Asia-Pacific (2025).
Europe The IPU's 2018 Europe regional update is based on the results of one-on-one conversations with 123 women from 45 European countries. Eighty-one participants were members of parliament (MPs), and 42 were members of the parliamentary staff.43 Figure 4 identifies the prevalence of various forms of violence against European women legislators.Figure 4. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against European Women Legislators, 2018 Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Europe," October 2018, p. 4, https://www.ipu.org/file/5472/download.
Notes:
a.This report identified two types of sexual violence: sexual harassment ("words or behavior of a degrading or humiliating sexual nature, sexual advances and/or demands for sexual favors") and sexual assault (being forced to "engage in sexual acts, have sexual intercourse or carry out something of a sexual nature").
b.This report defines physical violence as being slapped, pushed, hit, or having something thrown at you; being threatened with a firearm, knife, or another weapon; or being confined, beaten, or abducted.
More broadly, female MPs in Europe under 40 experienced higher rates of psychological and sexual harassment than did male MPs.44
Figure 5 identifies the prevalence of forms of violence against European female parliamentary staff.Figure 5. Prevalence of Violence Against European Women Parliamentary Staff, 2018 Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Europe," October 2018, p. 2, https://www.ipu.org/file/5472/download.
Of the 40.5% of European women parliamentary staff who suffered acts of sexual harassment, in 69.2% of such cases the perpetrators were male MPs.45
Of the 50.0% of cases in which European women parliamentary staff received comments of a sexual nature, in 61.5% of those cases such comments were made by male MPs.46
AfricaThe IPU's 2021 Africa regional update is based on the results of confidential interviews conducted with 224 women from 50 countries. One hundred and thirty-seven participants were women MPs, and 87 were members of the parliamentary staff.47
Figure 6 identifies the prevalence of violence against African women MPs.Figure 6. Prevalence of Violence Against African Women Legislators, 2021 Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa," November 2021, p. 2, https://www.ipu.org/file/12951/download.
Notes: The IPU uses the following definitions:
a.Psychological violence "includes all gestures, acts, words, writings and images that harm the psychological integrity of a person or group of people and that have the effect of weakening and injuring them psychologically, but also of subjugating and controlling them."
b.Sexual violence includes "all acts of sexual violence perpetrated against others without consent, including sexual harassment and other unwelcome acts carried out for sexual purposes (physical contact, advances, remarks with sexual connotations, or requests for sexual acts). It includes requests for sexual favours, sexual assault and rape." Sexual harassment includes "any form of unwanted verbal, nonverbal or physical conduct carried out for sexual purposes, such as physical contact and advances, remarks with sexual connotations, or requests for sexual acts, the purpose or effect of which is to violate the dignity of a person, in particular when such conduct creates an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment." Sexual assault is defined as "all acts of sexual violence against another person without consent, including rape, or coercing another person to engage in non-consensual sexual acts with another."
c.Economic violence is defined as using "economic barriers and deprivation as a means of control, most often by destroying a person's property or putting in jeopardy their livelihood as a form of intimidation."
d.In the report, physical violence "includes a wide range of physical harm that threatens the life or physical integrity of the person concerned or their loved ones."
The 80.0% of African women legislators in Figure 6 who reported psychological violence identified manifestations of this violence in Table 11. Table 11. Psychological Violence Against African Women Legislators:Prevalence of Specific Behaviors, 2021Actions of Psychological Violence
% of Respondents Who Had
Experienced These Actions
Humiliating sexual or sexist remarks 65.5%
Images or disrespectful comments with sexual connotations about you in the traditional media
27.3%
Extremely humiliating or sexual images of you distributed through social media
41.8%
Threats of death, rape, beatings, or abduction 44.4%
Harassment (e.g. exposure to insistent and uninvited behavior, including unwanted attention, unwelcome verbal contact, or interaction that may have frightened you)
32.7%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016, p. 3.
Table 11 lists several factors identified in the IPU study that may make some women legislators a likely target for gender-based intolerance.
