Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress

Changes from March 21, 2023 to May 18, 2023

This page shows textual changes in the document between the two versions indicated in the dates above. Textual matter removed in the later version is indicated with ~~red strikethrough~~ and textual matter added in the later version is indicated with blue.

Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress
~~March 21~~May 18, 2023 , 2023
U.S. relations with the State of Kuwait have remained close since the United States led a U.S. relations with the State of Kuwait have remained close since the United States led a
multinational coalition that liberated Kuwait from Iraqi forces in 1991. Defense cooperation multinational coalition that liberated Kuwait from Iraqi forces in 1991. Defense cooperation
Christopher M. Blanchard
serves as the centerpiece of U.S.-Kuwaiti partnership. The United States has U.S. military serves as the centerpiece of U.S.-Kuwaiti partnership. The United States has U.S. military
Specialist in Middle Specialist in Middle
personnel deployed in Kuwait on a lasting and rotational basis, along with forward operational personnel deployed in Kuwait on a lasting and rotational basis, along with forward operational
Eastern Affairs Eastern Affairs
commands and U.S. military equipment pursuant to a bilateral Defense Cooperation Agreement commands and U.S. military equipment pursuant to a bilateral Defense Cooperation Agreement

and an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement. Germany, Japan, and South Korea are the and an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement. Germany, Japan, and South Korea are the
only overseas countries that host more U.S. forces than Kuwait, if rotational forces are included. only overseas countries that host more U.S. forces than Kuwait, if rotational forces are included.

The Kuwaiti government pays some of the cost of the U.S. military presence in Kuwait. The Kuwaiti government pays some of the cost of the U.S. military presence in Kuwait.
U.S. foreign and defense assistance to Kuwait has been limited, and since the 1990s, Congress has considered legislation U.S. foreign and defense assistance to Kuwait has been limited, and since the 1990s, Congress has considered legislation
addressing bilateral relations relatively infrequently. Members of Congress may review developments in Kuwait and U.S.-addressing bilateral relations relatively infrequently. Members of Congress may review developments in Kuwait and U.S.-
Kuwait relations in the context of overseeing U.S. diplomacy and defense policy, including efforts to ensure security of the Kuwait relations in the context of overseeing U.S. diplomacy and defense policy, including efforts to ensure security of the
global energy supply, deter aggression, promote accountable governance and human rights, respond to humanitarian crises, global energy supply, deter aggression, promote accountable governance and human rights, respond to humanitarian crises,
and deescalate conflicts in the Middle East region. and deescalate conflicts in the Middle East region.
President George W. Bush designated Kuwait as a Major Non-NATO Ally in 2004, making Kuwait eligible to purchase President George W. Bush designated Kuwait as a Major Non-NATO Ally in 2004, making Kuwait eligible to purchase
certain U.S. arms, receive excess defense articles (EDA), and engage in defense research cooperation with the United States. certain U.S. arms, receive excess defense articles (EDA), and engage in defense research cooperation with the United States.
Proposed U.S. foreign military sales to Kuwait since 2020 have included U.S. construction services for the Ministry of Proposed U.S. foreign military sales to Kuwait since 2020 have included U.S. construction services for the Ministry of
Defense headquarters, Patriot missile system upgrades, Apache AH-64 helicopters, and land and air force munitions. Defense headquarters, Patriot missile system upgrades, Apache AH-64 helicopters, and land and air force munitions.
With 1.3 million citizens, Kuwait derives its global influence from its large oil and natural gas reserves, its sizeable sovereign With 1.3 million citizens, Kuwait derives its global influence from its large oil and natural gas reserves, its sizeable sovereign
financial resources, its strategic location at the northern terminus of the Persian Gulf, and its diplomatic outreach and posture financial resources, its strategic location at the northern terminus of the Persian Gulf, and its diplomatic outreach and posture
in international and regional organizations. Kuwait’s oil reserves amount to more than 7% of global proven reserves, and at in international and regional organizations. Kuwait’s oil reserves amount to more than 7% of global proven reserves, and at
current production rates, its reserves would last through this century. Kuwait’s Emir, Shaykh Nawaf al Ahmed al Jaber Al current production rates, its reserves would last through this century. Kuwait’s Emir, Shaykh Nawaf al Ahmed al Jaber Al
Sabah (age 85), has ruled the country since 2020; he has delegated some constitutional functions to his designated successor Sabah (age 85), has ruled the country since 2020; he has delegated some constitutional functions to his designated successor
and half-brother, Crown Prince Shaykh Mishaal al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah (age 82). The Al Sabah family has exercised and half-brother, Crown Prince Shaykh Mishaal al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah (age 82). The Al Sabah family has exercised
authority in Kuwait since the 18th century. Eligible Kuwaitis vote to elect members of authority in Kuwait since the 18th century. Eligible Kuwaitis vote to elect members of ~~the country’s~~ parliament, the National parliament, the National
~~Assembly. The Assembly is~~ Assembly— the most constitutionally empowered and politically influential legislative body among the Arab the most constitutionally empowered and politically influential legislative body among the Arab
Gulf states. Kuwait’s citizenry is largely Sunni Muslim, and members of its Shia Muslim minority (~30%) participate Gulf states. Kuwait’s citizenry is largely Sunni Muslim, and members of its Shia Muslim minority (~30%) participate
peacefully in politics. peacefully in politics.
Kuwait’s political environment has been under strain for years. The late prior Emir’s succession transition in 2006 rebalanced Kuwait’s political environment has been under strain for years. The late prior Emir’s succession transition in 2006 rebalanced
power in the Al Sabah family, and future succession arrangements remain uncertain. Executive-legislative impasses over power in the Al Sabah family, and future succession arrangements remain uncertain. Executive-legislative impasses over
public spending, corruption allegations, proposed reforms to public sector employment and benefits, service costs, and public spending, corruption allegations, proposed reforms to public sector employment and benefits, service costs, and
financing for new economic initiatives have contributed to political discord since 2019. Following a December 2020 election, financing for new economic initiatives have contributed to political discord since 2019. Following a December 2020 election,
political stalemate persisted, and, in April 2022, then-prime minister Shaykh Sabah al Khaled al Hamad Al Sabah resigned. political stalemate persisted, and, in April 2022, then-prime minister Shaykh Sabah al Khaled al Hamad Al Sabah resigned.
In June 2022, Kuwait’s rulers announced that parliament would be dismissed and called for a new election, appointing the In June 2022, Kuwait’s rulers announced that parliament would be dismissed and called for a new election, appointing the
Emir’s son, Shaykh Ahmed Nawaf al Ahmed Al Sabah, in July Emir’s son, Shaykh Ahmed Nawaf al Ahmed Al Sabah, in July 2022 as an interim replacement prime minister. In September 2022, as an interim replacement prime minister. In September 2022,
Kuwaitis voted to elect 50 members to the 65Kuwaitis voted to elect 50 members to the 65 -member National Assembly (up to 15 appointed cabinet members also serve as member National Assembly (up to 15 appointed cabinet members also serve as
Assembly members), choosing 27 new Assembly members, including some opposition figures. Assembly members), choosing 27 new Assembly members, including some opposition figures.
Following the Following the 2022 election, the Emir reappointed Shaykh Ahmed, and an atmosphere of consultation briefly emerged. election, the Emir reappointed Shaykh Ahmed, and an atmosphere of consultation briefly emerged.
Nevertheless, differences over proposed private debt relief and public spending measures brought the executive and Nevertheless, differences over proposed private debt relief and public spending measures brought the executive and
legislature back to an impasse. In January 2023, the prime minister submitted his cabinet’s resignation; in March, he was re-legislature back to an impasse. In January 2023, the prime minister submitted his cabinet’s resignation; in March, he was re-
appointed and directed to propose a new cabinet. On March 19, Kuwait’s constitutional court ruled the 2022 election void appointed and directed to propose a new cabinet. On March 19, Kuwait’s constitutional court ruled the 2022 election void
and reinstated the parliamentarians elected in December 2020. Previous court decisions to overturn election results in 2012 and reinstated the parliamentarians elected in December 2020. Previous court decisions to overturn election results in 2012
and 2013 prompted demonstrations, confrontations, and boycotts. and 2013 prompted demonstrations, confrontations, and boycotts.
Citing public opposition to the court’s March 2023 decision, the Crown Prince in April dissolved the court-reinstated parliament. An election is planned for June 2023. Kuwait relies on oil export revenues and investment earnings to fund public spending, including large recurring public sector Kuwait relies on oil export revenues and investment earnings to fund public spending, including large recurring public sector
wage and benefit costs. As a result, fluctuations in energy and other global asset prices directly affect Kuwait’s national wage and benefit costs. As a result, fluctuations in energy and other global asset prices directly affect Kuwait’s national
finances. Increases in oil prices since 2020 have provided a windfall that may ease pressures associated with spending finances. Increases in oil prices since 2020 have provided a windfall that may ease pressures associated with spending
reforms and/or allow more investment in the government’s reforms and/or allow more investment in the government’s Vision 2035/New Kuwait economic diversification plans. economic diversification plans.
The 118th Congress may consider proposals from the Biden Administration to sustain and strengthen U.S.-Kuwaiti ties. The 118th Congress may consider proposals from the Biden Administration to sustain and strengthen U.S.-Kuwaiti ties.
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Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress

Overview and Bilateral Relations
The U.S. Department of State describes the U.S.-Kuwait relationship as warm and multifaceted.1 The U.S. Department of State describes the U.S.-Kuwait relationship as warm and multifaceted.1
Bilateral ties have remained close since the U.S.-led liberation of Kuwait in the 1991 Gulf War Bilateral ties have remained close since the U.S.-led liberation of Kuwait in the 1991 Gulf War
(see textbox below). The United States hosted the fifth U.S.-Kuwait Strategic Dialogue (see textbox below). The United States hosted the fifth U.S.-Kuwait Strategic Dialogue
ministerial in Washington, DC, in January 2022, and Secretary of State Antony Blinken expressed ministerial in Washington, DC, in January 2022, and Secretary of State Antony Blinken expressed
the Administration’s appreciation of the Kuwaiti government’s “generosity,” its “commitment to the Administration’s appreciation of the Kuwaiti government’s “generosity,” its “commitment to
humanitarianism and international stability,” and its “statesmanship.”2 During the U.S. humanitarianism and international stability,” and its “statesmanship.”2 During the U.S.
withdrawal from Afghanistan in August 2021, Kuwait chartered flights from its national airline to withdrawal from Afghanistan in August 2021, Kuwait chartered flights from its national airline to
assist in the evacuation of U.S. personnel and Afghan employees from Afghanistan and facilitated assist in the evacuation of U.S. personnel and Afghan employees from Afghanistan and facilitated
the onward transit of 5,000 Afghans through its territory.3 Kuwaiti-U.S. counterterrorism the onward transit of 5,000 Afghans through its territory.3 Kuwaiti-U.S. counterterrorism
cooperation has deepened since the early 2000s. cooperation has deepened since the early 2000s.
Figure 1. Map of Kuwait

Source: CRS, using State Department and ESRI data. CRS, using State Department and ESRI data.
Notes: Energy fields and boundaries approximate. Energy fields and boundaries approximate.
U.S.-Kuwaiti Defense Relations
As of 2023, thousands of U.S. military personnel are in Kuwait at the invitation of the Kuwaiti As of 2023, thousands of U.S. military personnel are in Kuwait at the invitation of the Kuwaiti
government, which pays some of the cost of the U.S. military presence.4 Kuwait hosts the government, which pays some of the cost of the U.S. military presence.4 Kuwait hosts the

