The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

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The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues
January January ~~20, 2022~~22, 2024
The Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) is one of the most-tracked single accounts funded by Congress The Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) is one of the most-tracked single accounts funded by Congress
each year. Managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), it is the primary each year. Managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), it is the primary
William L. Painter
source of funding for the federal government’s domestic general disaster relief programs. These source of funding for the federal government’s domestic general disaster relief programs. These
Specialist in Homeland Specialist in Homeland
programs, authorized under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance programs, authorized under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance
Security and Security and
Act, as amended (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.), outline the federal role in supporting state, local, Act, as amended (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.), outline the federal role in supporting state, local, ~~triba l~~tribal, ,
Appropriations Appropriations
and territorial governments as they respond to and recover from a variety of incidents. They take and territorial governments as they respond to and recover from a variety of incidents. They take

effect in the event that nonfederal levels of government find their own capacity to deal with an effect in the event that nonfederal levels of government find their own capacity to deal with an
incident is overwhelmed.incident is overwhelmed.

The appropriation which feeds the DRF predates current disaster relief programs and FEMA itself. It dates back to a half- The appropriation which feeds the DRF predates current disaster relief programs and FEMA itself. It dates back to a half-
million dollar deficiency appropriation to the President in 1948 that allowed him to use these resources to provide temporary million dollar deficiency appropriation to the President in 1948 that allowed him to use these resources to provide temporary
emergency assistance to communities in the wake of unspecified potential natural disasters. Although the appropriation was emergency assistance to communities in the wake of unspecified potential natural disasters. Although the appropriation was
provided with one particular Upper Midwest flooding incident in mind, the legislative language allowed the funding to be provided with one particular Upper Midwest flooding incident in mind, the legislative language allowed the funding to be
used more broadly if the President wished to do so. This policy of providing general disaster relief was a shift from previous used more broadly if the President wished to do so. This policy of providing general disaster relief was a shift from previous
policy, which largely left emergency management, disaster relief, and disaster recovery to other levels of government and policy, which largely left emergency management, disaster relief, and disaster recovery to other levels of government and
private relief organizations. Prior to the development of the general relief program, private relief organizations. Prior to the development of the general relief program, ~~when~~ the federal government involved the federal government involved
itself in disaster response and recoveryitself in disaster response and recovery~~, it was~~ on an ad hoc, case-by-case basis. on an ad hoc, case-by-case basis. InBy the early 21st century, emergency the early 21st century, emergency
management has its own federal agency. management has its own federal agency.
The evolving federal role in disaster relief is partially illuminated by the robust funding stream provided for it The evolving federal role in disaster relief is partially illuminated by the robust funding stream provided for it through the through the
DRF. DRF. ~~At the end of FY2021, the DRF carried over a balance of almost $36 billion, after obligating more than $55 billion in a~~
~~single fiscal year~~Over the last four fiscal years, the DRF received more than $175 billion in appropriations for the DRF. Even with that historically high level of appropriations, at the end of FY2023—after five weeks of emergency measures limiting most obligations from the DRF to immediate needs—the DRF only had an unobligated balance of $2.55 billion available for the costs associated with major disasters. However, what is a fixture of federal policy today was not a given a century ago. Examining the history of . However, what is a fixture of federal policy today was not a given a century ago. Examining the history of
the DRF and the programs it supports may help Congress consider future approaches to disaster relief. the DRF and the programs it supports may help Congress consider future approaches to disaster relief.
This report introduces the DRF and provides a brief history of federal disaster relief programs. It goes on to discuss the This report introduces the DRF and provides a brief history of federal disaster relief programs. It goes on to discuss the
appropriations that fund the DRF, and provides a funding history from FY1964appropriations that fund the DRF, and provides a funding history from FY1964 to the present day, discussing factors that to the present day, discussing factors that
contributed to those changing appropriations levels. It concludes with discussion of how the budget request for the DRF has contributed to those changing appropriations levels. It concludes with discussion of how the budget request for the DRF has
been developed and structured, given the unpredictability of the annual budgetary impact of disasters, and raises some been developed and structured, given the unpredictability of the annual budgetary impact of disasters, and raises some
potential issues for congressional consideration. potential issues for congressional consideration.
~~This report is updated on an annual basis.~~

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link to page link to page 3424 link to page 27 link to page link to page 3427 link to page 28 link to page link to page 28 link to page 2831 link to page 31 link to page 44 link to page 46 link to page 44 link to page 48 link to page 44 link to page 46 link to page 44 link to page 48 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

Figure ~~5. DRF Annual and Supplemental Appropriations Within and Beyond~~
~~Discretionary Spending Limits, FY2004-FY2021 ............................................................ 30~~

~~Tables~~
~~Table 1. Disaster Declaration Activities and Projected Costs of Catastrophic Disaster~~
~~Declarations, FY2004-FY2020~~3. FY2021 Dollar Disaster Relief Appropriations, FY1964-FY2023 ................................ 20 Figure 4. Number of $1 Billion Loss Events and Catastrophic Incidents, FY2014- FY2023, with DRF Obligations, Controlling for COVID-19 Obligations ................................. 23 Figure 5. DRF Appropriations and Obligations, FY2014-FY2023 ............................................... 24 Figure 6. DRF Annual and Supplemental Appropriations Within and Beyond Discretionary Spending Limits, FY2004-FY2023 .....................................................................~~................ 24~~ 27 Tables

Table A-1. Nominal Dollar Disaster Relief Appropriations, FY1964-~~FY2021~~ FY2023 ............................. 40
Table A-2. ~~FY2021~~FY2023 Dollar Disaster Relief Appropriations, FY1964-~~FY2021~~ FY2023 .............................. 42

Appendixes
Appendix. General Disaster Relief Appropriations, FY1964-~~FY2021~~ FY2023 ......................................... 40

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 44

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The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

Introduction
The Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) is one of the most-tracked single accounts funded by Congress The Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) is one of the most-tracked single accounts funded by Congress
each year. Managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), it is the primary each year. Managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), it is the primary
source of funding for the federal government’s domestic general disaster relief programs. These source of funding for the federal government’s domestic general disaster relief programs. These
programs, authorized under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, programs, authorized under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act,
as amended (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.), outline the federal role in supporting state, local, tribal, and as amended (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.), outline the federal role in supporting state, local, tribal, and
territorial governments as they respond to and recover from a variety of incidents. They take territorial governments as they respond to and recover from a variety of incidents. They take
effect in the event that nonfederal levels of government find their capacities to deal with an effect in the event that nonfederal levels of government find their capacities to deal with an
incident overwhelmed. incident overwhelmed.
Although the concept of general disaster relief provided by the federal government predates both Although the concept of general disaster relief provided by the federal government predates both
FEMA and the Stafford Act, federal involvement in relief after natural and man-made disasters FEMA and the Stafford Act, federal involvement in relief after natural and man-made disasters
was very rare before the Civil War and was at times considered unconstitutional. Domestic was very rare before the Civil War and was at times considered unconstitutional. Domestic
disaster relief efforts became more common after the Civil War, but were not seen as a necessary disaster relief efforts became more common after the Civil War, but were not seen as a necessary
obligation of the federal government. Standing federal domestic disaster relief programs and a obligation of the federal government. Standing federal domestic disaster relief programs and a
pool of resources to fund them only emerged after the Second World War. Prior to the pool of resources to fund them only emerged after the Second World War. Prior to the
development of these programs, domestic disaster relief and recovery was a matter for private development of these programs, domestic disaster relief and recovery was a matter for private
nongovernmental organizations and state and local governments. nongovernmental organizations and state and local governments.
Once established, the federal role in domestic disaster response and recovery grew, proving Once established, the federal role in domestic disaster response and recovery grew, proving
~~political y~~ politically popular and resilient despite periodic concerns about management, execution, and popular and resilient despite periodic concerns about management, execution, and
budgetary impacts. The DRF is the budgetary impacts. The DRF is the primary source of funding for most general disaster relief programs, so source of funding for most general disaster relief programs, so
it is an indicator of the scope of those programs and the volume of taxpayer-funded aid they it is an indicator of the scope of those programs and the volume of taxpayer-funded aid they
provide. Understanding the trends in the growth of the federal government’s role in general provide. Understanding the trends in the growth of the federal government’s role in general
disaster relief and recovery, and the associated costs of that role, may be useful as Congress disaster relief and recovery, and the associated costs of that role, may be useful as Congress
considers changes in both emergency management and budgetary policies. considers changes in both emergency management and budgetary policies.
This report introduces the DRF and provides a brief history of federal disaster relief programs. It This report introduces the DRF and provides a brief history of federal disaster relief programs. It
goes on to discuss the appropriations that fund the DRF, and provides a funding history from goes on to discuss the appropriations that fund the DRF, and provides a funding history from
FY1964 to the present day, discussing factors that contributed to those changing appropriations FY1964 to the present day, discussing factors that contributed to those changing appropriations
levels. It concludes with discussion of how the budget request for the DRF has been developed levels. It concludes with discussion of how the budget request for the DRF has been developed
and structured, given the unpredictability of the annual budgetary impact of disasters, and raises and structured, given the unpredictability of the annual budgetary impact of disasters, and raises
some potential issues for congressional consideration. some potential issues for congressional consideration.
What is the Disaster Relief Fund and how is it used?
The DRF is the primary source of funding for the federal government’s general disaster relief The DRF is the primary source of funding for the federal government’s general disaster relief
program—response and recovery activities pursuant to a range of domestic emergencies and program—response and recovery activities pursuant to a range of domestic emergencies and
disasters defined in law—as opposed to specific relief and recovery initiatives that may be disasters defined in law—as opposed to specific relief and recovery initiatives that may be
enacted for individual incidents.1enacted for individual incidents.1
What determines whether an incident qualifies as an emergency or disaster?
Under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (P.L. 93-288, as Under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (P.L. 93-288, as
amended; hereinafter “the Stafford Act”), the President can declare that an emergency exists or a amended; hereinafter “the Stafford Act”), the President can declare that an emergency exists or a

1 Occasional transfers from the DRF have been used1 Occasional transfers from the DRF have been used to pay for specific Stafford Act programs (the Disaster Assistance to pay for specific Stafford Act programs (the Disaster Assistance
Direct Loan Program) or Inspector General oversight activities, and CRSDirect Loan Program) or Inspector General oversight activities, and CRS has identified two instances where has identified two instances where
appropriations provided to the DRF wereappropriations provided to the DRF were made for specific incidents (the 9/11 attack on New York City) or programs made for specific incidents (the 9/11 attack on New York City) or programs
(Other Needs Assistance for COVID-19 pandemic-related funeral expenses). (Other Needs Assistance for COVID-19 pandemic-related funeral expenses).
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The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

major disaster is occurring.2 These declarations make state, tribal, territorial, and local major disaster is occurring.2 These declarations make state, tribal, territorial, and local
governments3 eligible for a variety of assistance programs, many of which are funded from the governments3 eligible for a variety of assistance programs, many of which are funded from the
~~DRF.4 Declarations usual y~~DRF.4 Such declarations usually are made at the request of a state, tribal, or territorial government. are made at the request of a state, tribal, or territorial government.
Does all federally funded disaster relief come from the DRF?
While the DRF funds Stafford Act disaster relief and recovery programs, several other federal While the DRF funds Stafford Act disaster relief and recovery programs, several other federal
departments and agencies have significant roles in disaster preparedness, relief, recovery, and departments and agencies have significant roles in disaster preparedness, relief, recovery, and
mitigation. These include the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the mitigation. These include the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the ~~Smal~~
Small Business Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Business Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the
Department of Health and Human Services. While FEMA may fund some of their activities out of Department of Health and Human Services. While FEMA may fund some of their activities out of
the DRF through mission assignments,5 their broader disaster-related programs are funded the DRF through mission assignments,5 their broader disaster-related programs are funded
through separate appropriations.6 through separate appropriations.6
What federal government activities are funded under the DRF?
The role of the federal government has evolved over the years, as described in the sections below, but emergency response and disaster relief has historically been a federalized “bottom-up” operation, starting from the local or tribal governments affected, backed up by the state or territorial government,7 and then turning to the federal government if capacity becomes overwhelmed. The broadening of the federal role has been a factor in which activities are funded under the DRF. Currently, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) coordinates federal disaster Currently, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) coordinates federal disaster
response and recovery efforts. As such, it manages the DRF, which funds activities in five response and recovery efforts. As such, it manages the DRF, which funds activities in five
categories: categories:
1. 1. Activity pursuant to a major disaster declaration—~~This activity represents the~~
~~vast majority of spending from the DRF~~In recent years, this activity has represented more than 95% of DRF obligations. FEMA’s primary “Direct Disaster . FEMA’s primary “Direct Disaster
Programs” are the Individual Assistance (IA),Programs” are the Individual Assistance (IA),78 Public Assistance ~~Public Assistance (PA),8 and the~~
~~Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) programs.9 Federal assistance~~
~~provided by other federal agencies at FEMA’s direction through “mission~~
~~assignments” is also paid for from the DRF.10~~