Table 11. Risk Factors for Women Legislators
2016 IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
Reasons for Violence, as reported by women legislators subjected to
gender-based violent acts and behavior
% of Survey
Respondents
Intention to dissuade them and other women from participating in politics 61.5%
Political rivalry 41.7%
Positions of women legislators on specific issues 60.5%
Experienced sexist behavior or remarks 67.0% Target of sexist attacks online 46.0% Have received death threats, rape threats, or threats of beating or abduction directed at them or their loved ones 42.0% Have faced intimidation or psychological harassment 39.0% Actions of Sexual Violence % of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions Sexually harassed 40.0% Affected by sextortion (requests for sexual favors) 9.0%
Type of Perpetrators % of Perpetrators Male parliamentarians 53.0% Male colleagues or parliamentary staff 48.0% African women parliamentary staff reported that "18% have received requests for sexual favors from parliamentary colleagues (56% of cases) or from parliamentarians (44% of cases) in exchange for a benefit that this colleague or parliamentarian was empowered to withhold or confer."48 Actions of Psychological Violence % of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions Were the target of sexist remarks made by male colleagues and/or parliamentarians 56.0% Experienced psychological harassment within the context of their work in parliament 38.0% Were attacked online 22.0% Were threatened online 7.0%Source:
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa," November 2021, p. 2, https://www.ipu.org/file/12951/download.
The 39.0% of African women legislators in Figure 6 who reported sexual violence identified manifestations of this violence in Table 12.
Table 12. Sexual Violence Against African Women Legislators:Prevalence of Specific Behaviors, 2021
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa," November 2021, p. 2, https://www.ipu.org/file/12951/download.
Figure 7 identifies the prevalence of forms of violence against African women parliamentary staff.
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence
againstAgainst Women Parliamentarians in Africa," November 2021, p. 3, https://www.ipu.org/file/12951/download.
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against
Women Parliamentarians, October 2016, p. 6.
Additional risk factors that appear to lead to violence against women in legislatures include being a member of the political minority, being under the age of 40, and belonging to a minority ethnic, religious, or other marginalized social group.31 Table 12 identifies how women legislators have reacted to the acts of violence they experienced.
Table 12. Effects of Violence Against Women in Politics
2016 IPU survey of 55 women legislators from 39 countries
Reactions of Women in Politics Subjected to Violent Acts
% of Survey
Respondents
Distressed over the experience 66.7%
Concerned for the security of themselves, their friends, and family members 46.7%
31 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016, p. 6.
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Reactions of Women in Politics Subjected to Violent Acts
% of Survey
Respondents
Felt weakened in their ability to complete their mandates and to express their opinions
38.7%
Reported incidents to the legislative security services or the police 51.7%
Strengthened their determination as a legislator 80.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians, October 2016, p. 7.
The IPU released regional updates on sexism, harassment and violence against women in parliaments for Europe (2018) and for Africa (2021).
IPU’s 2018 Europe regional update is based on the results of one-on-one conversations with 123 women from 45 European countries. Eighty-one participants were members of parliament (MPs) and 42 were members of the parliamentary staff.32 Table 13 identifies the prevalence of various forms of violence against European women legislators.
Table 13. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against European Women Legislators
2018 IPU survey of 81 European women legislators
Type of Violence
% of Survey
Respondents
Suffered psychological violence during their term of office 85.2%
Received death threats or threats of rape or beating 46.9%
Been the target of online sexist attacks on social networks 58.2%
Been the target of comments relating to their physical appearance or based on gender stereotypes
67.9%
Experienced sexual violencea 24.7%
Experienced physical violenceb 14.8%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 4. a. IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 4. This report identified two types of sexual violence: sexual harassment (“words or behavior of a degrading or humiliating sexual nature, sexual advances and/or demands for sexual favors”) and sexual assault (being forced “engage in sexual acts, have sexual intercourse or carry out something of a sexual nature”).
b. Ibid., p. 4. This report defines physical violence as being slapped, pushed, hit, having something thrown at you; being threatened with a firearm, knife, or another weapon; or being confined, beaten, or abducted.
More broadly, female MPs in Europe under 40 experienced higher rates of psychological and sexual harassment than male MPs. Female MPs who actively supported gender equality and condemned violence against women were often singled out for attack.33
Table 14 identifies the prevelance of forms of violence against European female parliamentary staff.