1 U.S. State Department Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, “U.S. Relations With Kuwait,” January 5, 2021. 1 U.S. State Department Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, “U.S. Relations With Kuwait,” January 5, 2021.
2 U.S. State Department, Secretary Antony J. Blinken and Kuwaiti Foreign Minister Sheikh Ahmed Nasser Al-2 U.S. State Department, Secretary Antony J. Blinken and Kuwaiti Foreign Minister Sheikh Ahmed Nasser Al-
Mohammed Al-Sabah Statements to the Press, January 26, 2022. Mohammed Al-Sabah Statements to the Press, January 26, 2022.
3 Agreement Between the United States of America and Kuwait Effected by Exchange of Notes at Kuwait City, August 3 Agreement Between the United States of America and Kuwait Effected by Exchange of Notes at Kuwait City, August
22, 2021; U.S. Ambassador Alina L. Romanowski, Statement on Kuwait’s Cooperation with the United States on 22, 2021; U.S. Ambassador Alina L. Romanowski, Statement on Kuwait’s Cooperation with the United States on
Evacuation of American Citizens and At-Risk Afghans, August 23, 2021; and, Sgt. Marc Loi, “29th Infantry Division Evacuation of American Citizens and At-Risk Afghans, August 23, 2021; and, Sgt. Marc Loi, “29th Infantry Division
moves 5,000 Afghans through Kuwait,” U.S. 29th Infantry Division, November 5, 2021. moves 5,000 Afghans through Kuwait,” U.S. 29th Infantry Division, November 5, 2021.
4 Current U.S. law provides for acceptance of burden sharing contributions by designated countries and regional 4 Current U.S. law provides for acceptance of burden sharing contributions by designated countries and regional
organizations (see 10 U.S.C. 2609 and 10 U.S.C. 2350j). Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress

forward headquarters of U.S. Army Central Command (USARCENT) and the Combined Joint forward headquarters of U.S. Army Central Command (USARCENT) and the Combined Joint
Task Force Operation Inherent Resolve (CJTF-OIR), which supports Iraqi and Syrian partner Task Force Operation Inherent Resolve (CJTF-OIR), which supports Iraqi and Syrian partner
forces in operations against the remnants of the Islamic State (IS, aka ISIS/ISIL) organization. forces in operations against the remnants of the Islamic State (IS, aka ISIS/ISIL) organization.
U.S. forces affiliated with Task Force Spartan/Operation Spartan Shield also operate in Kuwait, U.S. forces affiliated with Task Force Spartan/Operation Spartan Shield also operate in Kuwait,
for deterrence purposes and to build regional partner capacity. In August 2022, a purported Iraqi for deterrence purposes and to build regional partner capacity. In August 2022, a purported Iraqi
armed group claimed to have launched an unmanned aerial system (UAS/drone) attack against armed group claimed to have launched an unmanned aerial system (UAS/drone) attack against
Ali Al Salem Air Base; U.S. forces, which provide for their own security in Kuwait, Ali Al Salem Air Base; U.S. forces, which provide for their own security in Kuwait, initially denied that denied that
~~any attack took place~~any attack took place, but, in May 2023, U.S. officials told the press that remnants of an Iranian-origin UAS had been recovered on Iraq’s territory following reported attack.5 Proposed U.S. foreign military sales to Kuwait since 2020 have included .5 Proposed U.S. foreign military sales to Kuwait since 2020 have included
U.S. construction services for the Ministry of Defense headquarters, various Patriot missile U.S. construction services for the Ministry of Defense headquarters, various Patriot missile
system upgrades, Apache AH-64 helicopters, and land and air force munitions. system upgrades, Apache AH-64 helicopters, and land and air force munitions.
U.S.-Kuwaiti Economic Relations
U.S.-Kuwaiti trade relations are limited in scope. The United States and Kuwait signed a Trade U.S.-Kuwaiti trade relations are limited in scope. The United States and Kuwait signed a Trade
Investment Framework Agreement in 2004. In 2022, U.S. exports to Kuwait were valued at $3.39 Investment Framework Agreement in 2004. In 2022, U.S. exports to Kuwait were valued at $3.39
billion and U.S. imports from Kuwait were valued at $2.05 billion.6 The overall value of bilateral billion and U.S. imports from Kuwait were valued at $2.05 billion.6 The overall value of bilateral
trade has declined since 2015, reflecting lower prices and volumes of Kuwaiti oil exports to the trade has declined since 2015, reflecting lower prices and volumes of Kuwaiti oil exports to the
United States. In April 2022, the United States removed Kuwait from the U.S. Trade United States. In April 2022, the United States removed Kuwait from the U.S. Trade
Representative’s Section 301 Watch List citing “continued and significant progress on concerns Representative’s Section 301 Watch List citing “continued and significant progress on concerns
that stakeholders identified with [intellectual property] IP enforcement and transparency rights.”7 that stakeholders identified with [intellectual property] IP enforcement and transparency rights.”7
According to the Institute of International Education, nearly 6,000 Kuwaiti students enrolled in According to the Institute of International Education, nearly 6,000 Kuwaiti students enrolled in
higher education institutions in the United States during the 2021/2022 academic year. Some higher education institutions in the United States during the 2021/2022 academic year. Some
Kuwaitis make use of medical facilities in the United States for specialized care, and, in 2021, Kuwaitis make use of medical facilities in the United States for specialized care, and, in 2021,
Congress voiced support for U.S. efforts to resolve outstanding Kuwaiti financial obligations to Congress voiced support for U.S. efforts to resolve outstanding Kuwaiti financial obligations to
U.S. health facilities.8 U.S. health facilities.8
Congress and Kuwait
Congress has considered legislation addressing U.S. relations with Kuwait relatively infrequently Congress has considered legislation addressing U.S. relations with Kuwait relatively infrequently
since the 1990s, but since the 1990s, but various Members of Congress frequently visit U.S. troops stationed in Kuwait. In Members of Congress frequently visit U.S. troops stationed in Kuwait. In
2022, Congress designated U.S. veterans who served on active duty in Kuwait on or after August 2022, Congress designated U.S. veterans who served on active duty in Kuwait on or after August
2, 1990, as “covered veterans” under the Honoring our Promise to Address Comprehensive 2, 1990, as “covered veterans” under the Honoring our Promise to Address Comprehensive
Toxics (PACT) Act of 2022 (P.L. 117-168), which expands health care eligibility for veterans Toxics (PACT) Act of 2022 (P.L. 117-168), which expands health care eligibility for veterans
~~subject to toxic exposure. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 (Section 8111 of Division~~
~~C, P.L. 117-328) authorizes the Department of Defense to incur obligations not to exceed $350~~
~~million during the fiscal year “in anticipation of receipt of contributions, only from the~~
~~Government of Kuwait.” The James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for FY2023~~
~~(Section 2402 of P.L. 117-263) authorizes $26.85 million for Energy Resilience and Conservation~~
~~Investment Program power generation and microgrid project at Camp Arifjan.~~

~~organizations (see 10 U.S.C. 2609 and 10 U.S.C. 2350j).~~
~~5 Associated Press, “US Air Force Targeted in ‘Propaganda Attack’ in Kuwait,” August 21, 2022.~~
subject to toxic exposure. 5 Associated Press, “US Air Force Targeted in ‘Propaganda Attack’ in Kuwait,” August 21, 2022; and, Michael R. Gordon, Warren P. Strobel, and David S. Cloud, “Drone Strike That Killed U.S. Contractor in Syria Was Launched by Iran-Backed Militia in Iraq,” Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2023. 6 U.S. Department of Commerce International Trade Administration using U.S. Census Bureau data, March 2023. 6 U.S. Department of Commerce International Trade Administration using U.S. Census Bureau data, March 2023.
7 Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, USTR Releases 2022 Special 301 Report on Intellectual Property Protection 7 Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, USTR Releases 2022 Special 301 Report on Intellectual Property Protection
and Enforcement, April 27, 2022. and Enforcement, April 27, 2022.
8 Section 1297 of the 8 Section 1297 of the William M. (Mac) Thornberry National Defense Authorization Act for 2021 (P.L. 116-283) stated the sense of Congress that National Defense Authorization Act for 2021 (P.L. 116-283) stated the sense of Congress that
“Kuwait should immediately pay such outstanding amounts owed to such United States medical institutions.” See “Kuwait should immediately pay such outstanding amounts owed to such United States medical institutions.” See
Lenny Bernstein, “Cash-strapped U.S. hospitals say Kuwait owes them at least $677 million,” Lenny Bernstein, “Cash-strapped U.S. hospitals say Kuwait owes them at least $677 million,” Washington Post, ,
August 7, 2020. August 7, 2020.
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The 1990-1991 Invasion of Kuwait and its Aftermath
In August 1990, Iraq’s then-dictator Saddam Hussein ordered the Iraqi military to invade neighboring Kuwait; the In August 1990, Iraq’s then-dictator Saddam Hussein ordered the Iraqi military to invade neighboring Kuwait; the
subsequent Iraqi occupation of Kuwait led to the displacement of Kuwait’s government; the death, disappearance, subsequent Iraqi occupation of Kuwait led to the displacement of Kuwait’s government; the death, disappearance,
and injury of thousands of Kuwaitis; and extensive damage to Kuwait’s natural resources and environment. and injury of thousands of Kuwaitis; and extensive damage to Kuwait’s natural resources and environment.
President George H.W. Bush quickly dispatched U.S. military forces to Saudi Arabia to deter further advances by President George H.W. Bush quickly dispatched U.S. military forces to Saudi Arabia to deter further advances by
Iraqi forces. The 101st Congress condemned the Iraqi invasion immediately (S.Res. 318 and H.R. 5431) and Iraqi forces. The 101st Congress condemned the Iraqi invasion immediately (S.Res. 318 and H.R. 5431) and
authorized and appropriated supplemental funds for Operation Desert Shield (P.L. 101-403, P.L. 101-510, and P.L. authorized and appropriated supplemental funds for Operation Desert Shield (P.L. 101-403, P.L. 101-510, and P.L.
101-511). 101-511).
In January 1991, the 102nd Congress authorized the President to use military force (P.L. 102-1) pursuant to United In January 1991, the 102nd Congress authorized the President to use military force (P.L. 102-1) pursuant to United
Nations Security Council Resolution 678 (1990), which called on U.N. Member States to use “all necessary means Nations Security Council Resolution 678 (1990), which called on U.N. Member States to use “all necessary means
to uphold and implement” related Security Council resolutions and restore international peace and security in the to uphold and implement” related Security Council resolutions and restore international peace and security in the
area. A U.S.-led multinational military campaign (Operation Desert Storm) to evict Iraqi forces began on January area. A U.S.-led multinational military campaign (Operation Desert Storm) to evict Iraqi forces began on January
17, 1991. Coalition forces liberated Kuwait by the end of February. Saddam Hussein’s regime was weakened, and 17, 1991. Coalition forces liberated Kuwait by the end of February. Saddam Hussein’s regime was weakened, and
U.S. and partner forces established and maintained no-fly zones in southern and northern Iraq over the next U.S. and partner forces established and maintained no-fly zones in southern and northern Iraq over the next
decade, amid U.N.-backed sanctions and global scrutiny of Iraq’s suspected weapons of mass destruction decade, amid U.N.-backed sanctions and global scrutiny of Iraq’s suspected weapons of mass destruction
programs. The U.S. military and U.S. national security decisionmakers continue to study the 1990-1991 crisis and programs. The U.S. military and U.S. national security decisionmakers continue to study the 1990-1991 crisis and
U.S. decisions for lessons to inform current policy and future planning.9 The 117th Congress considered but did U.S. decisions for lessons to inform current policy and future planning.9 The 117th Congress considered but did
not enact a Biden Administration-supported proposal to repeal the 1991 Iraq authorization for use of military not enact a Biden Administration-supported proposal to repeal the 1991 Iraq authorization for use of military
force (P.L. 102-1).10 force (P.L. 102-1).10
The after-effects of Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait and The after-effects of Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait and
Kuwait’s liberation have shaped the Middle East Kuwait’s liberation have shaped the Middle East
region and U.S. foreign policy for more than three region and U.S. foreign policy for more than three
decades. U.S. confrontation with Saddam Hussein’s decades. U.S. confrontation with Saddam Hussein’s
Iraq culminated in the U.S. invasion of Iraq in March Iraq culminated in the U.S. invasion of Iraq in March
2003. The disorder and violence that fol owed 2003. The disorder and violence that fol owed
destabilized Iraq and arguably altered the regional destabilized Iraq and arguably altered the regional
balance of power in Iran’s favor. More than thirty balance of power in Iran’s favor. More than thirty
years after U.S. forces first fought alongside years after U.S. forces first fought alongside
partners to free Kuwait from Iraqi forces, U.S. and partners to free Kuwait from Iraqi forces, U.S. and
partner militaries remain in both countries, partner militaries remain in both countries,
maintaining pre-positioned equipment, conducting maintaining pre-positioned equipment, conducting
training and supporting deterrence operations in training and supporting deterrence operations in
Kuwait while providing security advice and Kuwait while providing security advice and
assistance to Iraq’s post-2003 government. assistance to Iraq’s post-2003 government.
Photo Source: U.S. Department of Defense, Kuwait 1991. U.S. Department of Defense, Kuwait 1991.
The military presence that the United States established and maintained in the Gulf in the wake of the 1991 war The military presence that the United States established and maintained in the Gulf in the wake of the 1991 war
cemented a role for the United States as a de facto guarantor of the Gulf’s security that has endured. The global cemented a role for the United States as a de facto guarantor of the Gulf’s security that has endured. The global
economy’s reliance on the free flow of energy resources from the Persian Gulf similarly has evolved since the economy’s reliance on the free flow of energy resources from the Persian Gulf similarly has evolved since the
1990s but persists. U.S. and host country decisions about the future presence and role of U.S. forces in the region 1990s but persists. U.S. and host country decisions about the future presence and role of U.S. forces in the region
thus remain a question of significant regional and global interest. thus remain a question of significant regional and global interest.
In 2022, the U.N. Compensation Commission that has processed and paid compensation claims related to Iraq’s In 2022, the U.N. Compensation Commission that has processed and paid compensation claims related to Iraq’s
invasion and occupation of Kuwait announced the completion of the 31-year compensation process.11 Under a invasion and occupation of Kuwait announced the completion of the 31-year compensation process.11 Under a
series of U.N. Security Council resolutions, a portion of proceeds from Iraq’s oil sales were allocated to fund the series of U.N. Security Council resolutions, a portion of proceeds from Iraq’s oil sales were allocated to fund the
$52.4 bil ion in compensation claims paid over the life of the program. Congress may consider how the $52.4 bil ion in compensation claims paid over the life of the program. Congress may consider how the
development and implementation of this claims compensation process might inform arrangements to secure and development and implementation of this claims compensation process might inform arrangements to secure and
administer compensation for claims arising from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine or other cases of state aggression. administer compensation for claims arising from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine or other cases of state aggression.