2 Or has occurred—declarations are specific by time and place. 2 Or has occurred—declarations are specific by time and place.
3 As well3 As well as certain private nonprofit organizations as stipulated in the Stafford Act. as certain private nonprofit organizations as stipulated in the Stafford Act.
4 For more information, see CRS4 For more information, see CRS Report R43784, Report R43784, FEMA’s Disaster Declaration Process: A Primer, by Bruce, by Bruce R. R.
Lindsay. Lindsay.
5 Mission assignments are directives from FEMA to other federal agencies to perform specific work in response to a 5 Mission assignments are directives from FEMA to other federal agencies to perform specific work in response to a
Stafford Act emergency or disaster declaration. Stafford Act emergency or disaster declaration. ~~T he~~The federal agency can seek reimbursement from FEMA for the costs federal agency can seek reimbursement from FEMA for the costs
incurred. For information on how FEMA manages these activities, see https://www.fema.gov/federal-agencies/mission-incurred. For information on how FEMA manages these activities, see https://www.fema.gov/federal-agencies/mission-
assignments. assignments.
6 For information on the breadth of federal disaster relief, see CRS6 For information on the breadth of federal disaster relief, see CRS Report R41981, Report R41981, Congressional Primer on
Responding to and Recovering from Major Disasters ~~and Em ergencies~~ and Emergencies, by Bruce, by Bruce R. Lindsay and Elizabeth M. R. Lindsay and Elizabeth M.
Webster; and U.S.Webster; and U.S. Government Accountability Office, Federal Disaster Assistance: Federal Departments and Agencies Government Accountability Office, Federal Disaster Assistance: Federal Departments and Agencies
ObligatedObligated at Least $277.6 Billion duringat Least $277.6 Billion during ~~Fiscal~~ Fiscal Years 2005 through 2014, GAO-16-797, September 22, 2016, Years 2005 through 2014, GAO-16-797, September 22, 2016,
https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-16-797. https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-16-797.
7 7 ~~For more information, see CRS Report R46014, FEMA Individual Assistance Programs: An Overview, by Elizabeth~~
~~M. Webster~~
~~8 For more information, see CRS Report R46749,~~ ~~FEMA’s Public Assistance Program: A Primer and Considerations~~
~~for Congress, by Erica A. Lee~~
~~9 For more information, see CRS Insight IN11187,~~ ~~Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Hazard~~
~~Mitigation Assistance, by Diane P. Horn~~
~~10 Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2019 Congressional Budget Justification ,~~
~~Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, February 2018, p. FEMA -DRF-23, https://www.dhs.gov/~~
~~sites/default/files/publications/Federal%20Emergency%20Management%20Agency.pdf .~~
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~~The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues~~

Tribal governments currently may seek help directly from FEMA if their capacity to respond to an incident is overwhelmed, as a result of changes to the Stafford Act made by Section 1110 of the Sandy Recovery Improvement Act of 2013 (P.L. 113-2, Division B). 8 For more information, see CRS Report R46014, FEMA Individual Assistance Programs: An Overview, by Elizabeth M. Webster Congressional Research Service 2 link to page 19 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues (PA),9 and the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) programs.10 Federal assistance provided by other federal agencies at FEMA’s direction through “mission assignments” is often paid for from the DRF.11 2. 2. Predeclaration surge activities—These are activities undertaken prior to an —These are activities undertaken prior to an
emergency or major disaster declaration to prepare for response and recovery, emergency or major disaster declaration to prepare for response and recovery,
such as deploying response teams or prepositioning equipment. such as deploying response teams or prepositioning equipment.
3. 3. Activity pursuant to an emergency declaration—This is federal assistance to —This is federal assistance to
supplement state and local efforts in providing emergency services in any part of supplement state and local efforts in providing emergency services in any part of
the United States. the United States.
4. 4. Fire Management Assistance Grants (FMAGs) for large wildfires—This is —This is
assistance for the mitigation, management, and control of any fires on public or assistance for the mitigation, management, and control of any fires on public or
private lands that could, if unchecked, worsen and result in a major disaster private lands that could, if unchecked, worsen and result in a major disaster
declaration.declaration.11
12 5. 5. Disaster Readiness and Support (DRS) activities—These are ongoing, non-—These are ongoing, non-
incident-specific activities that incident-specific activities that ~~al ow~~allow FEMA to provide timely disaster response, FEMA to provide timely disaster response,
operate its programs responsively and effectively, and provide oversight of its operate its programs responsively and effectively, and provide oversight of its
emergency and disaster programs. emergency and disaster programs.
~~The role of the federal government has evolved over the years, as described in the sections below,~~
~~but emergency response and disaster relief has historical y been a federalized “bottom-up”~~
~~operation, starting from the local or tribal governments affected, backed up by the state or~~
~~territorial government,12 and then turning to the federal government if their capacity is~~
~~overwhelmed. The broadening of the federal role has been a factor in which activities are funded~~
~~under the DRF.~~
DRF Activities and Statutory Budget Controls
Implementation of budget controls in 2011 led to changes in the way DRF appropriations were Implementation of budget controls in 2011 led to changes in the way DRF appropriations were structured to structured to
support Stafford Act activities.support Stafford Act activities. Since FY2012, the first fiscal year of statutory limitsSince FY2012, the first fiscal year of statutory limits on discretionaryon discretionary spending spending
under the Budget Control Act (BCA), a distinction has been made between budget authority for the activities under the Budget Control Act (BCA), a distinction has been made between budget authority for the activities
pursuant to a specific majorpursuant to a specific major disaster declaration—the first of the activities listeddisaster declaration—the first of the activities listed above—and budget authority for above—and budget authority for
other activities. The formerother activities. The former ~~now often~~ now carries carries a special “disastera special “disaster relief” designation, defining it as being provided relief” designation, defining it as being provided
pursuant to a majorpursuant to a major disaster declaration under the Stafford Act, and includes language triggering an adjustment in disaster declaration under the Stafford Act, and includes language triggering an adjustment in
discretionarydiscretionary spending limitsspending limits to accommodate it. Budget authority for the other four activities,to accommodate it. Budget authority for the other four activities, covering other covering other
Stafford Act functions not linkedStafford Act functions not linked to response and recoveryto response and recovery from a specific majorfrom a specific major disaster,disaster, is derived from the is derived from the
undesignated portion, referredundesignated portion, referred to as the “base.” This remainingto as the “base.” This remaining budget authority is counted against discretionary budget authority is counted against discretionary
spending limits.spending limits.
There is no direct limit in the plain language of the appropriation that would restrict “base” funds fromThere is no direct limit in the plain language of the appropriation that would restrict “base” funds from being used being used
for major disasters.for major disasters. However,However, under concepts of appropriations law intended to prevent the executive branch under concepts of appropriations law intended to prevent the executive branch
from improperlyfrom improperly augmenting funding for specific activities beyond Congress’saugmenting funding for specific activities beyond Congress’s intention, the designation of part of intention, the designation of part of
the DRF as for the costs of majorthe DRF as for the costs of major ~~disasters~~ disasters can be interpreted as a limitationcan be interpreted as a limitation that prevents the rest of the DRF that prevents the rest of the DRF
from being used for that purpose.from being used for that purpose. During the responseDuring the response to Hurricane Harvey in 2017, funds wereto Hurricane Harvey in 2017, funds were reprogrammed reprogrammed
from the base to cover the costs of majorfrom the base to cover the costs of major disaster response,disaster response, then replenished afterwards.then replenished afterwards.
Although the statutory discretionaryAlthough the statutory discretionary budget limitsbudget limits laid out in the BCA and the disaster relieflaid out in the BCA and the disaster relief adjustment adjustment
mechanismsmechanisms expired after FY2021, a similarexpired after FY2021, a similar ~~adjustment was included in the FY2022 budget resolution to provide~~
~~flexibility within the congressional budget process, and the proposed structure of the FY2022 DRF appropriation~~
~~maintained the structure of the BCA years.~~

~~11 For more information, see CRS Report R43738, Fire Management Assistance Grants: Frequently Asked Questions,~~
~~by Bruce R. Lindsay and Katie Hoover.~~
~~12 T ribal governments currently may seek help directly from FEMA if their capacity to respond to an incident is~~
~~overwhelmed, as a result of changes to the Stafford Act made by Section 1110 of the Sandy Reco very Improvement~~
~~Act of 2013 (P.L. 113-2, Division B).~~
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~~link to page 25 link to page 26~~ adjustment continued to be employed. See “Annual Appropriations” below for more details. 9 For more information, see CRS Report R46749, FEMA’s Public Assistance Program: A Primer and Considerations for Congress, by Erica A. Lee 10 For more information, see CRS Insight IN11187, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Hazard Mitigation Assistance, by Diane P. Horn 11 Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2019 Congressional Budget Justification, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, February 2018, p. FEMA-DRF-23, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Federal%20Emergency%20Management%20Agency.pdf. 12 For more information, see CRS Report R43738, Fire Management Assistance Grants: Frequently Asked Questions, by Bruce R. Lindsay and Katie Hoover. Congressional Research Service 3 link to page 18 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