32 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 1.
33 Ibid., p. 1.
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Table 14. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against European Women
Parliamentary Staff
2018 IPU survey of 42 European female parlimentary staff
Type of Violence
% of Survey
Respondents
Suffered acts of sexual harassment in their work 40.5%
Received comments of a sexual nature 50.0%
Suffered psychological harassment/bullying in their work in parliament from MPs and colleagues in the parliamentary staff, mostly from men but also from women
19.5%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 2.
Of the 40.5% of European women parliamentary staff who suffered acts of sexual harassment, in 69.2% of such cases the perpetrators were male MPs.34
Of the 50.0% of cases in which European women parliamentary staff received comments of a sexual nature, in 61.5% of those cases such comments were made by male MPs.35
IPU’s 2021 Africa regional update is based on the results of confidential interviews conducted with 224 women from 50 countries. One-hundred and thirty-seven participants were women parliamentarians and 87 were members of the parliamentary staff.36
Table 15 identifies the prevelance of forms of violence against African women parliamentarians.
Table 15. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against African
Women Legislators
2021 IPU survey of 137 African women legislators
Type of Violence
% of Survey
Respondents
Experienced pyschological violence. 80.0%
Experienced sexual violence 39.0%
Exposed to economic violencea 29.0%
Experienced physical violence at work 23.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 2. a. IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 27. In the report, economic violence is defined as using “economic barriers and deprivation as a means of control, most often by destroying a person’s property or putting in jeopardy their livelihood as a form of intimidation.”
The 80.0% of African women legislators in Table 15 who reported they had experienced pyschological violence identifed manifestations of this violence in Table 16.
34 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Europe, October 2018, p. 2.
35 Ibid., p. 2.
36 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 2.
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Table 16. Psychological Violence Against African Women Legislators:
Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 80.0% of 2021 IPU Africa update women legislator
respondents who reported they had experienced psychological violence
Actions of Psychological Violence
The 2021 Africa update also provided data on economic violence reported by women MPs, including that:
- 18% of female parliamentary staff have been threatened with losing their jobs or with having their career progression blocked, and
- 24% have been refused funds to which they were entitled, such as a salary or bonus.51
Figure 8. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Asia-Pacific Women Legislators, 2025 Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union(IPU), "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women in Parliaments in the Asia-Pacific Region," March 2025, p. 2, https://www.ipu.org/file/21204/download.
Notes: The IPU uses the following definitions:
a.Psychological violence is defined as "all gestures, acts, words, writings and images that harm the psychological integrity of a person or group of people and that have the effect of not only weakening and injuring them psychologically, but also of subjugating and controlling them."
b.Sexual harassment includes "any form of unwelcome verbal, nonverbal or physical behaviour motivated by sexual intent, such as physical contact and advances, remarks with sexual connotations or requests for sexual acts with the purpose or effect of violating a person's dignity, in particular when this behaviour creates an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment." Sexual assault is defined as "any act of sexual violence committed against another person without consent, including rape, or coercing another person to engage in non-consensual sexual acts with a third party."
c.Economic violence is defined as using "economic barriers and deprivation as a means of control, most often by destroying a person's property or putting their livelihood in jeopardy as a form of intimidation."
dPhysical violence encompasses "a wide range of bodily harm that poses a threat to the life or physical integrity of the person concerned or their loved ones."