9 Richard A. Lacquement Jr., “The Gulf War 30 Years Later: Successes, Failures, and Blind Spots,” 9 Richard A. Lacquement Jr., “The Gulf War 30 Years Later: Successes, Failures, and Blind Spots,” War on the Rocks, ,
September 9, 2020. September 9, 2020.
10 See Charlie Savage, “Senate panel votes to repeal 1991 and 2002 laws authorizing wars with Iraq,” 10 See Charlie Savage, “Senate panel votes to repeal 1991 and 2002 laws authorizing wars with Iraq,” New York Times, ,
August 4, 2021; and, Rebecca Kheel, “House votes to repeal 1991, 1957 war authorizations,” August 4, 2021; and, Rebecca Kheel, “House votes to repeal 1991, 1957 war authorizations,” The Hill, June 29, 2021. , June 29, 2021.
In 2022, the House-passed version of the National Defense Authorization Act In 2022, the House-passed version of the National Defense Authorization Act offor FY 2023 (§5878 of H.R. 7900) would 2023 (§5878 of H.R. 7900) would
have repealed P.L. 102-1. The Senate version did not contain a repeal provision. The final versionhave repealed P.L. 102-1. The Senate version did not contain a repeal provision. The final version, the James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023 (H.R. 7776 /P.L. (H.R. 7776 /P.L.
117-263)117-263), did not contain a repeal provision. did not contain a repeal provision.
11 United Nations, “Iraq makes final reparation payment to Kuwait for 1990 invasion,” February 9, 2022. 11 United Nations, “Iraq makes final reparation payment to Kuwait for 1990 invasion,” February 9, 2022.
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Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress

The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 (Section 8111 of Division C, P.L. 117-328) authorizes the Department of Defense to incur obligations not to exceed $350 million during the fiscal year “in anticipation of receipt of contributions, only from the Government of Kuwait.” The James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for FY2023 (Section 2402 of P.L. 117-263) authorizes $26.85 million for Energy Resilience and Conservation Investment Program power generation and microgrid project at Camp Arifjan. Kuwait’s History and Politics
Coastal Kuwait grew gradually as a trading center in the northern Gulf region as the Al Sabah Coastal Kuwait grew gradually as a trading center in the northern Gulf region as the Al Sabah
family and others gained influence there after migrating to the region in the late 17th and early family and others gained influence there after migrating to the region in the late 17th and early
18th centuries. Kuwait’s interior was home to then-nomadic tribal groups, and urban-rural 18th centuries. Kuwait’s interior was home to then-nomadic tribal groups, and urban-rural
differences and tribal identities and relations have remained influential in Kuwaiti society and differences and tribal identities and relations have remained influential in Kuwaiti society and
politics.12 The Al Sabah family’s leadership and administrative roles in Kuwait deepened during politics.12 The Al Sabah family’s leadership and administrative roles in Kuwait deepened during
the 18th century. At the end of the 19th century, the Al Sabah family sought British protection from the 18th century. At the end of the 19th century, the Al Sabah family sought British protection from
the Ottoman Empire, trading Kuwait’s sovereignty by treaty for security guarantees. Kuwait’s the Ottoman Empire, trading Kuwait’s sovereignty by treaty for security guarantees. Kuwait’s
citizenry includes Sunni and Shia Muslims and descendants of settled and nomadic communities, citizenry includes Sunni and Shia Muslims and descendants of settled and nomadic communities,
all of which have experienced considerable social and economic change since the discovery of oil all of which have experienced considerable social and economic change since the discovery of oil
in 1938. Kuwait regained independence from the United Kingdom in 1961, developing rapidly in 1938. Kuwait regained independence from the United Kingdom in 1961, developing rapidly
with an influx of oil revenue and foreign labor. Under a constitution adopted in 1962 and renewed with an influx of oil revenue and foreign labor. Under a constitution adopted in 1962 and renewed
following the 1991 U.S.-led liberation of Kuwait from occupation by neighboring Iraq, the Al following the 1991 U.S.-led liberation of Kuwait from occupation by neighboring Iraq, the Al
Sabah family has shared some power with Kuwait’s diverse citizenry. Together they have forged Sabah family has shared some power with Kuwait’s diverse citizenry. Together they have forged
a a global profile for their small, energy-rich emirate global profile for their small, energy-rich emirate (Figure 2). .
Political System
Kuwait’s 1962 constitution recognizes the Kuwait’s 1962 constitution recognizes the
Figure 2. Kuwait: Basic Facts
Emir as head of state and ruler, with Emir as head of state and ruler, with
power as commander-in-chief of the power as commander-in-chief of the
military and authority to appoint all military and authority to appoint all
judges and to dismiss or suspend judges and to dismiss or suspend
Kuwait’s unicameral legislature. The Kuwait’s unicameral legislature. The
Emir appoints a prime minister as head of Emir appoints a prime minister as head of
government, who in turn selects the government, who in turn selects the
cabinet. The prime minister has always cabinet. The prime minister has always
been a member of the Al Sabah family, been a member of the Al Sabah family,

and Al Sabah family members usually and Al Sabah family members usually
hold key cabinet portfolios such as Source: CRS, using data from the U.S. State Department, CRS, using data from the U.S. State Department,
~~hold key cabinet portfolios such as~~
Esri, the Central Intelligence Agency, International Esri, the Central Intelligence Agency, International
defense, interior, foreign affairs, and defense, interior, foreign affairs, and
Monetary Fund, and Government of Kuwait. Monetary Fund, and Government of Kuwait.
finance. finance.
Plans for succession within the ruling Al Sabah family are uncertain, and the Assembly must Plans for succession within the ruling Al Sabah family are uncertain, and the Assembly must
confirm the Emir’s designee for the position of crown prince. This requirement reportedly has confirm the Emir’s designee for the position of crown prince. This requirement reportedly has
contributed to controversial entanglements between rival royal family members and some contributed to controversial entanglements between rival royal family members and some
members of the National Assembly since a leadership transition in 2006.13 Until 2006, the main members of the National Assembly since a leadership transition in 2006.13 Until 2006, the main
~~branches of the family (Al Jaber and Al Salem) generally had alternated in holding the positions~~
~~of Emir and Crown Prince. In 2006, Assembly members and other leading figures questioned the~~
~~suitability of the late Emir’s successor from the Al Salem branch on health grounds and~~

12 See Alanoud al-Sharekh and Courtney Freer, 12 See Alanoud al-Sharekh and Courtney Freer, Tribalism and Political Power in the Gulf: State-Building and National
Identity in Kuwait, Qatar and the UAE, (I.B. Tauris-Bloomsbury), (I.B. Tauris-Bloomsbury), September 2021. September 2021.
13 See Kristin Smith Diwan, “Kuwait’s constitutional showdown,” 13 See Kristin Smith Diwan, “Kuwait’s constitutional showdown,” Foreign Policy, November 17, 2011; Kristian Coates , November 17, 2011; Kristian Coates
Ulrichsen, “Kuwait: Political crisis at critical juncture,” Ulrichsen, “Kuwait: Political crisis at critical juncture,” BBC News, October 23, 2012; and, Rivka Azoulay and Claire , October 23, 2012; and, Rivka Azoulay and Claire
~~Beaugrand, “Limits of political clientelism: elites’ struggles in Kuwait’s fragmenting politics,”~~ ~~International Journal of~~
~~Archaeology and Social Sciences in the Arabian Peninsula, Vol. 4, 2015. Members of the Al Salem, Hamad, and~~
~~Abdullah lines of the family—all named for descendants of sons of Emir Mubarak Al Sabah (ruled 1896-1915)—~~
~~remain eligible to lead under the constitution.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