Under what statute is the Disaster Relief Fund authorized?
The DRF is not separately authorized as a distinct entity, but the activities it funds are authorized The DRF is not separately authorized as a distinct entity, but the activities it funds are authorized
under the Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.). under the Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.).
Where are appropriations for the Disaster Relief Fund provided?
Since FY1980—FEMA’s first annual appropriation—the DRF has been funded through its own Since FY1980—FEMA’s first annual appropriation—the DRF has been funded through its own
appropriation within FEMA’s budget, first under the heading “Disaster Relief,” and then appropriation within FEMA’s budget, first under the heading “Disaster Relief,” and then
“Disaster Relief Fund” starting in FY2012. FEMA’s annual appropriations were first provided “Disaster Relief Fund” starting in FY2012. FEMA’s annual appropriations were first provided
through the VA, HUD, and Independent Agencies Appropriations Act, but have been included in through the VA, HUD, and Independent Agencies Appropriations Act, but have been included in
the Department of Homeland Security Appropriations act since FY2004. Since the first “Disaster the Department of Homeland Security Appropriations act since FY2004. Since the first “Disaster
Relief” appropriation for FY1948, most of the DRF’s appropriations have been provided through Relief” appropriation for FY1948, most of the DRF’s appropriations have been provided through
supplemental appropriations. supplemental appropriations. See Figure 2 and Figure 3 See “Appropriations for General Disaster Relief” for details. for details.
Are specific Disaster Relief Fund appropriations for specific disasters or programs?
DRF appropriations have DRF appropriations have ~~historical y~~historically been provided for been provided for ~~general~~general disaster relief, rather than specific disaster relief, rather than specific
~~presidential y~~ presidentially declared disasters or emergencies. declared disasters or emergencies.
The most recent iterations of the appropriations The most recent iterations of the appropriations ~~bil~~ bill text indicate the funds are provided for the text indicate the funds are provided for the
“necessary expenses in carrying out the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency “necessary expenses in carrying out the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency
Assistance Act,” thus covering Assistance Act,” thus covering al all past and future disaster and emergency declarations.13 Previous past and future disaster and emergency declarations.13 Previous
versions of the appropriations language versions of the appropriations language (going back to 1950going back to 1950) also also ~~referenced~~reference the legislation the legislation
authorizing general disaster relief rather than targeting specific disasters. On a number of authorizing general disaster relief rather than targeting specific disasters. On a number of
occasions, specific disasters have been mentioned in the appropriation, but funding was not occasions, specific disasters have been mentioned in the appropriation, but funding was not
~~specifical y~~specifically directed to one disaster over others. directed to one disaster over others.
While many disaster supplemental appropriations While many disaster supplemental appropriations ~~bil s~~bills are associated with a specific incident or are associated with a specific incident or
incidents—such as P.L. 113-2, “the Sandy Supplemental”—the language in that act does not limit incidents—such as P.L. 113-2, “the Sandy Supplemental”—the language in that act does not limit
the use of the the use of the ~~disaster relief~~DRF appropriation to that specific incident.14 appropriation to that specific incident.14
CRS has identified two exceptions to this practice: CRS has identified two exceptions to this practice:
• P.L. 107-117 and P.L. 107-206 provided a total of $8.04 P.L. 107-117 and P.L. 107-206 provided a total of $8.04 ~~bil ion~~billion in resources to the in resources to the
Disaster Relief Fund, Disaster Relief Fund, ~~specifical y~~specifically for expenses “to respond to the September 11, for expenses “to respond to the September 11,
2001, terrorist attacks on the United States.”15 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States.”15
• P.L. 116-260, Division M (the Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental P.L. 116-260, Division M (the Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental
Appropriations Act, 2021), included a $2 Appropriations Act, 2021), included a $2 ~~bil ion~~ billion supplemental appropriation for supplemental appropriation for
the DRF and the DRF and ~~specifical y~~specifically provided for COVID-19 disaster-related funeral provided for COVID-19 disaster-related funeral
expenses. expenses.

~~13 P.L. 115-141, Div. F.~~
~~14 See,~~ In addition, transfers are made from the DRF from time to time to fund the disaster relief oversight efforts of the DHS Office of Inspector General as well as the Community Disaster Loan program through the Disaster Assistance Direct Loan Program. 13 P.L. 115-141, Div. F. 14 See, for this specific example, 127 Stat. 28. for this specific example, 127 Stat. 28.
15 $4,356,871,000 in P.L. 107-117 (115 Stat. 2338) from a prior appropriation, as well as $1,030,000,000 transferred 15 $4,356,871,000 in P.L. 107-117 (115 Stat. 2338) from a prior appropriation, as well as $1,030,000,000 transferred
from the from the ~~T SA~~TSA (116 Stat. 879) and $2,650,700,000 in a supplemental appropriation (116 Stat. 894) in (116 Stat. 879) and $2,650,700,000 in a supplemental appropriation (116 Stat. 894) in P.L. 107-206. P.L. 107-206.
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How is the DRF being spent today?
Since the enactment of P.L. 112-74, Congress has received regular reporting on spending from the Since the enactment of P.L. 112-74, Congress has received regular reporting on spending from the
DRF. Monthly reports on such spending since March 2013 are available on FEMA’s website.16 DRF. Monthly reports on such spending since March 2013 are available on FEMA’s website.16
Currently, the reports include information on DRF balances, actual and projected obligations from Currently, the reports include information on DRF balances, actual and projected obligations from
the DRF for large-scale disasters broken down by disaster declaration, and obligations and the DRF for large-scale disasters broken down by disaster declaration, and obligations and
expenditures aggregated by incident. These reports also include estimates of the DRF balance expenditures aggregated by incident. These reports also include estimates of the DRF balance
~~through the end of the current fiscal year.~~
~~CRS analysis of FEMA-reported data indicates that from FY2010 to FY201917~~
~~ 55% of DRF obligations were for Public Assistance programs under the Stafford~~
~~Act;~~
~~ 15% was for Individual Assistance, including disaster housing;~~
~~ 7% went to Mitigation;~~
~~ 7% went to Operations; and~~
~~ 16% went to Administration.~~
~~How is the DRF being used to respond to COVID-19?~~
~~Major disaster declarations under the Stafford Act for the COVID-19 pandemic were the first~~
~~issued for an infectious disease incident, and led to the first uses of the Stafford Act’s major~~
~~disaster authorities to use DRF resources in response to and recovery from such an incident.18~~
~~On March 13, 2020, President Donald J. Trump made a series of emergency declarations under~~
~~Section 501(b) of the Stafford Act in response to the nationwide spread of a novel coronavirus~~
~~disease (COVID-19).19 The declarations authorized assistance to al U.S. states, territories, tribes,~~
~~and the District of Columbia. At the time he announced the declarations, he invited the recipients~~
~~of those declarations to request major disaster declarations.20 Fifty states, five territories, the~~
~~District of Columbia, and three federal y-recognized tribes have al requested and received major~~
~~disaster declarations for COVID-19 response.21~~

~~16 T hese monthly reports are available at https://www.fema.gov/about/reports-and-data/disaster-relief-fund-monthly-~~
~~reports.~~
~~17 Due to the novel demands placed on the DRF by the COVID-19 pandemic response in FY2020, including~~
~~historically large obligations in atypical distributions, data from FY2020 going forward are not included in this~~
~~analysis.~~
~~18 Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, four emergency declarations were made under the Stafford Act for public health~~
~~incidents. For information on these incidents, see CRS Insight IN11229,~~ ~~Stafford Act Assistance for Public Health~~
~~Incidents. T he difference in scale between these incidents and the COVID-19 declaration is several orders of~~
~~magnitude: for example, under one of these emergency declarations, New Jersey received a little over $2 million for~~
~~West Nile from the DRF in 2000 (according to the Emergency Management Section of the New Jersey State Police),~~
~~and $2,931 million under the COVID-19 disaster declaration from the DRF as of the end of FY2021 (according to~~
~~FEMA’s October 2021 monthly report on the DRF).~~
~~19 While the president made a single announcement, the declarations themselves apply to each individual state,~~
~~territory, or tribe.~~
~~20 https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/letter-president-donald-j-trump-emergency-determination-stafford-~~
~~act/~~
~~21 https://www.fema.gov/disasters/coronavirus/disaster-declarations, as retrieved January 18, 2022. FEMA also notes~~
~~that 32 tribes are working with FEMA under the emergency declarations.~~
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~~The Joseph R. Biden Administration has taken a different approach in exercising FEMA’s~~
~~authorities. Under the Biden Administration, FEMA has provided extensive direct federal~~
~~assistance to states, particularly in assisting with vaccine administration, and authorized the~~
~~Public Assistance program to reimburse the costs of safe operations and reopening of eligible~~
~~facilities22—unlike the Trump Administration, which more narrowly applied Public Assistance to~~
~~costs directly associated with COVID-19 pandemic response. President Biden also increased the~~
~~federal share of costs covered to 100%.23~~
Figure 1 shows the breakdown of COVID-19 spending by Stafford Act program by fiscal
~~quarter—the first major disaster declarations were made in the final weeks of the second quarter~~
~~of FY2020, so the amount shown in the figure represents less than a month’s obligations. The~~
~~fourth quarter of FY2020 included the six weeks of spending for the Trump Administration’s Lost~~
~~Wages Assistance initiative, funded through the Individual Assistance program. The second~~
~~quarter of FY2021 starts with January 2021, which includes the transition to the Biden~~
~~Administration, so that quarter and those thereafter reflect the Biden Administration’s approach to~~
~~using DRF resources to fund Stafford Act COVID-19 pandemic response and recovery.~~

~~22 Executive Office of the President, “ Memorandum to Extend Federal Support to Governors’ Use of the National~~
~~Guard to Respond to COVID-⁠19 and to Increase Reimbursement and Other Assistance Provided to States,” January 21,~~
~~2021, 86 Federal Register 7481-7482.~~
~~23 Federal Emergency Management Agency, “Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic: Safe Opening and Operation Work~~
~~Eligible for Public Assistance (Interim),” FEMA Policy 104-21-0003, Version 2, September 8, 2021, p. 1. Available at~~
~~https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_covid-19-pandemic-safe-opening-operation-work-eligible-~~
~~public-assistance-interim-policy_2_09082021.pdf.~~
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~~Figure 1. COVID-19 DRF Obligations by Program and Fiscal Quarter~~

Source: CRS analysis of data compiled from FEMA DRF monthly reports, Appendix C.
Notes: Amounts shown do not reflect recovery of funding made under that category after the end of the fiscal
~~year in which funds were initial y obligated. Both FY2020 Quarter 3 and FY2021 Quarter 2 show net negative~~
~~amounts for Administrative costs and Individual Assistance, respectively, due to recovery of funding obligated~~
~~under that category within the fiscal year.~~
~~As of the end of the first quarter of FY2022, FEMA associated $89.296 bil ion in DRF spending~~
~~with the COVID-19 response.24 Of this amount, $40.969 bil ion was provided through the~~
~~Individual Assistance program, the vast majority of which was for the lost wages initiative;~~
~~$39.366 bil ion was provided for Public Assistance programs, which reimburses eligible public~~
~~and nonprofit entities for the costs of major disaster response and recovery; and another $8.067~~
~~bil ion supported operational costs, including mission assignments.25~~