Over three-quarters of Asia-Pacific women legislators in Figure 8 who reported psychological violence identified types of this violence, found in Table 15. Table 15. Psychological Violence Against Asia-Pacific Women Legislators, 2025|
Actions of Psychological Violence |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
Sexist remarks and behavior |
61.0% |
|
Online attacks |
60.0% |
|
Psychological harassment/intimidation |
39.0% |
|
Threats of death, rape, beating, or abduction |
34.0% |
|
Denigrating images or remarks in newspapers or on television |
28.0% |
|
Location of Sexual Violence |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
On parliamentary premises |
52.0% |
|
In public places and constituency offices |
26.0% |
|
In political meetings |
9.0% |
|
In online platforms |
9.0% |
|
Actions of Economic Violence |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
Some of their belongings or those of loved ones had been damaged or destroyed during their terms |
17.0% |
|
Denied funds (allowances and parliamentary mission expenses) to which they were entitled |
5.0% |
|
Denied access to parliamentary resources they were eligible to receive |
8.0% |
|
Locations and Actions of Physical Violence |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
Took place in parliament |
42.0% |
|
Took place at a political meeting |
42.0% |
|
Took place in the street |
16.0% |
|
Slapped, pushed, hit, or targeted by a projectile |
8.0% |
|
Threatened with a weapon |
8.0% |
|
Actions of Online Aggression |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
Hate speech |
38.0% |
|
Disinformation (deliberately sharing incorrect and often misogynistic information with the aim of causing harm) |
27.0% |
|
Image-based abuse (including deepfakes) |
17.0% |
|
Doxing (sharing personal information without consent) and other tactics |
18.0% |
Figure 9. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against Asia-Pacific Women Parliamentary Staff, 2025 Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women in Parliaments in the Asia-Pacific Region," March 2025, p. 12, https://www.ipu.org/file/21204/download. Table 20 provides more details about the psychological violence that 63.0% of women parliamentary staff in Figure 9 reported. Table 20. Psychological Violence Against Asia-Pacific Women Parliamentary Staff, 2025
|
Actions of Psychological Violence |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
Sexist or sexist remarks |
55.0% |
|
Psychological harassment/intimidation |
40.0% |
|
Threatened with loss of job or having professional advancement blocked |
21.0% |
|
Online attacks |
9.0% |
|
Death threats, threats of rape or beating |
6.0% |
|
Actions of Sexual Harassment |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
Unwelcomed sexual advances, sexual remarks and solicitations for sexual acts from male parliamentary staff |
67.0% |
|
Unwelcomed sexual advances, sexual remarks and solicitations for sexual acts from male parliamentarians |
29.0% |
Actions of Online Aggression
% of Respondents Who Had
Experienced These Actions
Experienced sexist behavior or remarks 67.0%
Target of sexist attacks online 46.0%
Have received death threats, rape threats, or threats of beating or abduction directed at them or their loved ones
42.0%
Have faced intimidation or psychological harassment 39.0%
Threatened with losing their jobs or having their career advancement blocked
21.0%
by parliamentarians, both male and female
50.0%
Threatened with loss of job or having professional advancement blocked
9.0%
Denied funds to which there were entitled, such as salary or bonus
6.0%
by a hierarchical superior
75.0%
by a parliamentarian
25.0%
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, " IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 2.
The 39.0% of African women legislators in Table 15 who reported they had experienced sexual violence identifed manifestations of this violence in Table 17.
Table 17. Sexual Violence Against African Women Legislators:
Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 39.0% of 2021 IPU Africa update women legislator
respondents who reported they had experienced sexual violence
Actions of Sexual Violence
% of Respondents Who Had
Experienced These Actions
Sexually harassed 40.0%
Affected by sextortion (requests for sexual favors) 9.0%
|
Actions of Physical Violence |
% of Respondents Who Had Experienced These Actions |
|
Have been hit or pushed in parliament |
5.0% |
|
Witnessed this type of physical violence against other women parliamentary staff |
7.0% |
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, " IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 2.
Table 18 identifies the prevelance of forms of violence against African women parliamentariay staff.
Table 18. Prevalence of Various Forms of Violence Against
African Women Parliamentariay Staff
2021 IPU survey of 87 African women parlimentariary staff
Type of Violence
% of Survey
Respondents
Sexual harassment at work 45.0%
Received requests for sexual favours in exchange for a benefit a colleague or parliamentarian was empowered to withhold or confer
18.0%
Psychological violence 69.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.
The 45.0% of African women parliamentary staff in Table 18 who reported they had experienced pyschological violence identifed types of perpetrators of this violence in Table 19.