4

~~Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress~~

(continued...) Congressional Research Service 4 Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress branches of the family (Al Jaber and Al Salem) generally had alternated in holding the positions of Emir and Crown Prince. In 2006, Assembly members and other leading figures questioned the suitability of the late Emir’s successor from the Al Salem branch on health grounds and recommended his replacement through a negotiated transition. Since that time, members of the Al recommended his replacement through a negotiated transition. Since that time, members of the Al
Jaber branch of the Al Sabah family have served as Emir and Crown Prince.14 Jaber branch of the Al Sabah family have served as Emir and Crown Prince.14
Kuwait’s National Assembly is the longest-established elected body among the Gulf Arab states. Kuwait’s National Assembly is the longest-established elected body among the Gulf Arab states.
It has a greater scope of authority than any other Gulf Arab legislature or consultative body. It has a greater scope of authority than any other Gulf Arab legislature or consultative body.
Eligible voters elect 50 Assembly members, with up to 15 members of the cabinet eligible to Eligible voters elect 50 Assembly members, with up to 15 members of the cabinet eligible to
serve and vote in the Assembly ex-officio.15 The Assembly’s members draft legislation and act on serve and vote in the Assembly ex-officio.15 The Assembly’s members draft legislation and act on
legislation proposed by the government. The Assembly does not vote to confirm cabinet legislation proposed by the government. The Assembly does not vote to confirm cabinet
nominees, but its members frequently question ministers (a process known as interpellation or nominees, but its members frequently question ministers (a process known as interpellation or
colloquially as “grilling”), and the Assembly can remove ministers by a vote of no confidence. colloquially as “grilling”), and the Assembly can remove ministers by a vote of no confidence.
The Assembly can remove the prime minister by voting to declare the Assembly’s inability to The Assembly can remove the prime minister by voting to declare the Assembly’s inability to
cooperate with the prime minister. cooperate with the prime minister.
The Assembly’s membership has reflected Kuwait’s political and social diversity over time, The Assembly’s membership has reflected Kuwait’s political and social diversity over time,
including Sunni and Shia Muslims, social liberals and conservatives, younger and older Kuwaitis, including Sunni and Shia Muslims, social liberals and conservatives, younger and older Kuwaitis,
urban and more rural citizens, and supporters and critics of the prevailing constitutional order. urban and more rural citizens, and supporters and critics of the prevailing constitutional order.
The country’s majority expatriate population, which remains critical to its economy and includes The country’s majority expatriate population, which remains critical to its economy and includes
individuals holding public sector positions, does not have representation. Some religious and individuals holding public sector positions, does not have representation. Some religious and
social conservatives have opposed women’s rights as candidates and members of the Assembly social conservatives have opposed women’s rights as candidates and members of the Assembly
since the state recognized those rights in 2005 (see Women’s Rights below). Opposition activism since the state recognized those rights in 2005 (see Women’s Rights below). Opposition activism
in Kuwait over the last two decades has featured critiques of alleged government corruption, in Kuwait over the last two decades has featured critiques of alleged government corruption,
advocacy for stronger legislative authority and greater checks on executive power, rejection of advocacy for stronger legislative authority and greater checks on executive power, rejection of
electoral system changes, and, in some instances, demands that the state implement more electoral system changes, and, in some instances, demands that the state implement more
religiously and socially conservative policies.16 The legacy of disputes since 2006 over Kuwait’s religiously and socially conservative policies.16 The legacy of disputes since 2006 over Kuwait’s
electoral system continues to shape Kuwaiti politics (see Chronology below). electoral system continues to shape Kuwaiti politics (see Chronology below).
2022 Election ~~and~~, Reinstatement of 2020 Assembly, and 2023 Election
Kuwait’s political environment has been strained for years with questions about leadership Kuwait’s political environment has been strained for years with questions about leadership
succession and debates over public finances, services, social issues, and alleged corruption. succession and debates over public finances, services, social issues, and alleged corruption.
Disagreements between successive governments and members of the elected National Assembly Disagreements between successive governments and members of the elected National Assembly
have created legislative deadlock and fueled political confrontation, leading to the dismissal of have created legislative deadlock and fueled political confrontation, leading to the dismissal of
several Assemblies and resignations of several cabinets (see Chronology below). Some observers several Assemblies and resignations of several cabinets (see Chronology below). Some observers
have described enduring tensions in Kuwaiti politics since 2009 as reflecting “conflict over policy have described enduring tensions in Kuwaiti politics since 2009 as reflecting “conflict over policy
~~with disputes over the rules of the game,” and, at times, “an overzealous utilization of oversight~~
~~tools, such as the repeated questioning of ministers followed by votes of no confidence.”17~~

Beaugrand, “Limits of political clientelism: elites’ struggles in Kuwait’s fragmenting politics,” International Journal of Archaeology and Social Sciences in the Arabian Peninsula, Vol. 4, 2015. Members of the Al Salem, Hamad, and Abdullah lines of the family—all named for descendants of sons of Emir Mubarak Al Sabah (ruled 1896-1915)—remain eligible to lead under the constitution. 14 For background on Kuwaiti succession, see Kristian Ulrichsen and Simon Henderson (eds.), 14 For background on Kuwaiti succession, see Kristian Ulrichsen and Simon Henderson (eds.), Kuwait: A Changing
System Under Stress, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Policy Note 69, October 2019., Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Policy Note 69, October 2019.
15 Kuwaiti male and female citizens over the age of 21 may vote, excluding citizens naturalized within 20 years of the 15 Kuwaiti male and female citizens over the age of 21 may vote, excluding citizens naturalized within 20 years of the
election date and members of the armed forces and police services. election date and members of the armed forces and police services.
16 For background on Kuwait’s electoral system and opposition politics since 2011, see Yuree Noh, “The Rise of the 16 For background on Kuwait’s electoral system and opposition politics since 2011, see Yuree Noh, “The Rise of the
Islamic Constitutional Movement in Kuwait,” Project on Middle East Political Science, February 2014; Shafeeq Islamic Constitutional Movement in Kuwait,” Project on Middle East Political Science, February 2014; Shafeeq
Ghabra, “Kuwait: At the Crossroads of Change or Political Stagnation,” Middle East Institute, May 20, 2014; Daniel L. Ghabra, “Kuwait: At the Crossroads of Change or Political Stagnation,” Middle East Institute, May 20, 2014; Daniel L.
Tavana, “The Evolution of the Kuwaiti ‘Opposition’: Electoral Politics After the Arab Spring,” Baker Institute for Tavana, “The Evolution of the Kuwaiti ‘Opposition’: Electoral Politics After the Arab Spring,” Baker Institute for
Public Policy, August 7, 2018; Courtney Freer and Andrew Leber, “The ‘tribal advantage’ in Kuwaiti politics and the Public Policy, August 7, 2018; Courtney Freer and Andrew Leber, “The ‘tribal advantage’ in Kuwaiti politics and the
future of the opposition,” Brookings Institution, April 19, 2021; and, Luai Allarakia and Hamad H. Albloshi, “The future of the opposition,” Brookings Institution, April 19, 2021; and, Luai Allarakia and Hamad H. Albloshi, “The
Politics of Permanent Deadlock in Kuwait,” Arab Gulf States Institute in WashingtonPolitics of Permanent Deadlock in Kuwait,” Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington (AGSIW), March 11, 2021. Congressional Research Service 5 Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress with disputes over the rules of the game,” and, at times, “an overzealous utilization of oversight tools, such as the repeated questioning of ministers followed by votes of no confidence.”17 ~~, March 11, 2021.~~
~~17 See Luai Allarakia and Hamad H. Albloshi, “The Politics of Permanent Deadlock in Kuwait,” Arab Gulf States~~
~~Institute in Washington, March 11, 2021.~~
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~~Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress~~

Following a December 2020 election, political stalemate persisted, and in April 2022 then-prime Following a December 2020 election, political stalemate persisted, and in April 2022 then-prime
minister Shaykh Sabah al Khaled al Hamad Al Sabah resigned. The Emir and Crown Prince minister Shaykh Sabah al Khaled al Hamad Al Sabah resigned. The Emir and Crown Prince
initially delayed naming a replacement, and, in June 2022, the Crown Prince announced the initially delayed naming a replacement, and, in June 2022, the Crown Prince announced the
Assembly would be dismissed pursuant to the constitution and called for a new election.18 In Assembly would be dismissed pursuant to the constitution and called for a new election.18 In
relaying the decision to dismiss the parliament, the Crown Prince referred to “practices and relaying the decision to dismiss the parliament, the Crown Prince referred to “practices and
behaviors that threaten national unity,”19 perhaps reflecting the ruling establishment’s behaviors that threaten national unity,”19 perhaps reflecting the ruling establishment’s
dissatisfaction with the outgoing Assembly’s pointed approach to questioning government dissatisfaction with the outgoing Assembly’s pointed approach to questioning government
officials and parliamentarians’ refusal to endorse government fiscal proposals. The Assembly had officials and parliamentarians’ refusal to endorse government fiscal proposals. The Assembly had
not enacted the 2022-2023 budget and did not approve authority for the government to borrow not enacted the 2022-2023 budget and did not approve authority for the government to borrow
domestically or internationally to finance long-debated projects. In July 2022, leaders appointed domestically or internationally to finance long-debated projects. In July 2022, leaders appointed
the Emir’s son, Shaykh Ahmed Nawaf al Ahmed Al Sabah, as prime minister to serve until the the Emir’s son, Shaykh Ahmed Nawaf al Ahmed Al Sabah, as prime minister to serve until the
planned election. planned election.
On September 29, 2022, Kuwaiti voters elected a new Assembly, including 27 new members, On September 29, 2022, Kuwaiti voters elected a new Assembly, including 27 new members,
among them various opposition figures and members of the Islamic Constitutional Movement—among them various opposition figures and members of the Islamic Constitutional Movement—
the Kuwaiti Muslim Brotherhood’s political arm. Women members, absent from the previous the Kuwaiti Muslim Brotherhood’s political arm. Women members, absent from the previous
Assembly, again won seats. Voters also returned Ahmed al Saadoun, who served as Assembly Assembly, again won seats. Voters also returned Ahmed al Saadoun, who served as Assembly
speaker from 1985 to 1999, to parliament. speaker from 1985 to 1999, to parliament.
In October, the Emir reappointed Shaykh Ahmed Al Sabah as prime minister; who made initial In October, the Emir reappointed Shaykh Ahmed Al Sabah as prime minister; who made initial
cabinet appointments. However, the cabinet promptly resigned after some National Assembly cabinet appointments. However, the cabinet promptly resigned after some National Assembly
members protested that the cabinet’s membership had not changed sufficiently. Consultations members protested that the cabinet’s membership had not changed sufficiently. Consultations
followed and a new cabinet was seated in mid-October. followed and a new cabinet was seated in mid-October.
Observers of Kuwaiti politics noted that an atmosphere of consultation and potential cooperation Observers of Kuwaiti politics noted that an atmosphere of consultation and potential cooperation
emerged after the 2022 election, with the government announcing pardons of some convicted emerged after the 2022 election, with the government announcing pardons of some convicted
government critics in an attempt to “create an atmosphere for fruitful cooperation between the government critics in an attempt to “create an atmosphere for fruitful cooperation between the
executive and legislative authorities... and remove all obstacles that would hinder development and executive and legislative authorities... and remove all obstacles that would hinder development and
achievement.”20 The cabinet presented proposals for reform across several sectors, while the achievement.”20 The cabinet presented proposals for reform across several sectors, while the
Assembly endorsed several legislative proposals to address accountability for corruption and Assembly endorsed several legislative proposals to address accountability for corruption and
launched investigations related to corruption allegations involving some defense and property launched investigations related to corruption allegations involving some defense and property
contracts.21 The cabinet’s four-year government program called for recovering stolen public funds contracts.21 The cabinet’s four-year government program called for recovering stolen public funds
and rooting out corruption, and Kuwait’s Minister of Defense pledged to cooperate with and rooting out corruption, and Kuwait’s Minister of Defense pledged to cooperate with
parliamentary investigations. parliamentary investigations.
~~However, some~~Some Assembly members proposed measures that would commit the government to Assembly members proposed measures that would commit the government to
purchasing the private debt of Kuwaiti citizens or increasing public sector salaries in response to purchasing the private debt of Kuwaiti citizens or increasing public sector salaries in response to
cost of living pressures. Other Assembly members renewed efforts to interpellate (or “grill”) cost of living pressures. Other Assembly members renewed efforts to interpellate (or “grill”)
cabinet members over alleged financial mismanagement. In January 2023, cabinet ministers cabinet members over alleged financial mismanagement. In January 2023, cabinet ministers
~~boycotted National Assembly sessions and forced the Assembly’s adjournment, arguing that the~~
~~cabinet had not had sufficient opportunity to comment on the proposed legislation that would incur~~

boycotted National 17 See Luai Allarakia and Hamad H. Albloshi, “The Politics of Permanent Deadlock in Kuwait,” Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington, March 11, 2021. 18 Kuwait’s leaders previously dissolved the National Assembly for long periods from 1976 to 1981 and from 1986 to 18 Kuwait’s leaders previously dissolved the National Assembly for long periods from 1976 to 1981 and from 1986 to
1992. Temporary dissolutions occurred in 2003, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2016 and 2020 as mandates for new 1992. Temporary dissolutions occurred in 2003, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2016 and 2020 as mandates for new
elections within 60 days. elections within 60 days.
19 19 Kuwait Times, “Kuwait Crown Prince dissolves parliament,” August 2, 2022. , “Kuwait Crown Prince dissolves parliament,” August 2, 2022.
20 20 Kuwait Times, “Cabinet announces pardon on persons for penalties restricting their freedoms,” January 17. 2023. , “Cabinet announces pardon on persons for penalties restricting their freedoms,” January 17. 2023.
21 B Izzak and Kuwait News Agency, “Govt lays out four-year plan for long-term development,” 21 B Izzak and Kuwait News Agency, “Govt lays out four-year plan for long-term development,” Kuwait Times, ,
December 13, 2022; and, Izzak, “Assembly forms panel to probe two defense deals,” December 13, 2022; and, Izzak, “Assembly forms panel to probe two defense deals,” Kuwait Times, December 14, , December 14,
2022. 2022.
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Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress

Assembly sessions and forced the Assembly’s adjournment, arguing that the cabinet had not had sufficient opportunity to comment on the proposed legislation that would incur state costs. On January 23, the prime minister submitted the cabinet’s resignation, and the crown state costs. On January 23, the prime minister submitted the cabinet’s resignation, and the crown
prince reappointed him to nominate a new cabinet in March 2023.22 prince reappointed him to nominate a new cabinet in March 2023.22
On March 19, Kuwait’s On March 19, Kuwait’s ~~constitutional court~~Constitutional Court ruled the 2022 election void and reinstated the ruled the 2022 election void and reinstated the
parliamentarians elected in December 2020. The ruling came in response to cases filed by parliamentarians elected in December 2020. The ruling came in response to cases filed by
members of the 2020 Assembly, and the court found that the government’s formal decree to members of the 2020 Assembly, and the court found that the government’s formal decree to
dismiss the 2020 Assembly shortly after Shaykh Ahmed became prime minister was invalid dismiss the 2020 Assembly shortly after Shaykh Ahmed became prime minister was invalid
because it did not allow sufficient time to determine if that Assembly membership and a new because it did not allow sufficient time to determine if that Assembly membership and a new
prime minister could work together effectively.23 Previous court decisions to overturn election prime minister could work together effectively.23 Previous court decisions to overturn election
results in 2012 and 2013 prompted demonstrations, confrontations, and boycotts. results in 2012 and 2013 prompted demonstrations, confrontations, and boycotts.

Public opposition to the court’s March 2023 decision surfaced immediately, including through small demonstrations. Some members of the 2020 and 2022 parliaments made strident statements criticizing various actions of the executive and judicial branches or calling for constitutional reform. Kuwait’s rulers reportedly pressured the head of the Supreme Judicial Council that appoints the members of the Constitutional Court to resign.24 The Council rejected his initial resignation, but he later resubmitted it.25 In April 2023, the Crown Prince announced the 2020 parliament would be dismissed, acknowledging “popular will” and saying that unspecified planned reforms would “move the state into a new phase of discipline.”26 The Crown Prince dismissed the reinstated parliament on May 1. An election is planned for June 6, 2023. Campaign rhetoric to date has featured candidates portraying the election as a referendum on alternate paths for governance in Kuwait. Chronology of Selected Political Developments, 2006-2020
January 2006 January 2006
Longtime Emir Shaykh Jaber al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah (aka Jaber III) dies on January 15, Longtime Emir Shaykh Jaber al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah (aka Jaber III) dies on January 15,
2006. His designated successor at the time, Shaykh Sa’ad al Abdul ah al Salem Al Sabah, 2006. His designated successor at the time, Shaykh Sa’ad al Abdul ah al Salem Al Sabah,
was infirm. A brief succession dispute ensues, and the National Assembly endorses a was infirm. A brief succession dispute ensues, and the National Assembly endorses a
transfer of power to then-Prime Minister Shaykh Sabah al Ahmad al Jaber Al Sabah (aka transfer of power to then-Prime Minister Shaykh Sabah al Ahmad al Jaber Al Sabah (aka
Sabah IV), the younger brother of the late Emir. Shaykh Sabah becomes Emir on January Sabah IV), the younger brother of the late Emir. Shaykh Sabah becomes Emir on January
29, 2006. 29, 2006.
June – July 2006 June – July 2006
Fol owing executive-legislative disputes over electoral system reform, the Emir dissolves Fol owing executive-legislative disputes over electoral system reform, the Emir dissolves
the National Assembly, and Kuwaitis hold a national election on June 26, 2006. Women the National Assembly, and Kuwaitis hold a national election on June 26, 2006. Women
run as candidates for the first time. After the election, the National Assembly adopts a run as candidates for the first time. After the election, the National Assembly adopts a
new electoral law reducing the number of electoral districts from 25 to 5. new electoral law reducing the number of electoral districts from 25 to 5.
May 2008 May 2008
Continuing executive-legislative differences over public sector wage reform lead the Emir Continuing executive-legislative differences over public sector wage reform lead the Emir
to dissolve the National Assembly. Kuwaitis hold a national election on May 17, 2008, the to dissolve the National Assembly. Kuwaitis hold a national election on May 17, 2008, the
first under the new 5-district electoral system. first under the new 5-district electoral system.
March – May 2009 March – May 2009
After opposition parliamentarians demand to question the then-prime minister, the prime After opposition parliamentarians demand to question the then-prime minister, the prime
minister and cabinet resign in March. The Emir dissolves the National Assembly and minister and cabinet resign in March. The Emir dissolves the National Assembly and
Kuwaitis hold a national election on May 16, 2009. Women candidates win seats for the Kuwaitis hold a national election on May 16, 2009. Women candidates win seats for the
first time. The Emir reappoints the prime minister. first time. The Emir reappoints the prime minister.
22 Fiona MacDonald, “Kuwait Cabinet Quits as MPs Push for Oil Wealth Spending,” Bloomberg, January 23, 2023. 23 B Izzak, “2022 Assembly Annulled,” Kuwait Times, March 20, 2023; and, Ahmed Hagagy, “Kuwait court reinstates previous parliament,” Reuters, March 19, 2023. 24 Kristin Smith Diwan, “New Elections and Frustration within Kuwait's Elite,” AGSIW, May 10, 2023. 25 Ibid. 26 Fiona MacDonald, “Kuwait Emir Dissolves Reinstated 2020 Parliament for Second Time,” Bloomberg, April 17, 2023. Congressional Research Service 7 Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress December 2011 – December 2011 –
Amid region-wide political turbulence often referred to as the ‘Arab Spring,’ some Amid region-wide political turbulence often referred to as the ‘Arab Spring,’ some
February 2012 February 2012
Kuwaitis challenge the government over corruption allegations, including through public Kuwaitis challenge the government over corruption allegations, including through public
demonstrations and the storming of the Assembly building in November 2011. The Emir demonstrations and the storming of the Assembly building in November 2011. The Emir
dissolves the National Assembly in December 2011, and Kuwaitis hold a national election dissolves the National Assembly in December 2011, and Kuwaitis hold a national election
on February 2, 2012. Opposition candidates win 34 of 50 seats. on February 2, 2012. Opposition candidates win 34 of 50 seats.
June – June –
In June, the Constitutional Court invalidates the Emir’s December 2011 decree dissolving In June, the Constitutional Court invalidates the Emir’s December 2011 decree dissolving
December 2012 December 2012
the previous National Assembly (the membership elected in May 2009). The decision the previous National Assembly (the membership elected in May 2009). The decision
dissolves the Assembly elected in February 2012 and reinstates the Assembly’s May 2009 dissolves the Assembly elected in February 2012 and reinstates the Assembly’s May 2009
membership. Opposition members refuse to attend Assembly sessions, preventing a membership. Opposition members refuse to attend Assembly sessions, preventing a
quorum; the Emir again dissolves the Assembly in October. The cabinet unsuccessful y quorum; the Emir again dissolves the Assembly in October. The cabinet unsuccessful y
appeals to have the 25-district electoral law reinstated, and the Emir issues a decree appeals to have the 25-district electoral law reinstated, and the Emir issues a decree
reducing the number of candidates that voters can select from four to one. Many reducing the number of candidates that voters can select from four to one. Many
opposition members reject the reduction because it has the effect of limiting the utility of opposition members reject the reduction because it has the effect of limiting the utility of
informal coordination among candidates and voters across communal differences such as informal coordination among candidates and voters across communal differences such as
location, tribe, and class. Demonstrators protest the changes, some opposition members location, tribe, and class. Demonstrators protest the changes, some opposition members
clash with security forces, and the government imposes controls on public gatherings. clash with security forces, and the government imposes controls on public gatherings.
Many opposition candidates boycott the December 1, 2012 election. Turnout declines Many opposition candidates boycott the December 1, 2012 election. Turnout declines
from nearly 60% in February 2012 to just over 40% in December 2012. from nearly 60% in February 2012 to just over 40% in December 2012.

~~22 Fiona MacDonald, “Kuwait Cabinet Quits as MPs Push for Oil Wealth Spending,” Bloomberg, January 23, 2023.~~
~~23 B Izzak, “2022 Assembly Annulled,” Kuwait Times, March 20, 2023; and, Ahmed Hagagy, “Kuwait court reinstates~~
~~previous parliament,” Reuters, March 19, 2023.~~
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~~Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress~~