~~24 Ibid., p. 13.~~
~~25 Federal Emergency Management Agency, January 2022 Disaster Relief Fund Report, p. 14,~~
~~https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_jan -2022-disaster-relief-fund-report.pdf.~~
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through the end of the current fiscal year. Analysis of some of the data across these monthly DRF reports can show trends in how the DRF has been used for disasters declared since August 1, 2017. 16 These monthly reports are available at https://www.fema.gov/about/reports-and-data/disaster-relief-fund-monthly-reports. Congressional Research Service 5 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues Figure 1. DRF Obligations for Major Disasters, by Program (from Disaster Relief Fund monthly report data, as of January 10, 2024) Source: CRS analysis of FEMA’s Disaster Relief Fund: Monthly Report data from March 2020, October 2023, January 2024. Notes: Pre-COVID data does not reflect deobligations made after February 29, 2020. FY2023 data does not reflect deobligations made after September 30, 2023, or adjustments made by FEMA in fiscal year closeout. Historical Context for Federal Disaster Relief
Funding
Disaster relief has not always been a part of the mission of the federal government. For nearly 80 Disaster relief has not always been a part of the mission of the federal government. For nearly 80
years, federal domestic disaster relief was minimal, extremely narrow in scope, and largely did years, federal domestic disaster relief was minimal, extremely narrow in scope, and largely did
Congressional Research Service 6 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues not address humanitarian needs, leaving those to private organizations and local levels of not address humanitarian needs, leaving those to private organizations and local levels of
government. Even as the country emerged from the Civil War with more of a national identity and government. Even as the country emerged from the Civil War with more of a national identity and
a sense that the federal government could act to provide relief in some circumstances, disaster aid a sense that the federal government could act to provide relief in some circumstances, disaster aid
remained limited, responding only after the fact on a case-by-case basis. Only after World War II remained limited, responding only after the fact on a case-by-case basis. Only after World War II
did the concept emerge of a federal role in responding to disasters. This new role was more did the concept emerge of a federal role in responding to disasters. This new role was more
broadly defined, led by the President and funded in advance, as opposed to case-by-case broadly defined, led by the President and funded in advance, as opposed to case-by-case
responses to needs in the wake of the most severe events led by ad hoc congressional action. Over responses to needs in the wake of the most severe events led by ad hoc congressional action. Over
the ensuing years, the general disaster relief program and its funding grew, expanding concepts of the ensuing years, the general disaster relief program and its funding grew, expanding concepts of
assistance once reserved for catastrophic events to address more common natural disasters. In the assistance once reserved for catastrophic events to address more common natural disasters. In the
1970s, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was established, institutionalizing 1970s, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was established, institutionalizing
the federal role in disaster response, recovery, mitigation, and preparedness—the role we the federal role in disaster response, recovery, mitigation, and preparedness—the role we
recognize today. At the heart of that role is the set of relief programs that have evolved since the recognize today. At the heart of that role is the set of relief programs that have evolved since the
1940s, known collectively as the Stafford Act, which are funded by the Disaster Relief Fund 1940s, known collectively as the Stafford Act, which are funded by the Disaster Relief Fund
appropriation. appropriation.
1789-1947: Case by Case, After the Fact
The Constitution provides littleThe Constitution provides little specific direction on the question of how the United States should specific direction on the question of how the United States should
confront disasters. While confront disasters. While ~~al usions~~allusions to the intent of the Constitution speak to promoting domestic to the intent of the Constitution speak to promoting domestic
tranquility and the general welfare, limitations on the federal role in state affairs combined with tranquility and the general welfare, limitations on the federal role in state affairs combined with
the balance of national priorities and federal resources constrained federal involvement in disaster the balance of national priorities and federal resources constrained federal involvement in disaster
relief and recovery in the early years of the country. relief and recovery in the early years of the country.
The federal government did provide disaster relief on some occasions. Some observers note at The federal government did provide disaster relief on some occasions. Some observers note at
least 128 instances from 1803 to 1947 when natural disasters prompted the federal government to least 128 instances from 1803 to 1947 when natural disasters prompted the federal government to
provide some type of ad hoc relief on a case-by-case basis for specific incidents after they provide some type of ad hoc relief on a case-by-case basis for specific incidents after they
occurred.occurred.2617 Prior to the Civil War, these measures largely consisted of refunds of duties paid on Prior to the Civil War, these measures largely consisted of refunds of duties paid on
goods destroyed in customs house fires, goods destroyed in customs house fires, ~~al owances~~allowances for delayed payments of bonds, and land for delayed payments of bonds, and land
grants for resettlement.grants for resettlement.27
18 Proponents of disaster relief argued that the “general welfare” clause of the Constitution Proponents of disaster relief argued that the “general welfare” clause of the Constitution
warranted the federal role in disaster relief.warranted the federal role in disaster relief.2819 Opponents did not find this justification convincing, Opponents did not find this justification convincing,
as it was nonspecific,as it was nonspecific,2920 and argued that certain natural disasters (such as flooding of the and argued that certain natural disasters (such as flooding of the
Mississippi River) were foreseeable, and therefore state and local governments had an obligation Mississippi River) were foreseeable, and therefore state and local governments had an obligation

~~26 Moss, David A., “Courting Disaster: T he T ransformation~~to be prepared.21 They also contended that it was improper for the government to provide relief for specific places with money it collected for the common good;22 and that the federal government could not afford to provide universal relief. As the U.S. economy became more 17 Moss, David A., “Courting Disaster: The Transformation of Federal Disaster Policy Since 1803.” In of Federal Disaster Policy Since 1803.” In The Financing
of Catastrophe Risk, edited by Kenneth A. Froot, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999, p. 312., edited by Kenneth A. Froot, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999, p. 312.
27 18 A survey of customs duty relief and delayed A survey of customs duty relief and delayed payments on bonds can be found in the remarks of Rep. C. Johnson, payments on bonds can be found in the remarks of Rep. C. Johnson,
“New York Fire,” “New York Fire,” Congressional Globe 24, p. 136 (February 17, 1836). 24, p. 136 (February 17, 1836).
2819 Rep. Carleton Hunt, “Relief of Sufferers Rep. Carleton Hunt, “Relief of Sufferers by Flood,” House debate, by Flood,” House debate, Congressional Record, vol. 15, part 3 (March 26, , vol. 15, part 3 (March 26,
1884), p. 2295. 1884), p. 2295.
2920 Rep. Charles Napoleon Brumm, “Relief of Sufferers Rep. Charles Napoleon Brumm, “Relief of Sufferers by Flood,” House debate, by Flood,” House debate, Congressional Record, vol. 15, part 3 , vol. 15, part 3
(March 26, 1884), p. 2296. (March 26, 1884), p. 2296.
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~~to be prepared.30 They also contended that it was improper for the government to provide relief~~
~~for specific places with money it collected for the common good;31 and that the federal~~
~~government could not afford to provide universal relief. As the U.S. economy became more~~
21 Rep. William Whitney Rice, “Relief of Sufferers by Flood,” House debate, Congressional Record, vol. 15, part 3 (March 26, 1884), p. 2293. 22 Rep. Lewis Beach, “Relief of Sufferers by Flood,” House debate, Congressional Record, vol. 15, part 3 (March 26, 1884), p. 2295. Congressional Research Service 7 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues robust, federal revenues grew, weakening the position of those in Congress who opposed a federal robust, federal revenues grew, weakening the position of those in Congress who opposed a federal
role in disaster assistance on the basis of the lack of such resources. role in disaster assistance on the basis of the lack of such resources.
Congressional Congressional ~~wil ingness~~willingness to provide assistance was not always sufficient to ensure its provision, to provide assistance was not always sufficient to ensure its provision,
however. In 1887, President Grover Cleveland vetoed a however. In 1887, President Grover Cleveland vetoed a ~~bil~~ bill that would have provided $10,000 to that would have provided $10,000 to
pay for seeds for farmers in Texas after a drought, arguing as follows: pay for seeds for farmers in Texas after a drought, arguing as follows:
I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution; and I do not believe I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution; and I do not believe
that the power and duty of the General Government ought to be extended to the relief of that the power and duty of the General Government ought to be extended to the relief of
individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit.
AA ~~prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should,~~ prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I I
think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that
though the people support the Government, the Government should not support the people. though the people support the Government, the Government should not support the people.
The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their
fellow-citizensfellow-citizens ~~in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated.~~
~~Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the~~
~~Government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents~~ in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the Government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the the
indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens the
bonds of a common brotherhood.bonds of a common brotherhood.3223
Much of the disaster relief provided in this period was nongovernmental in nature. In 1881, Clara Much of the disaster relief provided in this period was nongovernmental in nature. In 1881, Clara
Barton founded the American National Red Cross (ANRC),Barton founded the American National Red Cross (ANRC),3324 which provided disaster aid from which provided disaster aid from
funds it raised from private sources. One year before a catastrophic earthquake struck San funds it raised from private sources. One year before a catastrophic earthquake struck San
Francisco in 1906, the incorporating legislation for the ANRC was revised to task the Francisco in 1906, the incorporating legislation for the ANRC was revised to task the
organization with “mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other organization with “mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other
great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same.”great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same.”3425 In the In the
days after the earthquake, President Theodore Roosevelt issued an appeal for assistance from the days after the earthquake, President Theodore Roosevelt issued an appeal for assistance from the
public for the ANRC’s relief efforts: public for the ANRC’s relief efforts:
In the face of so horrible and appalling a national calamity as that which has befallen San In the face of so horrible and appalling a national calamity as that which has befallen San
Francisco, the outpouring of the nation’s aid should, as far as possible, be entrusted to the Francisco, the outpouring of the nation’s aid should, as far as possible, be entrusted to the
American Red Cross, the national organization best fitted to undertake such relief work.... American Red Cross, the national organization best fitted to undertake such relief work....
In order that this work may be well systematized and in order that the contributions, which In order that this work may be well systematized and in order that the contributions, which
I am sure will flow in with lavish generosity, may be wisely administered, I appeal to the I am sure will flow in with lavish generosity, may be wisely administered, I appeal to the
peoplepeople ~~of the United States, to all cities, chambers of commerce, boards of trade,~~ of the United States, to all cities, chambers of commerce, boards of trade, relief relief
committees and individuals to express their sympathy and render their aid by contributions committees and individuals to express their sympathy and render their aid by contributions
to the American Red Cross.to the American Red Cross.35

~~30 Rep. William Whitney Rice, “Relief of Sufferers by Flood,” House debate, Congressional Record, vol. 15, part 3~~
~~(March 26, 1884), p. 2293.~~
~~31 Rep. Lewis Beach, “Relief of Sufferers by Flood,” House debate, Congressional Record, vol. 15, part 3 (March 26,~~
~~1884), p. 2295.~~
~~32 House bill 10203, 50th Congress. Richardson, James~~ 26 While the federal government provided ad hoc response and recovery assistance to San Francisco, the majority of the aid was provided through private means. Congress appropriated $2.5 million in the days after the quake to the Secretary of War to provide “subsistence and quartermaster’s supplies ... to such destitute persons as have been rendered homeless or are in needy circumstances as a result of the earthquake and commissary stores to such injured and destitute 23 House bill 10203, 50th Congress. Richardson, James D. (compiler), D. (compiler), Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the
Presidents (1897), Volume 11, page 5142. (1897), Volume 11, page 5142.
~~33 T his~~ 24 This is the formal legal name of the organization commonly referred to as the American Red Cross. is the formal legal name of the organization commonly referred to as the American Red Cross.
34 25 P.L. 58-4, 23 Stat. 600. P.L. 58-4, 23 Stat. 600.
3526 Red Red Cross Flyer, Library of CongressCross Flyer, Library of Congress Manuscript Division, madeManuscript Division, made available through the available through the ~~T heodore~~Theodore Roosevelt Digital Roosevelt Digital
Library (www.theordorerooseveltcenter.org) at http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record?Library (www.theordorerooseveltcenter.org) at http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record?
libID=o529079. libID=o529079.
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98 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues persons as may require assistance,”27 but nonfederal cash contributions to the ANRC and the local relief organizations exceeded $9 million in the two years following the disaster.28

~~The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues~~

~~While the federal government provided ad hoc response and recovery assistance to San Francisco,~~
~~the majority of the aid was provided through private means. Congress appropriated $2.5 mil ion~~
~~in the days after the quake to the Secretary of War to provide “subsistence and quartermaster’s~~
~~supplies ... to such destitute persons as have been rendered homeless or are in needy~~
~~circumstances as a result of the earthquake and commissary stores to such injured and destitute~~
~~persons as may require assistance,”36 but nonfederal cash contributions to the ANRC and the local~~
~~relief organizations exceeded $9 mil ion in the two years following the disaster.37~~
The ANRC served as the major institutional source of relief for disaster victims in the United The ANRC served as the major institutional source of relief for disaster victims in the United
States, serving communities and individuals in cooperation with state and local governments with States, serving communities and individuals in cooperation with state and local governments with
relatively littlerelatively little direct contribution from the federal government for many years. The Red Cross direct contribution from the federal government for many years. The Red Cross
continued to play a leading role in nongovernmental disaster relief as the federal government’s continued to play a leading role in nongovernmental disaster relief as the federal government’s
role in disaster aid evolved and expanded through the 20th century and into the 21st. role in disaster aid evolved and expanded through the 20th century and into the 21st.
1947-1950: General Disaster Relief Funding from the Federal
Government Begins
After the Second World War, the federal government started becoming more involved in disaster After the Second World War, the federal government started becoming more involved in disaster
relief beyond specific incident-by-incident relief efforts. In 1947, P.L. 80-233 authorized the relief beyond specific incident-by-incident relief efforts. In 1947, P.L. 80-233 authorized the
federal government to provide surplus property to state and local governments for disaster relief federal government to provide surplus property to state and local governments for disaster relief
under the Disaster Surplus Property Program. Less than eight months later, the Administrator of under the Disaster Surplus Property Program. Less than eight months later, the Administrator of
the Federal Works Agency noted in a letter to President Harry S. Truman that the program would the Federal Works Agency noted in a letter to President Harry S. Truman that the program would
not provide adequate relief to communities over the longer term.not provide adequate relief to communities over the longer term.3829
The next year, Congress made its first appropriation for general disaster relief. The Second The next year, Congress made its first appropriation for general disaster relief. The Second
Deficiency Appropriation Act, 1948,Deficiency Appropriation Act, 1948,3930 which was enacted on June 25, 1948, provided funding which was enacted on June 25, 1948, provided funding
directly to the President as follows: directly to the President as follows:

36 27 Public Resolution No. 16, April 19, 1906, 34 Stat. 827. Public Resolution No. 16, April 19, 1906, 34 Stat. 827.
3728 O’Connor, Charles James, “San Francisco Relief Survey: O’Connor, Charles James, “San Francisco Relief Survey: ~~T he~~ The organization and methods of relief used organization and methods of relief used after the after the
earthquake and fire of April 18, 1906,” earthquake and fire of April 18, 1906,” ~~T he Russell Sage~~ The Russell Sage Foundation, 1913, p. 33.Foundation, 1913, p. 33.
38 29 U.S. U.S. President (President (~~T ruman~~Truman), “Letter to the Administrator, Federal Works Agency, on the Disaster Surplus), “Letter to the Administrator, Federal Works Agency, on the Disaster Surplus Property Property
Program,” Program,” Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman, 1948 (Washington: GPO, 1964), p. (Washington: GPO, 1964), p.
46. 46.
3930 P.L. 80-785. P.L. 80-785.
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DISASTER RELIEF DISASTER RELIEF
Disaster Disaster Relief: ToRelief: To ~~enable the~~ enable the President,President, through such agency orthrough such agency or agencies asagencies as he he may may
designate, and in such manner as he shall determine, to supplement the efforts and available designate, and in such manner as he shall determine, to supplement the efforts and available
resources of State andresources of State and ~~local governments or other agencies, whenever he finds that~~ local governments or other agencies, whenever he finds that any any
flood, fire, hurricane, earthquake, or other catastrophe in any part of the United States is of flood, fire, hurricane, earthquake, or other catastrophe in any part of the United States is of
sufficient severity andsufficient severity and ~~magnitude~~ magnitude to warrant emergencyto warrant emergency assistance by the Federal assistance by the Federal
Government in alleviating hardship, or suffering caused thereby, and if the governor of any Government in alleviating hardship, or suffering caused thereby, and if the governor of any
State in which such catastrophe State in which such catastrophe ~~s hall~~shall occur shall certify that such assistance is required, occur shall certify that such assistance is required,
$500,000,$500,000, to remain available until June 30, 1949, and to be expended without regard to to remain available until June 30, 1949, and to be expended without regard to
suchsuch ~~provisions regulating the expenditure of Government funds or the employment~~ provisions regulating the expenditure of Government funds or the employment of of
persons in the Government service as he shall specify: Provided, That no expenditures persons in the Government service as he shall specify: Provided, That no expenditures ~~shal~~
shall be made with respect to any such catastrophe in any State until the governor of such State be made with respect to any such catastrophe in any State until the governor of such State
shall have entered into an agreement with such agency of the Government as the President shall have entered into an agreement with such agency of the Government as the President
may designate giving assurance of expenditure of a reasonable amount of the funds of the may designate giving assurance of expenditure of a reasonable amount of the funds of the
government of such State, local governments therein, or other agencies, for the same or government of such State, local governments therein, or other agencies, for the same or
similarsimilar purposes with respect to such catastrophe: Provided further, That no part of this purposes with respect to such catastrophe: Provided further, That no part of this
appropriation shall be expended for departmental personal services: Provided further, That appropriation shall be expended for departmental personal services: Provided further, That
no part of thisno part of this ~~appropriation shall be expended for permanent construction:~~ appropriation shall be expended for permanent construction: Provided Provided
further, That within any affected area Federal agencies are authorized to participate in any further, That within any affected area Federal agencies are authorized to participate in any
such emergency assistance.such emergency assistance.4031
Although this legislation came with broad latitude for the President in expending these funds, this Although this legislation came with broad latitude for the President in expending these funds, this
appropriation contained several appropriation contained several ~~hal marks~~hallmarks that continue in today’s disaster relief structure: that continue in today’s disaster relief structure:
• the President makes the determination that a disaster has occurred, and that the President makes the determination that a disaster has occurred, and that
federal aid is required; federal aid is required;
• the state has a role in certifying the need and committing state resources to be the state has a role in certifying the need and committing state resources to be
eligible eligible for federal support; for federal support;
• aid is to “supplement the efforts and available resources of State and local aid is to “supplement the efforts and available resources of State and local
governments or other agencies,” rather than to fund the entire relief effort; and governments or other agencies,” rather than to fund the entire relief effort; and
• the President may direct federal agencies to participate in emergency assistance. the President may direct federal agencies to participate in emergency assistance.
The conditions laid out in this appropriation were echoed in the next two appropriations, provided The conditions laid out in this appropriation were echoed in the next two appropriations, provided
in 1949, which totaled $1 in 1949, which totaled $1 ~~mil ion.41~~million.32
1950-1966: The Disaster Relief Act of 1950—General Relief and
Specific Relief
The Disaster Relief Act of 1950 formalized the structure outlined in the initialThe Disaster Relief Act of 1950 formalized the structure outlined in the initial appropriations appropriations
legislation, and indicated for the first time that legislation, and indicated for the first time that
it is the intent of Congress to provide an orderly and continuing means of assistance by the it is the intent of Congress to provide an orderly and continuing means of assistance by the
Federal Government to States and local governments in carrying out their responsibilities Federal Government to States and local governments in carrying out their responsibilities
to alleviate suffering and damage resulting from major disasters, to repair essential public to alleviate suffering and damage resulting from major disasters, to repair essential public

~~40 T he~~ 31 The term “Disaster Relief Fund” as term “Disaster Relief Fund” as a title for the Disaster Relief appropriation seemed to have evolved informally. a title for the Disaster Relief appropriation seemed to have evolved informally.
~~T he~~The Disaster Relief appropriation was initially provided under a heading of “ Disaster Relief appropriation was initially provided under a heading of “Funds ~~Funds~~ Appropriated to the President” (this Appropriated to the President” (this
practice wouldpractice would continue until the mid-1980s) and wascontinue until the mid-1980s) and was ~~described~~ described in its early years frequently as “in its early years frequently as “ the President’s disaster the President’s disaster
relief fund.” See,relief fund.” See, for example, Rep. Angell, “Second Deficiency Appropriation Bill, 1948,” House debate, for example, Rep. Angell, “Second Deficiency Appropriation Bill, 1948,” House debate,
Congressional Record, vol. 94, part 7 (June 16, 1948), p. 8467. , vol. 94, part 7 (June 16, 1948), p. 8467.
4132 P.L. 81-3, P.L. 81-5; 63 Stat. 5. P.L. 81-3, P.L. 81-5; 63 Stat. 5.
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facilities in major disasters, facilities in major disasters, ~~and~~ and to fosterto foster the developmentthe development of suchof such ~~State~~ State and local and local
organizations and plans to cope with major disasters as may be necessary.organizations and plans to cope with major disasters as may be necessary.4233
Section 8 of the act limited Section 8 of the act limited the authorized disaster relief funding to $5 the authorized disaster relief funding to $5 ~~mil ion~~ million in total.in total.4334 This This
restriction did not effectively constrain funding, however. The first supplemental appropriation restriction did not effectively constrain funding, however. The first supplemental appropriation
for general disaster relief authorized under the Disaster Relief Act for 1950 provided $25 for general disaster relief authorized under the Disaster Relief Act for 1950 provided $25 ~~mil ion~~million, ,
and a waiver of the Section 8 limitation.and a waiver of the Section 8 limitation.4435 The first authorized annual appropriation for general The first authorized annual appropriation for general
disaster relief was for $800,000, enacted August 31, 1951, less than two months later.disaster relief was for $800,000, enacted August 31, 1951, less than two months later.4536 Annual Annual
appropriations were “to be availableappropriations were “to be available until expended,” rather than expiring as previous general until expended,” rather than expiring as previous general
disaster relief appropriations had, and their use for administrative expenses was statutorily capped disaster relief appropriations had, and their use for administrative expenses was statutorily capped
at 2% per year.at 2% per year.46
37 Under the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations, the federal government’s role in disaster relief Under the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations, the federal government’s role in disaster relief
expanded further.expanded further.4738 Federal general disaster relief programs broadened in 1962, with the inclusion Federal general disaster relief programs broadened in 1962, with the inclusion
of several American territories, and provision of grants for repair of state facilities.of several American territories, and provision of grants for repair of state facilities.48
39 However, Congress However, Congress ~~stil~~ still passed specific legislation authorizing relief programs pursuant to other passed specific legislation authorizing relief programs pursuant to other
major disasters. In 1964 and 1965, post-disaster legislation provided specific relief for victims of major disasters. In 1964 and 1965, post-disaster legislation provided specific relief for victims of
an earthquake in Alaska,an earthquake in Alaska,4940 flooding in western states, flooding in western states,5041 and Hurricane Betsy in Florida, Louisiana, and Hurricane Betsy in Florida, Louisiana,
and Mississippi.and Mississippi.5142 In a history of disaster relief legislation, one observer described the situation In a history of disaster relief legislation, one observer described the situation
thus: thus:
In 1962, 1964, and 1965, Congress had sought to preserve P.L. 81-875 [the Disaster Relief In 1962, 1964, and 1965, Congress had sought to preserve P.L. 81-875 [the Disaster Relief
Act of 1950]Act of 1950] and yet provide disaster assistance in the case of the very big disasters by and yet provide disaster assistance in the case of the very big disasters by
special legislation only for the states named. Although no one at the time appeared aware special legislation only for the states named. Although no one at the time appeared aware
that the new types of assistance would become precedents for general legislation, it was in that the new types of assistance would become precedents for general legislation, it was in
the nature of the system that ultimately they would be reenacted for general use.the nature of the system that ultimately they would be reenacted for general use.52
43 1966-1974: The Disaster Relief Act of 1966—General Relief
Broadens
The Disaster Relief Act of The Disaster Relief Act of ~~196653~~196644 revised the general disaster assistance program by providing revised the general disaster assistance program by providing
more assistance to public colleges and universities, as more assistance to public colleges and universities, as ~~wel~~ well as authorizing assistance to repair as authorizing assistance to repair