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Table 19. Sexual Harassment Against African Women
Parliamentariay Staff: Perpetrators
Perpetrators of behaviors described by the 45.0% of 2021 IPU Africa update women
parliamentary staff respondents who reported they had experienced sexual harassment
Type of Perpetrators % of Perpetrators
Male parliamentarians 53.0%
Male colleagues or parliamentary staff 48.0%
Susan Chesser was the previous author of this report. Inter-Parliamentary Union, "Women in Parliament: 1995-2025," 2025, p. 2, https://www.ipu.org/file/21078/download. UN Women, "Facts and Figures: Women's Leadership and Political Participation," March 11, 2026, https://www.unwomen.org/en/articles/facts-and-figures/facts-and-figures-womens-leadership-and-political-participation#_edn11. For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12346, Women, Peace, and Security: Global Context and U.S. Policy by Luisa Blanchfield. Examples include U.S. Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Operations and Organizations, Human Rights, and Oversight, Women as Agents of Change: Advancing the Role of Women in Politics and Civil Society, 111th Cong., 2nd sess., June 9, 2010, https://www.congress.gov/event/111th-congress/house-event/LC6989/text?hl=%22women%2C+peace%2C+and+security%22&s=5&r=2; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017, hearing on S. 1141, 115th Cong., 1st sess., June 8, 2017, https://www.congress.gov/committee-report/115th-congress/senate-report/93/1?hl=%22women%2C+peace%2C+and+security%22&s=7&r=1; and U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Women in Conflict: Advancing Women's Role in Peace and Security, 116th Cong., 1st Sess., June 13, 2019, https://www.congress.gov/event/116th-congress/senate-event/LC65155/text?hl=%22women%2C+peace%2C+and+security%22&s=6&r=13. DOD is using "U.S. Department of War" as a "secondary title" under Executive Order 14347, dated September 5, 2025. The U.S. Secretary of Defense is using "Secretary of War" as a "secondary title" under Executive Order 14347. Secretary of Defense Pete Hegseth (@PeteHegseth), "This morning, I proudly ENDED the 'Women, Peace & Security' (WPS) program inside the @DeptofDefense," X, April 29, 2025, https://x.com/PeteHegseth/status/1917203362396639518. Examples include H.R. 1018, S.Res. 599, and S.Res. 640. U.S. House Committee on Ethics, "Historical Chart of Sexual Misconduct Matters," April 20, 2026, https://ethics.house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/Historical-Chart-of-Sexual-Misconduct-Matters.pdf. The Wyoming Suffrage Act of 1869, for example, recognized the right of women to vote within the territory of Wyoming. National Park Service, "Wyoming and the 19th Amendment," August 22, 2019, https://www.nps.gov/articles/wyoming-women-s-history.htm. For more examples, see CRS Legal Sidebar LSB10898, The Nineteenth Amendment and Women's Suffrage Part 3: The Reconstruction Era, by Brandon J. Murrill. Schaeffer, "Key Facts About Women's Suffrage Around the World." Drude Dahlerup et al., Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas (International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, IPU, and Stockholm University, 2014), p. 16, https://www.idea.int/publications/catalogue/atlas-electoral-gender-quotas. Dahlerup et al., Atlas of Electoral Gender Quotas, p. 16. IPU, "Women in Parliament in 2025," February 2026, p. 1, https://www.ipu.org/file/23136/download. The European Union and the African Union, which are members of the G-20, are excluded from the table, as the IPU's monthly ranking of women in national parliaments does not include international parliaments, such as the European Parliament and the Pan-African Parliament. Sonia Palmieri, "Gender-Sensitive Parliaments: A Global Review of Good Practice," IPU, 2011, p. v, https://www.ipu.org/file/2085/download. Palmieri, "Gender-Sensitive Parliaments," p. v. IPU, "Plan of Action for Gender-Sensitive Parliaments," 2017, p. 1, https://www.ipu.org/file/3215/download. IPU, "Kigali Declaration: Gender Equality and Gender-Sensitive Parliaments as Drivers of Change for a More Resilient and Peaceful World," October 2022, p. 2, https://www.ipu.org/file/15355/download. IPU, "World e-Parliament Report 2024," 2024, p. 5, https://www.ipu.org/file/20313/download. IPU, "Women in Parliament 2022," 2023, p. 20, https://www.ipu.org/file/17189/download. IPU, "World e-Parliament Report 2024," p. 62, https://www.ipu.org/file/20313/download. IPU, "Women in Parliament 2023," p. 27, https://www.ipu.org/file/18626/download For examples not mentioned previously, see IPU, "Evaluating the Gender Sensitivity of Parliaments: A Self-Assessment Toolkit," 2016, https://www.ipu.org/file/630/download; Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (CPA), "Gender Sensitising Parliaments Guidelines: Standards and a Checklist for Parliamentary Change," 2020, https://www.cpahq.org/media/s20j1lws/cwp-gender-sensitizing-guidelines.pdf; IPU, "Guidelines for the Elimination of Sexism, Harassment, and