June – July 2013 June – July 2013
The Constitutional Court finds the December 2012 National Assembly election invalid on The Constitutional Court finds the December 2012 National Assembly election invalid on
procedural grounds, but upholds the Emir’s October 2012 decree reducing the number of procedural grounds, but upholds the Emir’s October 2012 decree reducing the number of
votes per voter from four to one. Fewer opposition members boycott the July 27, 2013 votes per voter from four to one. Fewer opposition members boycott the July 27, 2013
election, and turnout increases to above 51%. election, and turnout increases to above 51%.
October – October –
The Emir dissolves the National Assembly and calls for an early election, as Kuwaitis The Emir dissolves the National Assembly and calls for an early election, as Kuwaitis
November 2016 November 2016
debate austerity measures proposed and adopted in response to fiscal strains resulting debate austerity measures proposed and adopted in response to fiscal strains resulting
from lower oil prices and high public sector spending. Turnout again increases, from lower oil prices and high public sector spending. Turnout again increases,
approaching 70% in the November 26, 2016 election. Voters elect one female candidate. approaching 70% in the November 26, 2016 election. Voters elect one female candidate.
September – September –
Emir Shaykh Sabah al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah dies on September 29, 2020. His half- Emir Shaykh Sabah al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah dies on September 29, 2020. His half-
December 2020 December 2020
brother Shaykh Nawwaf al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah becomes Emir. Their half-brother brother Shaykh Nawwaf al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah becomes Emir. Their half-brother
Shaykh Mishaal al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah becomes Crown Prince. An October decree Shaykh Mishaal al Ahmed al Jaber Al Sabah becomes Crown Prince. An October decree
calls for a national election as Kuwaitis face a fiscal crisis exacerbated by low global oil calls for a national election as Kuwaitis face a fiscal crisis exacerbated by low global oil
prices and the COVID-19 pandemic. Turnout exceeds 60% in the December 5, 2020 prices and the COVID-19 pandemic. Turnout exceeds 60% in the December 5, 2020
election. Voters do not elect any women candidates. election. Voters do not elect any women candidates.
(Note: In June 2022, fol owing eighteen months of political deadlock, Kuwait’s leaders (Note: In June 2022, fol owing eighteen months of political deadlock, Kuwait’s leaders
announce that the Assembly membership elected in December 2020 is to be dismissed announce that the Assembly membership elected in December 2020 is to be dismissed
and a new election is to be held. Voters select 27 new members to the Assembly in a and a new election is to be held. Voters select 27 new members to the Assembly in a
September 2022 election, but the judiciary annuls the results in March 2023 and rules that September 2022 election, but the judiciary annuls the results in March 2023 and rules that
the Assembly membership elected in December 2020 be reinstated.) the Assembly membership elected in December 2020 be reinstated.)
Sources: Compiled from international media and wire service reports, 2006-2020. Turnout data from Compiled from international media and wire service reports, 2006-2020. Turnout data from
International Foundation for Electoral Systems. International Foundation for Electoral Systems.
Human Rights
Kuwait’s government, like those of some other Gulf countries, publicly rejects foreign criticism Kuwait’s government, like those of some other Gulf countries, publicly rejects foreign criticism
of human rights practices, dismissing such critiques as interference in Kuwait’s internal affairs. of human rights practices, dismissing such critiques as interference in Kuwait’s internal affairs.
Amid foreign and domestic attention to the execution of seven individuals convicted of murder Amid foreign and domestic attention to the execution of seven individuals convicted of murder
and other offenses in November 2022, Kuwait’s Foreign Minister said, “The decisions of our and other offenses in November 2022, Kuwait’s Foreign Minister said, “The decisions of our
judicial apparatus are independent without any interference from inside or outside Kuwait.”judicial apparatus are independent without any interference from inside or outside Kuwait.”2427
The 2022 U.S. State Department report on human rights conditions in Kuwait found The 2022 U.S. State Department report on human rights conditions in Kuwait found
credible reports of: torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment by credible reports of: torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment by
government agents; arbitrary arrest; political prisoners and detainees; serious restrictions government agents; arbitrary arrest; political prisoners and detainees; serious restrictions
on free expression and media, including censorship and the existence of criminal libel laws; on free expression and media, including censorship and the existence of criminal libel laws;
27 Reuters, “Kuwait executes seven convicted of murder,” November 17, 2022. Congressional Research Service 8 Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress serious restrictions on internet freedom; substantial interference with the freedom of serious restrictions on internet freedom; substantial interference with the freedom of
peaceful assembly and freedom of association, including overly restrictive laws on the peaceful assembly and freedom of association, including overly restrictive laws on the
organization, funding, ororganization, funding, or operation of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and civil operation of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and civil
society organizations; restrictions on freedom of movement including the right to leave the society organizations; restrictions on freedom of movement including the right to leave the
country; serious government corruption; government harassment of domestic human rights country; serious government corruption; government harassment of domestic human rights
organizations; lack of investigation of and accountability for gender-based violence, organizations; lack of investigation of and accountability for gender-based violence,
including domestic or intimate partner violence; trafficking in persons; crimes involving including domestic or intimate partner violence; trafficking in persons; crimes involving
violence or threats of violence targeting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or intersex violence or threats of violence targeting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or intersex
persons; and the existence and use of laws criminalizing consensual same-sex sexual persons; and the existence and use of laws criminalizing consensual same-sex sexual
conduct between adults.conduct between adults.2528
According to the report, “Numerous activists representing stateless persons of Arab heritage – According to the report, “Numerous activists representing stateless persons of Arab heritage –
known as Bidoon—reported mistreatment at the hands of authorities while in detention.”known as Bidoon—reported mistreatment at the hands of authorities while in detention.”2629 The The
Bidoon community consists of approximately 100,000 residents of Kuwait who lack or have been Bidoon community consists of approximately 100,000 residents of Kuwait who lack or have been

~~24 Reuters, “Kuwait executes seven convicted of murder,” November 17, 2022.~~
~~25 U.S. State Department, 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kuwait, March 20, 2023.~~
~~26 Ibid. The Arabic term for such persons is bidoon jinsiya (without nationality) or, colloquially, Bidoon [(those)~~
~~without].~~
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~~Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress~~

denied registration as Kuwaiti citizens, which limits their access to employment, social benefits, denied registration as Kuwaiti citizens, which limits their access to employment, social benefits,
and political rights. Kuwait’s government historically has declined to recognize claims from and political rights. Kuwait’s government historically has declined to recognize claims from
members of the Bidoon community to citizenship based on questions about the timing, members of the Bidoon community to citizenship based on questions about the timing,
circumstances, and purpose of individuals’ migration to Kuwait. Kuwaiti authorities separately circumstances, and purpose of individuals’ migration to Kuwait. Kuwaiti authorities separately
are pursuing initiatives to reduce the expatriate population and create more public and private are pursuing initiatives to reduce the expatriate population and create more public and private
sector employment opportunities for Kuwaiti nationals. sector employment opportunities for Kuwaiti nationals.
Kuwait’s government limits freedom of speech and association. Kuwait’s government limits freedom of speech and association.2730 The state has not outlawed The state has not outlawed
political parties, but authorities effectively ban them. The government has outlawed informal political parties, but authorities effectively ban them. The government has outlawed informal
primaries among tribal groups, though one study released in 2021 found “electoral returns offer primaries among tribal groups, though one study released in 2021 found “electoral returns offer
evidence of growing tribal coordination intended to ensure representation within the National evidence of growing tribal coordination intended to ensure representation within the National
Assembly, albeit one disrupted by changes in electoral laws.”Assembly, albeit one disrupted by changes in electoral laws.”2831 The National Assembly in The National Assembly in
December 2022 moved to delay committee consideration of proposed changes to electoral laws December 2022 moved to delay committee consideration of proposed changes to electoral laws
that would provide for candidates to run on coordinated political lists pending further consultation that would provide for candidates to run on coordinated political lists pending further consultation
with the executive. with the executive.
Women’s Rights
The Emir recognized women’s political rights in 2005 after the National Assembly blocked an The Emir recognized women’s political rights in 2005 after the National Assembly blocked an
earlier initiative to do so. According to the State Department, women in Kuwait face “cultural, earlier initiative to do so. According to the State Department, women in Kuwait face “cultural,
social, and financial barriers to full political participation.”social, and financial barriers to full political participation.”2932 No women won seats in the National No women won seats in the National
Assembly election of 2020, but an appointed woman cabinet member had the right to vote on Assembly election of 2020, but an appointed woman cabinet member had the right to vote on
Assembly decisions during its tenure. Two women won Assembly seats in the September 2022 Assembly decisions during its tenure. Two women won Assembly seats in the September 2022
election. The State Department reports that Kuwaiti law “does not provide women the same legal election. The State Department reports that Kuwaiti law “does not provide women the same legal
status, rights, and inheritance provisions as men,” and found that, in 2022, “women experienced status, rights, and inheritance provisions as men,” and found that, in 2022, “women experienced
discrimination in most aspects of family law, including divorce and child custody, as well as in discrimination in most aspects of family law, including divorce and child custody, as well as in
the basic rights of citizenship, the workplace, and in certain circumstances, the value of their the basic rights of citizenship, the workplace, and in certain circumstances, the value of their
~~testimony in court.”30 Some Kuwaiti social and religious conservatives oppose changes in gender~~
~~relations and women’s participation in politics and the work force introduced since the late 1990s.~~
~~Trafficking in Persons~~
~~The 2022 State Department report on trafficking in persons found Kuwait’s visa sponsorship~~
~~system “continued to render migrant workers highly vulnerable to exploitation, specifically~~
~~trafficking.”31 Kuwait is a Tier 2 Watch List country, meaning that the State Department judges~~
~~that Kuwait “does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but is~~
~~making significant efforts to do so.”~~

27 28 U.S. State Department, 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kuwait, March 20, 2023. 29 Ibid. The Arabic term for such persons is bidoon jinsiya (without nationality) or, colloquially, Bidoon [(those) without]. 30 Ibid. According to the report, “Sentences for organizing public demonstrations amongst the Bidoon, participating in Ibid. According to the report, “Sentences for organizing public demonstrations amongst the Bidoon, participating in
unlicensed or illegal demonstrations against the country’s ruling system, spreading false news, or criticizing the Amir unlicensed or illegal demonstrations against the country’s ruling system, spreading false news, or criticizing the Amir
or other leaders on social media ranged from six months in prison to 10 years plus fines for multiple offenses. The or other leaders on social media ranged from six months in prison to 10 years plus fines for multiple offenses. The
government actively monitored social media and incarcerated bloggers and political activists for expressing opinions government actively monitored social media and incarcerated bloggers and political activists for expressing opinions
and ideas critical of the government.” and ideas critical of the government.”
2831 Courtney Freer and Andrew Leber,” Defining the ‘Tribal Advantage’ in Kuwaiti Politics,” Courtney Freer and Andrew Leber,” Defining the ‘Tribal Advantage’ in Kuwaiti Politics,” Middle East Law and
Governance, 2021, , 2021, ppp. 1-30. . 1-30.
2932 U.S. State Department, 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kuwait, March 20, 2023. U.S. State Department, 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kuwait, March 20, 2023.
~~30 Ibid.~~
~~31 U.S. State Department, 2022 Report on Trafficking in Persons: Kuwait, July 19, 2022.~~
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Congressional Research Service 9 Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress testimony in court.”33 Some Kuwaiti social and religious conservatives oppose changes in gender relations and women’s participation in politics and the work force introduced since the late 1990s. Trafficking in Persons The 2022 State Department report on trafficking in persons found Kuwait’s visa sponsorship system “continued to render migrant workers highly vulnerable to exploitation, specifically trafficking.”34 Kuwait is a Tier 2 Watch List country, meaning that the State Department judges that Kuwait “does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but is making significant efforts to do so.”
Religious Freedom and Tolerance
According to the State Department, the Kuwaiti government has official initiatives to promote According to the State Department, the Kuwaiti government has official initiatives to promote
religious tolerance and provides for limited freedom of religious practice.religious tolerance and provides for limited freedom of religious practice.3235 Shia Muslims and Shia Muslims and
religious minorities report some discrimination.religious minorities report some discrimination. The state regulates and directs the content presented by Sunni religious leaders.36 Under a National Plan to Reinforce Moderation, Under a National Plan to Reinforce Moderation,
Kuwait’s Ministry of Information and Ministry of Religious Endowments have supported Kuwait’s Ministry of Information and Ministry of Religious Endowments have supported
programs to combat religious radicalization and promote religious tolerance.programs to combat religious radicalization and promote religious tolerance.3337 In 2015, the In 2015, the
Islamic State (IS, aka ISIS/ISIL/Daesh) group claimed a major terrorist attack against a Kuwaiti Islamic State (IS, aka ISIS/ISIL/Daesh) group claimed a major terrorist attack against a Kuwaiti
Shia mosque. Kuwait is a member of the Global Coalition against Daesh and periodically Shia mosque. Kuwait is a member of the Global Coalition against Daesh and periodically
announces security actions against suspected IS-supporters in the country. announces security actions against suspected IS-supporters in the country.
Kuwait’s Foreign Policy
Kuwait’s experiences of military occupation and liberation in 1990 and 1991 shape its foreign Kuwait’s experiences of military occupation and liberation in 1990 and 1991 shape its foreign
policy, which generally promotes neutrality, balanced relations with major powers, respect for policy, which generally promotes neutrality, balanced relations with major powers, respect for
international law, and diplomatic resolution of conflicts. Kuwait is a member of the Gulf international law, and diplomatic resolution of conflicts. Kuwait is a member of the Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC) and the Arab League. As a major oil producer, Kuwait is a member Cooperation Council (GCC) and the Arab League. As a major oil producer, Kuwait is a member
of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and coordinates with OPEC of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and coordinates with OPEC
and non-OPEC oil producers by agreement under the auspices of the OPEC+ group. and non-OPEC oil producers by agreement under the auspices of the OPEC+ group.
Kuwait and Russia’s War against Ukraine
Kuwaiti officials have spoken out against military aggression and violations of sovereignty and Kuwaiti officials have spoken out against military aggression and violations of sovereignty and
territorial integrity since Russia’s February 2022 invasion of Ukraine and the ongoing Russia-territorial integrity since Russia’s February 2022 invasion of Ukraine and the ongoing Russia-
Ukraine war. Ukraine war. ~~In 2022, Kuwait~~Kuwait has voted to condemn Russian aggression and violations of Ukraine’s voted to condemn Russian aggression and violations of Ukraine’s
sovereignty and territorial integrity but joined other Arab Gulf states in abstaining on a sovereignty and territorial integrity but joined other Arab Gulf states in abstaining on a 2022 resolution resolution
to suspend Russia’s membership in the U.N. Human Rights Council.to suspend Russia’s membership in the U.N. Human Rights Council.3438 During 2022, Kuwait’s During 2022, Kuwait’s
military delivered more than 70 tons of food and medical supplies for Ukrainians, and military delivered more than 70 tons of food and medical supplies for Ukrainians, and ~~Kuwait~~
~~pledged $2 million for Ukraine programs to the United Nations and the International Committee~~
~~of the Red Cross.~~
~~Kuwait and China~~
~~Kuwait’s economic and political relationships with the People’s Republic of China (PRC, or~~
~~China) are nascent, and China is a leading importer of Kuwaiti oil. Under the banner of China’s~~
~~Belt and Road Initiative, PRC-based entities have engaged with Kuwaiti partners on Kuwait’s~~
~~planned Silk City, Five Islands, and Mubarak Al Kabeer port megaprojects, which may develop~~
~~areas of northern Kuwait into a logistics hub.35 Kuwaiti telecom providers Zain and VIVA have~~