42 33 P.L. 81-875; 64 Stat. 1109. P.L. 81-875; 64 Stat. 1109.
4334 P.L. 81-875; 64 Stat. 1111. P.L. 81-875; 64 Stat. 1111.
4435 P.L. 82-80; 65 Stat. 123. P.L. 82-80; 65 Stat. 123.
4536 P.L. 82-137; 65 Stat. 268. P.L. 82-137; 65 Stat. 268.
~~46 T his~~37 This limitation would rise to three percent in an FY1956 supplemental appropriation (P.L. 84 limitation would rise to three percent in an FY1956 supplemental appropriation (P.L. 84 -406; 70 Stat. 12), and -406; 70 Stat. 12), and
be carried in appropriations legislation through FY1979. be carried in appropriations legislation through FY1979.
4738 For a broader discussion For a broader discussion of this evolution, see “of this evolution, see “~~T he~~The Evolution of U.S. Disaster Relief Policy,” by Bruce Evolution of U.S. Disaster Relief Policy,” by Bruce R. Lindsay R. Lindsay
and Francis X. McCarthy, in CRSand Francis X. McCarthy, in CRS Committee Print CP10000, Committee Print CP10000, The Evolving Congress: A ~~Com m ittee~~Committee Print Prepared for
the Senate ~~Com m ittee~~Committee on Rules and ~~Adm inistration~~ .
48Administration. 39 P.L. 87-592. P.L. 87-592.
4940 P.L. 88-451. P.L. 88-451.
5041 P.L. 89-41. P.L. 89-41.
5142 P.L. 89-339. P.L. 89-339.
5243 Frank P. Bourgin, Frank P. Bourgin, A History of Federal Disaster Relief Legislation, 1950-1974, Federal Emergency Management , Federal Emergency Management
Agency, Washington, DC, September 1983, p. 103. Agency, Washington, DC, September 1983, p. 103.
5344 P.L. 89-769. P.L. 89-769.
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local public facilities. local public facilities.5445 The Disaster Relief Act of The Disaster Relief Act of ~~196955~~196946 was enacted in response to Hurricane was enacted in response to Hurricane
~~Camil e~~Camille, although the expansion of the federal role in disaster assistance it formalized had been , although the expansion of the federal role in disaster assistance it formalized had been
included in legislationincluded in legislation since 1965. It included broader public and individualsince 1965. It included broader public and individual assistance, including assistance, including
temporary housing, food assistance, unemployment assistance, matching funds to help states temporary housing, food assistance, unemployment assistance, matching funds to help states
develop preparedness plans, and authorization for the federal government to fund up to half the develop preparedness plans, and authorization for the federal government to fund up to half the
cost of repair and restoration of public facilities.cost of repair and restoration of public facilities.5647 Not Not al all of these costs would be borne by the of these costs would be borne by the
funding provided to the President, and the programs were only authorized through calendar 1970, funding provided to the President, and the programs were only authorized through calendar 1970,
but they represented a significant broadening of federal government involvement. but they represented a significant broadening of federal government involvement.
The Disaster Relief Act of The Disaster Relief Act of ~~197057~~197048 consolidated the previous disaster relief legislation into a single consolidated the previous disaster relief legislation into a single
act, and made many of the act, and made many of the ~~Camil e~~Camille-driven programs permanent, including programs to provide -driven programs permanent, including programs to provide
temporary housing assistance, debris removal, and permanent repair and replacement of state and temporary housing assistance, debris removal, and permanent repair and replacement of state and
local public facilities. local public facilities.
1974-~~Present~~2017: The Era of Federally Coordinated Emergency
Management
The Disaster Relief Act of The Disaster Relief Act of ~~197458~~197449 provided for a more robust preparedness program, and provided for a more robust preparedness program, and
introduced the concept of “emergency” declarations to accommodate assistance in cases where an introduced the concept of “emergency” declarations to accommodate assistance in cases where an
incident did not rise to the “major disaster” threshold.incident did not rise to the “major disaster” threshold.59
50 The Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Amendments of 1988 (P.L. 100-707, hereinafter The Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Amendments of 1988 (P.L. 100-707, hereinafter
DREAA) renamed the Disaster Relief Act of 1974 as the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and DREAA) renamed the Disaster Relief Act of 1974 as the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and
Emergency Assistance Act (the aforementioned Stafford Act).Emergency Assistance Act (the aforementioned Stafford Act).6051 It made the following It made the following
programmatic changes: programmatic changes:
• Authorized the President to declare an emergency under the Stafford Act in “any Authorized the President to declare an emergency under the Stafford Act in “any
occasion or instance” in which federal aid is needed— occasion or instance” in which federal aid is needed—~~al owing~~allowing for assistance for assistance
without a major disaster declaration;without a major disaster declaration;61
52 • Defined a “major disaster” as “any natural catastrophe ... or, regardless of cause, Defined a “major disaster” as “any natural catastrophe ... or, regardless of cause,
any fire, flood, or explosion, in any part of the United States, which in the any fire, flood, or explosion, in any part of the United States, which in the
determination of the President causes damage of sufficient severity and determination of the President causes damage of sufficient severity and
magnitude to warrant major disaster assistance.magnitude to warrant major disaster assistance. ~~. ”62~~
... ”53 • Established a 75% minimum level of assistance for the immediate response, Established a 75% minimum level of assistance for the immediate response,
debris removal, and repair of public facilities; and debris removal, and repair of public facilities; and
• Provided for a 50/50 cost share for hazard mitigation grants. Provided for a 50/50 cost share for hazard mitigation grants.63

~~54 Bourgin, p. 75.~~
~~55 P.L. 91-79.~~
~~56 Bourgin, p. 103.~~
~~57 P.L. 91-606.~~
~~58 P.L. 93-288.~~
~~59 Although it was expected to expire in December 1977, it was extended to the end of fiscal year 1980.~~
~~60 P.L. 100-707.~~
~~61 102 Stat. 4689.~~
~~62 102 Stat. 4690.~~
~~63 T hese grants would be amended~~ 54 The Stafford Act and the DREAA are the pieces of legislation that structure the current relationship between the federal and state government in emergency management and disaster 45 Bourgin, p. 75. 46 P.L. 91-79. 47 Bourgin, p. 103. 48 P.L. 91-606. 49 P.L. 93-288. 50 Although it was expected to expire in December 1977, it was extended to the end of fiscal year 1980. 51 P.L. 100-707. 52 102 Stat. 4689. 53 102 Stat. 4690. 54 These grants would be amended in 1993 to a 75/25 cost share. in 1993 to a 75/25 cost share.
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~~The Stafford Act and the DREAA are the pieces of legislation that structure the current~~
~~relationship between the federal and state government in emergency management and disaster~~
relief. These laws, which appear at 42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq., continue to be amended, with reform relief. These laws, which appear at 42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq., continue to be amended, with reform
legislationlegislation frequently following on the heels of frequently following on the heels of ~~exceptional y~~exceptionally large disasters, or complexes of large disasters, or complexes of
disasters. disasters. ~~This has happened three times~~Two major reform bills were enacted since FEMA was incorporated into DHS in 2003: since FEMA was incorporated into DHS in 2003:
1. 1. The Post Katrina Emergency Reform Act of 2006 (PKEMRA)6455—Enacted as —Enacted as
a sixth title to the FY2007 DHS Appropriations Act, PKREMRA reauthorized a sixth title to the FY2007 DHS Appropriations Act, PKREMRA reauthorized
and restructured FEMA, and made amendments to the Stafford Act, including and restructured FEMA, and made amendments to the Stafford Act, including
~~al owing~~allowing federal assistance to be provided in the absence of a specific request, federal assistance to be provided in the absence of a specific request,
improved assistance for individuals with disabilities, and expanded availabilityimproved assistance for individuals with disabilities, and expanded availability of of
public assistance to nongovernmental organizations. public assistance to nongovernmental organizations.
2. 2. The Sandy Recovery Improvement Act (SRIA)6556—Enacted as a part of the —Enacted as a part of the
FY2013 supplemental appropriations act, SRIA included alternative procedures FY2013 supplemental appropriations act, SRIA included alternative procedures
for the Stafford Act Public Assistance program to for the Stafford Act Public Assistance program to ~~al ow~~allow disaster impacted area to disaster impacted area to
get assistance on the basis of cost estimates rather than reimbursement of costs, get assistance on the basis of cost estimates rather than reimbursement of costs,
among other reforms. among other reforms.
3. 2017-Present: The Disaster Recovery Reform Act ~~of 2018 (DRRA)~~~~66—Enacted through~~
~~language that was attached to an FAA reauthorization measure in the wake of~~
~~wildfires in California as wel~~ and Catastrophic Disasters The current era of disaster relief begins with a series of catastrophic disasters57 in 2017. Wildfires in California as well as Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria led to a series of large supplemental appropriations for disasters, including two for the DRF. The following year, the~~as Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria, DRRA has~~
~~provisions to broaden federal investments from the DRF into mitigation efforts~~
~~that protect public infrastructure, as wel as making improvements to the Public~~
~~Assistance and Individual Assistance programs. For additional information on~~
~~these reforms, see CRS Report R45819,~~ ~~The~~ Disaster Recovery Reform Act of
~~2018 (DRRA): A Summary of Selected Statutory Provisions~~.
~~Pandemic COVID-19 and the Stafford Act~~
~~With the COVID-19 response, major disaster assistance programs under the Stafford Act~~
~~authorities are being used for the first time to respond to an infectious disease outbreak.67~~
~~Remarks from the passage of the Stafford Act seem to indicate that this may not have been what~~
~~the architects of the measure envisioned. While not explicitly excluding the use of the major~~
~~disaster declaration for infectious disease, Rep. Arlen Stangeland (R-MN), the Ranking Member~~
~~of the Subcommittee on Water Resources of the House Public Works and Transportation~~
~~Committee, noted in his comments on the final version of the bil that other authorities existed for~~
~~public health matters:~~
~~Title I reorganizes the disaster relief program to clearly define Presidential authority to~~
~~respond to major disasters and emergencies. Major disasters would include primarily~~
~~natural catastrophes or, in certain instances, nonnatural catastrophes while emergencies~~
~~would include any occasion or instance in which Federal assistance was necessary.~~
~~However, we do not intend for emergency declarations to be available in responding to~~
~~public health problems such as disease epidemics or environmental or nuclear catastrophes~~
~~for which Federal assistance is already available...~~

~~64 P.L. 109-295, Title VI.~~
~~65 P.L. 113-2, Division B.~~
~~66 P.L. 115-254, Division D.~~
~~67 T wo emergency declarations under the Stafford Act were made in the fall of 2000 for West Nile virus control.~~
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2018 (DRRA)58 was enacted through an FAA reauthorization measure. DRRA had provisions to broaden federal investments from the DRF into mitigation efforts that protect public infrastructure, as well as making changes to the Stafford Act’s Public Assistance and Individual Assistance programs.59 In addition to more frequent “traditional” catastrophic disasters, major disaster assistance programs under the Stafford Act were used for the first time in the context of an infectious disease outbreak during the COVID-19 pandemic.60 On March 13, 2020, President Donald J. Trump made a series of emergency declarations under On March 13, 2020, President Donald J. Trump made a series of emergency declarations under
Section 501(b) of the Stafford Act in response to the nationwide spread of a novel coronavirus Section 501(b) of the Stafford Act in response to the nationwide spread of a novel coronavirus
disease (COVID-19).disease (COVID-19).6861 The declarations authorized assistance to The declarations authorized assistance to al all U.S. states, territories, tribes, U.S. states, territories, tribes,
and the District of Columbia. At the time he announced the declarations, he invited the recipients and the District of Columbia. At the time he announced the declarations, he invited the recipients
~~of those declarations to request major disaster declarations.69 FEMA notes that 50 states, four~~
~~territories, and the District of Columbia have al requested and received major disaster~~
~~declarations for COVID-19 response.70~~
~~Later that month, a supplemental appropriation for the DRF was provided in the CARES Act, P.L.~~
~~116-136, Division B, providing $45 bil ion in emergency-designated supplemental appropriations.~~
~~As with other DRF appropriations, this funding was not provided specifical y for COVID-19~~
~~efforts, but for Stafford Act programs more broadly. From March 13, 2020, through July 31, 2020~~
~~(from the declarations through the end of the third quarter), FEMA obligated $7.271 bil ion from~~
~~the DRF on Stafford Act costs related to COVID-19 declarations: $3.700 bil ion on operating~~
~~expenses, and $3.289 bil ion on Public Assistance programs, which reimburses eligible public and~~
~~nonprofit entities for the costs of major disaster response and recovery. $179 mil ion was~~
~~provided through the Individual Assistance program.~~
~~On August 8, 2020, the Administration announced a new “lost wages assistance” program, which~~
~~would expand and extend unemployment benefits for several weeks using up to $44 bil ion from~~
~~the DRF. This initiative would be implemented through the Other Needs Assistance program~~
~~under the Individual Assistance programs under the Stafford Act.71 Almost $43 bil ion was~~
~~obligated for this program before it terminated72—more than three-quarters of the DRF~~
~~obligations related to COVID-19 to that point,73 and more than six times the $6.8 bil ion obligated~~
~~under the ONA program to that point since its inception in 2002.74~~
~~In addition to an annual appropriation of $17.142 bil ion for the DRF in Division F of the~~
~~Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 (P.L. 116-260), Division M included a $2 bil ion~~
~~supplemental appropriation for the DRF, specifical y for the COVD-19-related funeral expenses~~
~~incurred through the end of calendar 2020.75 As noted above, this is an unusual y targeted~~
~~appropriation within the structure of the DRF.76~~