Violence against Women in Parliament," 2019, https://www.ipu.org/file/8412/download; CPA, "Gender Sensitising Parliaments: A Seven-Step Field Guide," 2022, https://www.cpahq.org/media/pxmfpgw5/gender-sensitising-parliaments_a-seven-step-field-guide.pdf; and "Gender-Sensitive Practices in Parliaments," in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Toolkit for Mainstreaming and Implementing Gender Equality 2023 (2023), https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/07/toolkit-for-mainstreaming-and-implementing-gender-equality-2023_c68bd819/3ddef555-en.pdf. EBSCO, "Head of State," https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/politics-and-government/head-state. EBSCO, "Head of Government," https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/politics-and-government/head-government. UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, "Violence Against Women in Politics," August 6, 2018, p. 9, https://docs.un.org/en/A/73/301. UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, "Violence Against Women in Politics," p. 6. UN Women, "Data and Violence Against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations," December 4-5, 2019, pp. 9-13, https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2020/EGM-report-Data-and-violence-against-women-in-politics-en.pdf. United Nations, "Violence against Women in Politics: Expert Group Meeting Report and Recommendations," New York, NY, March 8-9, 2018, p. 6, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Women/ViolenceAgainstWomeninPoliticsReport.pdf. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians." Examples of economic violence include being "denied funds to which they [women legislators] were entitled during their terms in office … [and] other resources (offices, computers, staff, security) enjoyed by male colleagues in parliament." The damaging or destruction of possessions are other examples. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians," p. 5. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians," p. 6. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Europe," October 2018, p. 1, https://www.ipu.org/file/5472/download. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Europe," p. 1. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Europe," p. 2. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Europe," p. 2. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa," November 2021, p. 2, https://www.ipu.org/file/12951/download. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa," p. 3. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa," p. 3. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa," p. 3. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa," p. 3. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in the Asia-Pacific Region," March 2025, p. 1, https://www.ipu.org/file/21204/download. IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in the Asia-Pacific Region," p. 2. Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence againstAgainst Women in Parliaments in the Asia-Pacific Region," March 2025, p. 14, https://www.ipu.org/file/21204/download.
Footnotes
1.
For example, see United Nations, "Women and Political Participation," adopted December 19, 2011, https://docs.un.org/en/A/RES/66/130; UN Women, "In Brief: Women's Leadership and Political Participation," https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2024-06/in-brief-key-messages-on-womens-rights-empowerment-and-equality-electoral-and-political-participation-en.pdf; Aaron Reeves et al., "Female Political Representation and the Gender Health Gap: A Cross-National Analysis of 49 European Countries," European Journal of Public Health, vol. 32, no. 5 (October 2022), pp. 684-689, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9527963/; and Niharika Rustagi and Sonia Akter, "The Impact of Women's Political Representation on Child Health Outcomes During 1990-2020: Evidence from a Global Dataset," Social Science and Medicine, vol. 312 (November 2022), https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36201993/.
2.
3.
4.
UN Women, in "Facts and Figures," states that "as of 1 January 2026, there are 28 countries where 30 women serve as Heads of State and/or Government." UN Women calculates these figures from "information provided by Permanent Missions to the United Nations." See Table 6 for sources used to calculated the measurements for this report.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
See IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians," October 2016, https://www.ipu.org/file/2425/download; IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Europe," October 2018, https://www.ipu.org/file/5472/download; IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women Parliamentarians in Africa,," November 2021, https://www.ipu.org/file/12951/download; and IPU, "Sexism, Harassment and Violence Against Women in Parliaments in the Asia-Pacific Region," March 2025, https://www.ipu.org/file/21204/download.