32 33 Ibid. 34 U.S. State Department, 2022 Report on Trafficking in Persons: Kuwait, July 19, 2022. 35 U.S. State Department, U.S. State Department, ~~2021~~2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kuwait, Report on International Religious Freedom: Kuwait, ~~June 2, 2022.~~
33May 15, 2023. 36 Ibid. 37 U.S. State Department, 2020 Country Report on Terrorism: Kuwait, December 16, 2021. U.S. State Department, 2020 Country Report on Terrorism: Kuwait, December 16, 2021.
3438 For a detailed review of Kuwait’s votes on selected U.N. measures related to Ukraine, see Appendix in CRS Report For a detailed review of Kuwait’s votes on selected U.N. measures related to Ukraine, see Appendix in CRS Report
R47160, R47160, Middle East and North Africa: Implications of 2022 Russia-Ukraine War, coordinated by Christopher M. , coordinated by Christopher M.
Blanchard. Blanchard.
~~35 See CRS In Focus IF11735, China’s “One Belt, One Road” Initiative: Economic Issues, by Karen M. Sutter, Andres~~
~~B. Schwarzenberg, and Michael D. Sutherland. See also, Kuwait News Agency, “Kuwait, China sign Silk City, 5~~
~~islands MoU,” November 18, 2018; Fiona MacDonald, “'Silk City' Dream Stifled in Only Gulf State Where Voters~~
~~Matter,” Bloomberg, November 6, 2019; and, Sylvia Westall and Ahmed Hagagy, “Kuwait plan for northern mega city~~
~~faces political hurdles,” Reuters, May 1, 2019.~~
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Congressional Research Service 10 Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress Kuwait pledged $2 million for Ukraine programs to the United Nations and the International Committee of the Red Cross. Kuwait and China Kuwait’s economic and political relationships with the People’s Republic of China (PRC, or China) are nascent, and China is a leading importer of Kuwaiti oil. Under the banner of China’s Belt and Road Initiative, PRC-based entities have engaged with Kuwaiti partners on Kuwait’s planned Silk City, Five Islands, and Mubarak Al Kabeer port megaprojects, which may develop areas of northern Kuwait into a logistics hub.39 Kuwaiti telecom providers Zain and VIVA have partnered with PRC-firm Huawei in developing their fifth generation (5G) mobile partnered with PRC-firm Huawei in developing their fifth generation (5G) mobile
communications networks.communications networks.3640
Kuwait and its Neighbors
Kuwait’s preference for multilateralism and diplomatic outreach has been evident in its officials’ Kuwait’s preference for multilateralism and diplomatic outreach has been evident in its officials’
mediation efforts in the Middle East region and beyond since 2015. mediation efforts in the Middle East region and beyond since 2015.
• Gulf Cooperation Council and Yemen. Kuwaiti leaders contributed to Kuwaiti leaders contributed to
rapprochement between Qatar and its critics in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab rapprochement between Qatar and its critics in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab
Emirates from 2017 to 2021, when those counties ended their isolation of Qatar. Emirates from 2017 to 2021, when those counties ended their isolation of Qatar.
In 2016, Kuwait hosted peace talks between Yemeni government officials and In 2016, Kuwait hosted peace talks between Yemeni government officials and
representatives of the Ansar Allah (aka Houthi) movement.representatives of the Ansar Allah (aka Houthi) movement.3741 Kuwait also has Kuwait also has
sent military forces to support the Yemeni government as part of the military sent military forces to support the Yemeni government as part of the military
coalition led by neighboring Saudi Arabia. coalition led by neighboring Saudi Arabia.
• Iran. Kuwaiti officials continue to engage with counterparts from neighboring Kuwaiti officials continue to engage with counterparts from neighboring
Iran on a range of issues and generally support dialogue between Iran and its Iran on a range of issues and generally support dialogue between Iran and its
Arab neighbors. Unresolved maritime boundaries between Kuwait and Iran may Arab neighbors. Unresolved maritime boundaries between Kuwait and Iran may
have implications for the development of maritime energy resources and for have implications for the development of maritime energy resources and for
commercial and military navigation in the northern Persian Gulf. commercial and military navigation in the northern Persian Gulf.
• Israel and the Palestinians. Kuwait’s leaders have chosen not to recognize or Kuwait’s leaders have chosen not to recognize or
engage with Israel to date, though some other Arab states’ recognition of Israel engage with Israel to date, though some other Arab states’ recognition of Israel
under the Abraham Accords has prompted Kuwaiti press discussion of under the Abraham Accords has prompted Kuwaiti press discussion of
normalization with Israel. Some Kuwaitis remain vocally opposed to recognition normalization with Israel. Some Kuwaitis remain vocally opposed to recognition
of Israel, and Kuwait’s National Assembly and government have endorsed some of Israel, and Kuwait’s National Assembly and government have endorsed some
anti-normalization measures since 2020. Kuwait’s government participates in the anti-normalization measures since 2020. Kuwait’s government participates in the
Arab boycott of Israel and supported the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative. In May Arab boycott of Israel and supported the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative. In May
2022, the U.S. Department of the Treasury designated Kuwait-based Jordanian 2022, the U.S. Department of the Treasury designated Kuwait-based Jordanian
national Abdallah Yusuf Faisal Sabri for sanctions, stating that Sabri “has national Abdallah Yusuf Faisal Sabri for sanctions, stating that Sabri “has
managed Hamas’s operational expenses” since 2018.managed Hamas’s operational expenses” since 2018.3842 In January 2023, the 39 See CRS In Focus IF11735, China’s “One Belt, One Road” Initiative: Economic Issues, by Karen M. Sutter, Andres B. Schwarzenberg, and Michael D. Sutherland. See also, Kuwait News Agency, “Kuwait, China sign Silk City, 5 islands MoU,” November 18, 2018; Fiona MacDonald, “'Silk City' Dream Stifled in Only Gulf State Where Voters Matter,” Bloomberg, November 6, 2019; and, Sylvia Westall and Ahmed Hagagy, “Kuwait plan for northern mega city faces political hurdles,” Reuters, May 1, 2019. 40 ~~In January 2023, the~~
~~Kuwaiti Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded to Israeli Minister of National~~
~~Security Itamar Ben-Gvir’s visit to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem by stating~~
~~Kuwait’s “strong condemnation and denunciation of the extremist minister in the~~
~~Israeli occupation government storming the courtyards of Al Aqsa Mosque under~~
~~the protection of the Israeli occupation forces.”39~~
~~ Iraq. Iraqi Prime Minister Mohammed Shia al Sudani visited Kuwait in~~
~~November 2022 and met with Kuwaiti executive and legislative leaders. The~~
~~delineation of maritime boundaries remains a subject of Kuwaiti-Iraqi discussion~~
~~– both Kuwait and Iraq are developing large capacity ports on the Khor Abdullah~~

36 For background, see CRS In Focus IF11251, For background, see CRS In Focus IF11251, National Security Implications of Fifth Generation (5G) Mobile
Technologies, by, by ~~John R. Hoehn and~~ Kelley M. Sayler. Kelley M. Sayler.
3741 For background, see CRS Insight IN11917, For background, see CRS Insight IN11917, Political Transition in Yemen, by Carla E. Humud. , by Carla E. Humud.
3842 U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Treasury Targets Covert Hamas Investment Network and Finance Official,” May U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Treasury Targets Covert Hamas Investment Network and Finance Official,” May
24, 2022. 24, 2022.
~~39 Kuwait Ministry of Foreign Affairs statement, January 3, 2023.~~
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link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 4 ~~link to page 7~~ ~~Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress~~