~~68 While the president made a single announcement, the declarations themselves apply to each individual state,~~
~~territory, or tribe.~~
~~69 https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/letter-president-donald-j-trump-emergency-determination-stafford-~~
~~act/~~
~~70 https://www.fema.gov/disasters/coronavirus/disaster-declarations, as retrieved October 15, 2020. FEMA also notes~~
~~that 32 tribes are working with FEMA under the emergen cy declarations.~~
~~71 For more information on the Lost Wages Assistance program, see CRS Insight IN11492,~~ ~~COVID-19: Supplementing~~
~~Unem ploym ent Insurance Benefits (Federal Pandem ic Unem ployment Com pensation vs. Lost Wages Assistance), by~~
~~Katelin P. Isaacs and Julie M. Whittaker.~~
~~72 Federal Emergency Management Agency, “Lost Wages Assistance T otals,” October 26, 2020, email from FEMA~~
~~Congressional Affairs. Later FEMA reporting of lower obligation totals for In dividual Assistance reflects some of these~~
~~funds being deobligated and returned to the DRF for other purposes.~~
~~73 Federal Emergency Management Agency, October 2020 Disaster Relief Fund Report, pp. 13, 25,~~
~~https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-10/fema_disaster-relief-fund-report_10-2020.pdf.~~
~~74 CRS analysis of ONA data from OpenFEMA databases downloaded October 27, 2020.~~
~~75 See P.L. 116-260, Division M, Section 201 for t he legislative language, and CRS Insight IN11582,~~ ~~FEMA Funeral~~
~~Assistance for COVID-19, by Elizabeth M. Webster, for details.~~
~~76 When part of an appropriation is provided for a specific purpose, it limits the ability to use undesignated amounts of~~
~~the larger appropriation for that specific purpose.~~
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~~In March, 2021, the American Rescue Plan Act (P.L. 117-2; ARPA) was signed into law. Included~~
~~in Section 4005 was a $50 bil ion mandatory appropriation for the Disaster Relief Fund, the first~~
~~mandatory appropriation ever provided to that account.~~
~~As of the end of the first quarter of FY2022, FEMA had associated $89.296 bil ion in DRF~~
~~obligations with the COVID-19 response: $40.969 bil ion was provided through the Individual~~
~~Assistance program, the vast majority of which was for the lost wages initiative; $39.366 bil ion~~
~~was provided for Public Assistance programs; and $8.067 bil ion was for FEMA’s operational~~
~~costs.77~~
~~It remains to be seen whether the utilization of Stafford Act authorities to support the COVID-19~~
~~response is a new model for dealing with public health emergencies. Congress may choose to~~
~~refine this novel application, or reset the authorities of the Stafford Act along its earlier~~
~~precedents.~~
~~Appropriations for General Disaster Relief~~
~~Types of Appropriations for Disaster Relief~~
~~General disaster relief activities by the federal government under the Stafford Act are funded~~
~~through the appropriations process. Three types of appropriations support these activities:~~
Supplemental Appropriations are requested by the Administration on an ad hoc basis, general y
~~to address a need not sufficiently covered in the annual appropriations process. These move on a~~
~~short timetable and general y do not go through the complete committee process. More than 82%~~
~~of net appropriations for the DRF have been provided through supplemental appropriations.~~
of those declarations to request major 55 P.L. 109-295, Title VI. 56 P.L. 113-2, Division B. 57 FEMA defines a catastrophic disaster as any incident (encompassing one or more major disaster declarations for the same event) that costs the DRF more than $500 million. 58 P.L. 115-254, Division D. 59 For additional information on these reforms, see CRS Report R45819, The Disaster Recovery Reform Act of 2018 (DRRA): A Summary of Selected Statutory Provisions. 60 Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, four emergency declarations were made under the Stafford Act for public health incidents. For information on these incidents, see CRS Insight IN11229, Stafford Act Assistance for Public Health Incidents. The difference in scale between these incidents and the COVID-19 declaration is several orders of magnitude: for example, under one of these emergency declarations, New Jersey received a little over $2 million for West Nile from the DRF in 2000 (according to the Emergency Management Section of the New Jersey State Police), and $2,931 million under the COVID-19 disaster declaration from the DRF as of the end of FY2021 (according to FEMA’s October 2021 monthly report on the DRF). 61 While the President made a single announcement, the declarations themselves apply to each individual state, territory, or tribe. Congressional Research Service 13 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues disaster declarations.62 FEMA notes that 50 states, five territories, the District of Columbia, and three tribes all requested and received major disaster declarations for COVID-19 response.63 For more information on the various applications of Stafford Act authorities pursuant to this incident, see CRS Report R47048, FEMA’s Role in the COVID-19 Federal Pandemic Response. Remarks from the passage of the Stafford Act seem to indicate that such applications may not have been what the architects of the measure envisioned. While not explicitly excluding the use of the major disaster declaration for infectious disease, Representative Arlen Stangeland (R-MN), the ranking member of the Subcommittee on Water Resources of the House Public Works and Transportation Committee, noted in his comments on the final version of the bill that other authorities existed for public health matters: Title I reorganizes the disaster relief program to clearly define Presidential authority to respond to major disasters and emergencies. Major disasters would include primarily natural catastrophes or, in certain instances, nonnatural catastrophes while emergencies would include any occasion or instance in which Federal assistance was necessary. However, we do not intend for emergency declarations to be available in responding to public health problems such as disease epidemics or environmental or nuclear catastrophes for which Federal assistance is already available.... In March, 2021, the American Rescue Plan Act (P.L. 117-2; ARPA) was signed into law. Included in Section 4005 was a $50 billion mandatory appropriation for the Disaster Relief Fund, the first mandatory budget authority ever provided to that account. Appropriations for General Disaster Relief Types of Appropriations for Disaster Relief General disaster relief activities by the federal government under the Stafford Act are funded through the appropriations process. Three types of appropriations support these activities: Supplemental Appropriations: Requested by the Administration on an ad hoc basis, generally to address a need not sufficiently covered in the annual appropriations process. These move on a short timetable and generally do not go through the complete committee process. Annual Appropriations: Requested by the Administration in February as a part of the annual Requested by the Administration in February as a part of the annual
budget process, these are expected to be passed by Congress and enacted into law prior to the budget process, these are expected to be passed by Congress and enacted into law prior to the
start of the fiscal year in October. Annual appropriations measures fund the core activities of the start of the fiscal year in October. Annual appropriations measures fund the core activities of the
government and are developed through the committee process.government and are developed through the committee process.
Continuing Appropriations: Provided when annual appropriations work remains unresolved at Provided when annual appropriations work remains unresolved at
the beginning of the new fiscal year, these appropriations are temporary budget authority the beginning of the new fiscal year, these appropriations are temporary budget authority
provided at a rate for operations based on the prior fiscal year to provided at a rate for operations based on the prior fiscal year to ~~al ow~~allow the government to the government to
continue functioning. The measure that provides them is termed a “continuing resolution,” or continue functioning. The measure that provides them is termed a “continuing resolution,” or
“CR.” These continuing appropriations may expire (in the case of an interim CR), or extend to the “CR.” These continuing appropriations may expire (in the case of an interim CR), or extend to the
end of the fiscal year (in the case of a “long-term” CR). end of the fiscal year (in the case of a “long-term” CR).
62 https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/letter-president-donald-j-trump-emergency-determination-stafford-act/ 63 CRS analysis of data at https://www.fema.gov/disaster/declarations. FEMA also records that 46 other tribes were working with FEMA under emergency declarations. Congressional Research Service 14 link to page 32 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues Supplemental Appropriations for Disaster Relief
The current Disaster Relief Fund concept can trace its birth back to an appropriations The current Disaster Relief Fund concept can trace its birth back to an appropriations ~~bil~~ bill in the in the
1940s—the Second Deficiency Appropriations Act, 1948.1940s—the Second Deficiency Appropriations Act, 1948.7864 Deficiency appropriations Deficiency appropriations ~~bil s~~bills, ,
which provided funding to meet unanticipated needs during the fiscal year, were a forerunner of which provided funding to meet unanticipated needs during the fiscal year, were a forerunner of
modern supplemental appropriations modern supplemental appropriations ~~bil s~~bills. The severity, frequency, and resultant costs to the . The severity, frequency, and resultant costs to the
federal government from the array of disasters that strike the United States have always been federal government from the array of disasters that strike the United States have always been
unpredictable in an annual budgetary context. To respond to this uncertainty, disaster relief unpredictable in an annual budgetary context. To respond to this uncertainty, disaster relief
funding frequently has been provided through deficiency, and later supplemental, appropriations. funding frequently has been provided through deficiency, and later supplemental, appropriations.

~~77 Federal Emergency Management Agency, January 2022 Disaster Relief Fund Report, p. 14,~~
~~https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_jan -2022-disaster-relief-fund-report.pdf.~~
~~78 P.L. 80-785.~~
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When Congress and the Administration began to express concerns about the budget deficit in the When Congress and the Administration began to express concerns about the budget deficit in the
1980s, efforts were made to restrain supplemental spending by limiting it to cases of “dire 1980s, efforts were made to restrain supplemental spending by limiting it to cases of “dire
emergency.” With the implementation of budget control in the 1990s, a special designation for emergency.” With the implementation of budget control in the 1990s, a special designation for
emergency spending was created. If both Congress and the Administration agreed that certain emergency spending was created. If both Congress and the Administration agreed that certain
spending was an emergency requirement, budget limits would be adjusted to accommodate that spending was an emergency requirement, budget limits would be adjusted to accommodate that
spending. Congress used the emergency designation on a disaster relief appropriation for the first spending. Congress used the emergency designation on a disaster relief appropriation for the first
time in an FY1992 supplemental appropriations act.time in an FY1992 supplemental appropriations act.7965 Congress continues to use emergency Congress continues to use emergency
designations in supplemental appropriations legislationdesignations in supplemental appropriations legislation to provide budgetary flexibility. to provide budgetary flexibility.
At one point, Congress was statutorily required to use the At one point, Congress was statutorily required to use the emergency designation for disaster relief designation for disaster relief
appropriations. Under the terms of the aforementioned FY1992 supplemental appropriations act, appropriations. Under the terms of the aforementioned FY1992 supplemental appropriations act,
beginning in FY1993, Congress required “beginning in FY1993, Congress required “al all amounts appropriated for disaster assistance amounts appropriated for disaster assistance
payments [under the Stafford Act] that are in excess of either the historical annual average payments [under the Stafford Act] that are in excess of either the historical annual average
obligation of $320,000,000, or the amount submitted in the President’s initial budget request, obligation of $320,000,000, or the amount submitted in the President’s initial budget request,
whichever is lower” be designated as emergency requirements under a specific provision of the whichever is lower” be designated as emergency requirements under a specific provision of the
Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985.Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985.8066 This practice of emergency This practice of emergency
designation above a particular threshold was followed until FY2000, when a clause appeared in designation above a particular threshold was followed until FY2000, when a clause appeared in
the appropriation noting that discretionary appropriations were being provided notwithstanding the appropriation noting that discretionary appropriations were being provided notwithstanding
the restrictions of this section of the U.S. Codethe restrictions of this section of the U.S. Code~~.81~~
~~With the passage of the Budget Control Act in 2011, which provided additional budgetary~~
~~flexibility for the costs for major disasters, supplemental disaster relief appropriations declined in~~
~~frequency, but remained a primary contributor to balances in the DRF. See the “DRF Funding~~
~~History: FY1964-FY2021” section below for details~~.67 Before the implementation of special budgetary treatment specifically for disaster relief in the FY2013 annual appropriations cycle, 86.1% of appropriations for the DRF were provided through supplemental appropriations. See “Calculation of the Annual Appropriations Request” for a discussion of why supplemental appropriations are central to ensuring adequate funding for the DRF. .
Annual Appropriations
The first general disaster relief funding was provided in an annual appropriations act in 1948, and The first general disaster relief funding was provided in an annual appropriations act in 1948, and
carried its own authorizing provisions. Stand-alone authorization for general disaster relief first carried its own authorizing provisions. Stand-alone authorization for general disaster relief first
~~came in 1950.~~
~~Once the initial separate authorization was put in place for general disaster relief, appropriations~~
~~were provided for FY1952, FY1956-FY1958, and FY1962. As noted above, with the~~
~~development, codification, and expansion of the federal role in emergency management,~~
~~appropriations for general disaster relief became more common—and larger. Annual~~
~~appropriations for general disaster relief have been provided each year since FY1964, with only~~
~~two exceptions.82~~