12.
U.S. House, Committee on Ethics, "Statement of the Committee on Ethics Regarding Sexual Misconduct and Workplace Rights," press release, April 20, 2026, https://ethics.house.gov/press-releases/statement-of-the-committee-on-ethics-regarding-sexual-misconduct-and-workplace-rights/.
13.
14.
Katherine Schaeffer, "Key Facts About Women's Suffrage Around the World, a Century After U.S. Ratified 19th Amendment," Pew Research Center, October 5, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/10/05/key-facts-about-womens-suffrage-around-the-world-a-century-after-u-s-ratified-19th-amendment/.
15.
16.
17.
IPU, Canada House of Commons, "Data on Women," https://data.ipu.org/parliament/CA/CA-LC01/data-on-women/.
18.
IPU, "Bosnia and Herzegovina—House of Peoples," https://data.ipu.org/parliament/BA/BA-UC01/; and IPU, "Iraq—Council of Representatives of Iraq," https://data.ipu.org/parliament/IQ/IQ-LC01/.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Sofia Hernandez Ramones, "About a Third of UN Member States Have Ever Had a Woman Leader," Pew Research Center, March 2, 2026, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2026/03/02/about-a-third-of-un-member-countries-have-ever-had-a-woman-leader/.
35.
An article in the Journal of Democracy noted that actions to threaten, intimidate, or harass women who are participating in the political process are attempts to "deter women's electoral participation, and reinforce prevailing gender norms." Such activities "should thus be seen as a serious threat and affront to democracy." See Mona Lena Krook, "Violence Against Women in Politics," Journal of Democracy, January 2017, p. 74-75, https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/violence-against-women-in-politics/. The Kofi Annan Foundation cited research that determined that "general political violence occurred against both men and women" but that women were "much more likely to experience sexualized forms of violence." See Carmen Alanis, "Violence Against Women in Politics," Kofi Annan Foundation, November 2020, p. 31, https://www.kofiannanfoundation.org/publication/eliminating-violence-against-women-in-politics/.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
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48.
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53.
, p. 3.
African women parliamentary staff reported that “18% have received requests for sexual favours from parliamentary colleagues (56% of cases) or from parliamentarians (44% of cases) in exchange for a benefit that this colleague or parliamentarian was empowered to withhold or confer.”37
The 69.0% of African women parliamentary staff in Table 18 who reported they had experienced pyschological violence identifed manifestations of this violence in Table 20.
Table 20. Psychological Violence Against African Women
Parliamentariay Staff: Prevalence of Specific Behaviors
Behaviors described by the 69.0% of 2021 IPU Africa update women parliamentariay
staff respondents who reported they had experienced psychological violence
Actions of Psychological Violence
% of Respondents Who Had
Experienced These Actions
Were the target of sexist remarks made by male collagues and / or parliamentarians
56.0%
Experienced psychological harrassment within the context of their work in parliament
38.0%
Were attacked online 22.0%
Were threatened online 7.0%
Source: IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.
In the 56.0% of African women parliamentary staff who were the target of sexist remarks, 67% of these cases were by male colleagues working in parliament and 30% of these cases were by male parliamentarians.38
In the 38.0% of African women parliamentary staff who experienced psychological harassment within the context of their work in parliament, in 72.0% of those cases the parliamentary colleagues were the perpetrators (mostly men but some women). In 22.0% of those cases, the perpetrators were male parliamentarians.39
The 2021 Africa update also includes examples of economic violence reported includes
• 18% of female parliamentary staff have been threatened with losing their job or with having their career progression blocked, and
37 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.
38 Ibid., p. 3.
39 Ibid., p. 3.
Statistics on Women in National Governments Around the World
Congressional Research Service R45483 · VERSION 25 · UPDATED 23
• 24% have been refused funds to which they were entitled, such as a salary or bonus.40
Author Information
Travis A. Ferrell Research Librarian
Acknowledgments
Susan Chesser was the previous author of this report.
Disclaimer
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40 IPU, Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians in Africa, November 2021, p. 3.