~~waterway (see Figure 1).40~~ Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress Kuwaiti Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded to Israeli Minister of National Security Itamar Ben-Gvir’s visit to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem by stating Kuwait’s “strong condemnation and denunciation of the extremist minister in the Israeli occupation government storming the courtyards of Al Aqsa Mosque under the protection of the Israeli occupation forces.”43 • Iraq. Iraqi Prime Minister Mohammed Shia al Sudani visited Kuwait in November 2022 and met with Kuwaiti executive and legislative leaders. The delineation of maritime boundaries remains a subject of Kuwaiti-Iraqi discussion – both Kuwait and Iraq are developing large capacity ports on the Khor Abdullah waterway (see Figure 1).44 Kuwait and Iraq have agreed on managing oil fields Kuwait and Iraq have agreed on managing oil fields
that transcend the Iraq-Kuwaiti border.that transcend the Iraq-Kuwaiti border. • Syria. Kuwait closed its embassy in Syria in 2012 but maintained diplomatic relations with the Syrian government. Some Kuwaiti citizens raised funds for groups opposed to Syrian President Bashar Al Asad.45 Kuwait’s Foreign Ministry in April 2023 said that Kuwait would support Arab states’ consensus on Syria, and Kuwait did not officially oppose Syria’s readmission to the League of Arab States in May 2023.
Fiscal, Economic, and Energy Issues
Kuwait’s state finances remain almost completely dependent on oil revenue and investment Kuwait’s state finances remain almost completely dependent on oil revenue and investment
income, but authorities are engaged in efforts to expand non-oil revenue sources and promote income, but authorities are engaged in efforts to expand non-oil revenue sources and promote
private sector economic activity under the national private sector economic activity under the national Vision 2035/“New Kuwait” initiative. initiative.4146
Relative to other Gulf Cooperation Council members pursuing similar economic transformation Relative to other Gulf Cooperation Council members pursuing similar economic transformation
initiatives, Kuwait’s efforts appear nascent and the country’s political stalemates arguably have initiatives, Kuwait’s efforts appear nascent and the country’s political stalemates arguably have
constrained them. Increases in oil prices from 2020 lows have brought a windfall to Kuwait and constrained them. Increases in oil prices from 2020 lows have brought a windfall to Kuwait and
other oil exporters, and pushed Kuwait’s fiscal balance back into surplus in 2022 after a large other oil exporters, and pushed Kuwait’s fiscal balance back into surplus in 2022 after a large
deficit in 2020-2021 amplified by the effects of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) deficit in 2020-2021 amplified by the effects of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
pandemic. pandemic.
Kuwait’s oil reserves amount to more than 7% of global proven reserves, and at current production Kuwait’s oil reserves amount to more than 7% of global proven reserves, and at current production
rates, would last through this century. (For a map of Kuwaiti energy resources, seerates, would last through this century. (For a map of Kuwaiti energy resources, see Figure 1.)
Kuwait plans to expand its oil production capacity, but has limited spare capacity at present. Under Kuwait plans to expand its oil production capacity, but has limited spare capacity at present. Under
the October 2022 OPEC+ decision to cut production by 2 million barrels per day, Kuwait agreed to the October 2022 OPEC+ decision to cut production by 2 million barrels per day, Kuwait agreed to
reduce its production by 135,000 barrels per day. Kuwait is expanding the capacity of its Al Zour reduce its production by 135,000 barrels per day. Kuwait is expanding the capacity of its Al Zour
oil refinery from 800,000 barrels per day to 1.4 million barrels per day.oil refinery from 800,000 barrels per day to 1.4 million barrels per day.4247 Kuwait has considerable 43 Kuwait Ministry of Foreign Affairs statement, January 3, 2023. 44 ~~Kuwait has considerable~~
~~natural gas reserves, but its gas production infrastructure is less developed. Kuwait imports natural~~
~~gas for domestic consumption even as it continues to flare associated gas from oil production.~~
~~The Kuwait Investment Authority (KIA) manages $769 billion in sovereign wealth assets~~
~~between the $700 billion Future Generations Fund (FGF) and the smaller General Reserve Fund~~
~~(GRF).43 The executive may not issue debt or access FGF assets without parliamentary approval,~~
~~and has used existing authority to transfer stakes in state entities to the KIA in exchange for funds~~
~~to cover successive budget deficits.~~
~~As discussed above (“Kuwait’s History and Politics”), executive-legislative impasses over public~~
~~spending, corruption allegations, proposed reforms to public sector employment and benefits,~~
~~service costs, and financing for new economic initiatives have contributed to political discord~~
~~since 2019.44 In 2021, the state drew down GRF assets during a deficit-driven liquidity crisis, and~~
~~parliament refused to authorize borrowing.45 Higher oil prices offered some fiscal respite in 2022,~~

40 See Middle East Monitor, “Kuwait calls on Iraq to complete maritime border demarcation,” December 21, 2022; See Middle East Monitor, “Kuwait calls on Iraq to complete maritime border demarcation,” December 21, 2022; Al
Sharqiya (Iraq), “Kuwait calls on Iraq to withdraw naval vessels that exceeded its territorial waters,” December 2, (Iraq), “Kuwait calls on Iraq to withdraw naval vessels that exceeded its territorial waters,” December 2,
2022; and, Bader Al Saif, “Think Big: Why Broadening Negotiations Could Help Resolve the Kuwaiti-Iraqi Maritime 2022; and, Bader Al Saif, “Think Big: Why Broadening Negotiations Could Help Resolve the Kuwaiti-Iraqi Maritime
Dispute,” Carnegie Middle East Center, March 19, 2021. Dispute,” Carnegie Middle East Center, March 19, 2021.
4145 Sylvia Westall and Mahmoud Harby, “Insight: Kuwaitis campaign privately to arm Syrian rebels,” Reuters, June 27, 2013. 46 For 2021, the IMF estimates that oil and investment earnings accounted for $36 billion and $13.8 billion in revenue For 2021, the IMF estimates that oil and investment earnings accounted for $36 billion and $13.8 billion in revenue
respectively out of $53.8 billion in total revenue (equal to ~92.5%). See IMF Country Report No. 22/89, Kuwait 2021 respectively out of $53.8 billion in total revenue (equal to ~92.5%). See IMF Country Report No. 22/89, Kuwait 2021
Article IV Consultation Staff Report, Table 1, March 2022. For a summary of Vision 2035/New Kuwait, see World Article IV Consultation Staff Report, Table 1, March 2022. For a summary of Vision 2035/New Kuwait, see World
Bank Group, State of Kuwait Country Engagement Framework, 2021 – 2025; and information from the Kuwaiti Bank Group, State of Kuwait Country Engagement Framework, 2021 – 2025; and information from the Kuwaiti
government available at - http://www.newkuwait.gov.kw/home.aspx. government available at - http://www.newkuwait.gov.kw/home.aspx.
4247 Argus Media, “Kuwait’s al-Zour refinery starts commercial operations,” November 6, 2022. Argus Media, “Kuwait’s al-Zour refinery starts commercial operations,” November 6, 2022.
~~43 Adrienne Klasa, Andrew England, and Simeon Kerr, “Inside the Kuwait Investment Authority: ‘It’s chaos there~~
~~now,’” Financial Times, July 29, 2022.~~
~~44 Fiona MacDonald, “This $600 Billion Wealth Fund Got Caught in a Power Struggle,” Bloomberg, June 20, 2021.~~
~~45 Fiona MacDonald, “One of World’s Richest Nations Taps Wealth Fund as Cash Dries Up,” Bloomberg, February 3,~~
~~2021.~~
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~~Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress~~

Congressional Research Service 12 Kuwait: Issues for the 118th Congress natural gas reserves, but its gas production infrastructure is less developed. Kuwait imports natural gas for domestic consumption even as it continues to flare associated gas from oil production. The Kuwait Investment Authority (KIA) manages $769 billion in sovereign wealth assets between the $700 billion Future Generations Fund (FGF) and the smaller General Reserve Fund (GRF).48 The executive may not issue debt or access FGF assets without parliamentary approval, and has used existing authority to transfer stakes in state entities to the KIA in exchange for funds to cover successive budget deficits. As discussed above, executive-legislative impasses over public spending, corruption allegations, proposed reforms to public sector employment and benefits, service costs, and financing for new economic initiatives have contributed to political discord since 2019.49 In 2021, the state drew down GRF assets during a deficit-driven liquidity crisis, and parliament refused to authorize borrowing.50 Higher oil prices offered some fiscal respite in 2022, but underlying differences remain unresolved and this has limited progress toward goals set out but underlying differences remain unresolved and this has limited progress toward goals set out
under the Vision 2035/“New Kuwait” program.under the Vision 2035/“New Kuwait” program.4651 According to the U.S. government country According to the U.S. government country
commercial guide for Kuwait, authorities have responded to fiscal pressures and executive commercial guide for Kuwait, authorities have responded to fiscal pressures and executive
legislative-impasses by “postponing major infrastructure projects and putting other projects on legislative-impasses by “postponing major infrastructure projects and putting other projects on
hold until further notice.”hold until further notice.”4752
Kuwait and Climate Change
Kuwait is highly vulnerable to the projected effects of global climate change, including sea level Kuwait is highly vulnerable to the projected effects of global climate change, including sea level
rise and increased average temperatures, which already are consistently among the highest in the rise and increased average temperatures, which already are consistently among the highest in the
Gulf.Gulf.4853 Kuwait’s water resources are extremely limited, and the state burns fossil fuels to generate Kuwait’s water resources are extremely limited, and the state burns fossil fuels to generate
power for air conditioning, water desalination, and other essential services. Kuwait is a major oil power for air conditioning, water desalination, and other essential services. Kuwait is a major oil
producer and exporter, and as such, global energy transition away from fossil fuel consumption producer and exporter, and as such, global energy transition away from fossil fuel consumption
may affect Kuwait’s fiscal outlook. In November 2022, Kuwait made what its Foreign Minister may affect Kuwait’s fiscal outlook. In November 2022, Kuwait made what its Foreign Minister
described as “a solid serious pledge” to achieve carbon neutrality in oil and gas operations by described as “a solid serious pledge” to achieve carbon neutrality in oil and gas operations by
2050 and nationwide by 2060.2050 and nationwide by 2060.4954
Outlook
Kuwaiti-U.S. security cooperation appears likely to continue to anchor the bilateral relationship, Kuwaiti-U.S. security cooperation appears likely to continue to anchor the bilateral relationship,
while slow implementation of Kuwaiti plans for economic transformation may limit opportunities while slow implementation of Kuwaiti plans for economic transformation may limit opportunities
for deeper bilateral economic partnership. Congress may conduct oversight of the U.S. military’s for deeper bilateral economic partnership. Congress may conduct oversight of the U.S. military’s
presence and programs in Kuwait and may monitor Kuwaiti government decisionmaking on a presence and programs in Kuwait and may monitor Kuwaiti government decisionmaking on a
range of foreign and domestic policy topics. These may include Kuwait’s oil production, range of foreign and domestic policy topics. These may include Kuwait’s oil production,
~~Kuwait’s posture toward Russia and Ukraine, Kuwaiti engagement with China, Kuwait’s~~
~~relations with its Arab and non-Arab neighbors, developments in Kuwaiti politics, alleged support~~
~~by Kuwaiti nationals or residents for terrorist groups, and the Kuwaiti government’s protection of~~
~~human rights, including women’s rights and religious freedom.~~

~~Author Information~~

~~Christopher M. Blanchard~~

~~Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs~~

46 48 Adrienne Klasa, Andrew England, and Simeon Kerr, “Inside the Kuwait Investment Authority: ‘It’s chaos there now,’” Financial Times, July 29, 2022. 49 Fiona MacDonald, “This $600 Billion Wealth Fund Got Caught in a Power Struggle,” Bloomberg, June 20, 2021. 50 Fiona MacDonald, “One of World’s Richest Nations Taps Wealth Fund as Cash Dries Up,” Bloomberg, February 3, 2021. 51 For examples, see Fiona MacDonald, “Oil Money Can’t Buy Progress for Gulf’s Laggard State Kuwait,” Bloomberg, For examples, see Fiona MacDonald, “Oil Money Can’t Buy Progress for Gulf’s Laggard State Kuwait,” Bloomberg,
January 3, 2023. January 3, 2023.
4752 U.S. Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration, Country Commercial Guide: Kuwait, Market U.S. Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration, Country Commercial Guide: Kuwait, Market
Overview, September 13, 2022. Overview, September 13, 2022.
4853 For a detailed study see, Deen Shariff Sharp, Abrar Alshammari, and Kanwal Hameed, For a detailed study see, Deen Shariff Sharp, Abrar Alshammari, and Kanwal Hameed, The Quiet Emergency:
Experiences and Understandings of Climate Change in Kuwait, London School of Economics, October 13, 2021. , London School of Economics, October 13, 2021.
4954 Kuwaiti Foreign Minister Salem Al Sabah quoted in Reuters, “Kuwait says to become carbon neutral in oil and gas Kuwaiti Foreign Minister Salem Al Sabah quoted in Reuters, “Kuwait says to become carbon neutral in oil and gas
by 2050,” November 8, 2022. by 2050,” November 8, 2022.
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Kuwait’s posture toward Russia and Ukraine, Kuwaiti engagement with China, Kuwait’s relations with its Arab and non-Arab neighbors, developments in Kuwaiti politics, alleged support by Kuwaiti nationals or residents for terrorist groups, and the Kuwaiti government’s protection of human rights, including women’s rights and religious freedom. Author Information Christopher M. Blanchard Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs

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