79came in 1950. 64 P.L. 80-785. 65 P.L. 102-229, the “Dire Emergency Supplemental Appropriations and P.L. 102-229, the “Dire Emergency Supplemental Appropriations and ~~T ransfers~~Transfers for Relief from the Effects of for Relief from the Effects of
Natural Disasters, for Other Urgent Needs,Natural Disasters, for Other Urgent Needs, and for Incremental Cost of ‘Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm’ Act of and for Incremental Cost of ‘Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm’ Act of
1992.” 1992.”
8066 P.L. 102-229, 105 Stat. 1711. The reference remains in law as P.L. 102-229, 105 Stat. 1711. The reference remains in law as 42 U.S.C42 U.S.C §5203, but P.L. 105-33, the Balanced §5203, but P.L. 105-33, the Balanced
BudgetBudget Act of 1997 (at 111 Stat. 699) changed the underlying lawAct of 1997 (at 111 Stat. 699) changed the underlying law on whichon which the requirement depended. the requirement depended.
81 67 P.L. 106-74 P.L. 106-74~~, at 115 Stat. 687. T he~~. The same clause appeared same clause appeared inuntil FY2003, but has not been a part of enacted DRF FY2003, but has not been a part of enacted DRF
appropriations since appropriations since then. The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (P.L. 105-33) had altered the structure of the underlying budgetary provisions, removing the particular emergency requirement designation upon which the statutory requirement relied. Congressional Research Service 15 link to page 29 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues Once the initial separate authorization was put in place for general disaster relief, appropriations were provided for FY1952, FY1956-FY1958, and FY1962. As noted above, with the development, codification, and expansion of the federal role in emergency management, appropriations for general disaster relief became more common—and larger. Annual appropriations for general disaster relief have been provided each year since FY1964, with only two exceptions.68 Disaster Relief ~~then.~~
~~82 In FY1984 and FY1991, no appropriation was requested or made for disaster relief, as unobligated balances were~~
~~deemed sufficient to fund anticipated disasters. See Federal Emergency Management Agency,~~ ~~Justification of~~
~~Estim ates, Fiscal Year 1984, Part 2, Washington, DC, January 1983, p. DR-3, and Federal Emergency Management~~
~~Agency, Justification of Estim ates, Fiscal Year 1992, Washington, DC, February 1991, p. DR-3.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

17

~~link to page 32~~ ~~The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues~~

~~Disaster Relief~~ Designation
The adoption of a special designation for the costs of major disasters under the Stafford Act as a The adoption of a special designation for the costs of major disasters under the Stafford Act as a
part of the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25, BCA)part of the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25, BCA) reduced the DRF’s reliance on supplemental appropriations, and changed its structure. More Annual Appropriations: Establishment in the BCA of a specific budget exception for disaster relief linked to the Stafford Act that was distinct from the broader exception for “emergency requirements” made it easier to provide budget made it easier to provide budget
authority to the DRF in the annual appropriations process.authority to the DRF in the annual appropriations process.8369 FY2013 was the first year this FY2013 was the first year this
mechanism was used over the course of the whole annual appropriations process. mechanism was used over the course of the whole annual appropriations process. ~~Using FY2020~~
~~dollars to compensate~~Controlling for inflation, for inflation, in the first six years of the disaster relief adjustment the DRF received more annual appropriations than it had during its entire pre-BCA existence going back to 1948. Since the implementation of the disaster relief adjustment in the annual appropriations process, the percentage of DRF appropriations provided through annual appropriations has risen from less than 14% to more than 41%. The FY2023~~the DRF received $46.547 bil ion in annual appropriations~~
~~during the five-year period from FY2013 through FY2018—more than it had received in annual~~
~~appropriations from FY1948 through FY2012. The FY2020 annual appropriation for the DRF of~~
~~$17.863 bil ion~~ annual appropriation for the DRF of $19.945 billion was its largest annual appropriation ever, breaking the previous record was its largest annual appropriation ever, breaking the previous record of $18.799 billion set by the set by the
~~FY2019~~FY2022 annual annual appropriation. Changes in DRF Account Structure: As the new mechanism required identifying resources within the DRF that were specifically for major disasters, since the FY2013 annual appropriations~~appropriation. That record was nearly eclipsed by the FY2021 annual~~
~~appropriation of $17.142 bil ion.~~
~~Since the FY2013 budget~~ request, FEMA has bifurcated request, FEMA has bifurcated ~~its annual appropriations~~ the DRF request request
between the costs of major disasters—the “Disaster Relief Category”—and everything else between the costs of major disasters—the “Disaster Relief Category”—and everything else
funded by the DRF—“Base Disaster Relief,” which includes funding for emergency designations, funded by the DRF—“Base Disaster Relief,” which includes funding for emergency designations,
fire management assistance, pre-disaster declaration surge activities, and Disaster Readiness and fire management assistance, pre-disaster declaration surge activities, and Disaster Readiness and
Support Programs. The former category is eligible for the Support Programs. The former category is eligible for the BCA designation as designation as “disaster relief,” while the latter category is not, and usually~~“disaster relief,” a~~
~~designation that triggers an upward adjustment of statutory discretionary spending limits to~~
~~accommodate it without triggering sequestration. The latter category is not, and usual y scores~~
scores against discretionary spending limits. against discretionary spending limits.
The The ~~al owable~~allowable adjustment for disaster relief expired at the end of FY2021. According to OMB, it adjustment for disaster relief expired at the end of FY2021. According to OMB, it
had covered $104 had covered $104 ~~bil ion~~ billion in major disaster costs through FY2021.in major disaster costs through FY2021.84 70 Over the life of the BCA, 93% of covered 93% of covered
~~appropriations went to the DRF.~~
~~In its FY2022 budget request, the Biden Administration proposed extending special budgetary~~
~~treatment for disaster relief. Subsequently, the FY2022 budget resolution included an adjustment~~
~~for disaster relief that continues to effectively exempt such funding from spending limits within~~
~~the congressional budget process.85 Despite the fact that the budget resolution relies on an~~
~~extension of the BCA formula, as of this writing, OMB has not released a calculation of the~~
~~adjustment’s al owable size for FY2022.~~
~~Continuing Appropriations~~
~~Even though the DRF is a “no-year” fund, and its appropriations are available until expended, it~~
~~does get temporary replenishment from continuing resolutions (CRs) at times, until its annual~~
~~appropriations are finalized.~~
~~In FY1982, for the first time, interim general disaster relief funding was provided in a CR through~~
~~an “anomaly,” a provision providing funds at an operating rate different from that base rate of~~
~~operations provided in the resolution.86~~

~~83 See “Changes in the Budget Process” and CRS In Focus IF10720,~~ ~~Calculation and Use of the Disaster Relief~~
~~Allowable Adjustm ent, by William L. Painter.~~
~~84 Office of Management and Budget,~~ appropriations went to the DRF. 68 In FY1984 and FY1991, no appropriation was requested or made for disaster relief, as unobligated balances were deemed sufficient to fund anticipated disasters. See Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1984, Part 2, Washington, DC, January 1983, p. DR-3, and Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1992, Washington, DC, February 1991, p. DR-3. 69 See “Changes in the Budget Process” later in this report; and CRS In Focus IF10720, Calculation and Use of the Disaster Relief Allowable Adjustment, by William L. Painter. 70 Office of Management and Budget, OMB Sequestration Update Report to the President and Congress for Fiscal
Year 2021, Washington, DC, August, Washington, DC, August 20, 2020, p. 15, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/20, 2020, p. 15, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/
Sequestration_Update_August_2020.pdf; and Office of Management and Budget,Sequestration_Update_August_2020.pdf; and Office of Management and Budget, OMB Final Sequestration Report to
~~the President and Congress for Fiscal Year 2021~~ ~~, Washington, DC, January 19, 2021, p. 8,~~
~~https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/sequestration_final_January_2021_speaker.pdf.~~
~~85 S.Con.Res. 14, §4004(b)(6).~~
~~86 P.L. 97-92; 95 Stat. 1187.~~
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~~These “anomaly” provisions may also provide flexibility~~ (continued...) Congressional Research Service 16 link to page 29 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues In its FY2022 budget request, the Biden Administration proposed extending special budgetary treatment for disaster relief. Subsequently, the FY2022 budget resolution included an adjustment for disaster relief that continued effectively to exempt such funding from spending limits within the congressional budget process.71 When Congress reestablished statutory limits on discretionary spending for FY2024 and FY2025, it also restored the disaster relief adjustment.72 Continuing Appropriations Even though the DRF is a “no-year” fund, and its appropriations are available until expended, it does get temporary replenishment from continuing resolutions (CRs) at times, until its annual appropriations are finalized.73 In FY1982, for the first time, interim general disaster relief funding was provided in a CR through an “anomaly,” a provision providing funds at an operating rate different from that base rate of operations provided in the resolution.74 These “anomaly” provisions may also provide flexibility that can help avoid some of the that can help avoid some of the
complications that can arise under the constraints of operating under continuing appropriations. complications that can arise under the constraints of operating under continuing appropriations.
For example, CRs For example, CRs ~~general y~~generally provide funding at a constant rate of operations, with certain provide funding at a constant rate of operations, with certain
restrictions. This can complicate disaster response and recovery, when restrictions. This can complicate disaster response and recovery, when ~~cal s~~calls for funding vary in for funding vary in
scale and timingscale and timing from year to year. The DRF could, in some circumstances, risk being depleted from year to year. The DRF could, in some circumstances, risk being depleted
by response and recovery needs while operating under a CR. This risk can be addressed in one of by response and recovery needs while operating under a CR. This risk can be addressed in one of
two ways: responsively, when FEMA requests special flexibilitytwo ways: responsively, when FEMA requests special flexibility from the Office of Management from the Office of Management
and Budget (OMB)—which apportions CR funding to agencies; or proactively, when a special and Budget (OMB)—which apportions CR funding to agencies; or proactively, when a special
provision is included in the CR that directs such flexibility be provided to ensure adequate provision is included in the CR that directs such flexibility be provided to ensure adequate
resources are available. Such language can be found in resources are available. Such language can be found in ~~the initial CRs for FY2018 through~~
~~FY2021, which al~~ CRs since FY2018, which all provide that the funds provided “may be apportioned up to the rate for provide that the funds provided “may be apportioned up to the rate for
operations necessary to carry out response and recovery activities” under the Stafford Act.operations necessary to carry out response and recovery activities” under the Stafford Act.8775
Lapses in Annual Appropriations and the DRF
Most annual appropriations expire at the end of the fiscal year. Most annual appropriations expire at the end of the fiscal year. On severalOn several occasions in recent history,occasions in recent history, neither neither
annual nor continuing appropriations wereannual nor continuing appropriations were enacted priorenacted prior to the beginning of the fiscal year, leading to a “funding to the beginning of the fiscal year, leading to a “funding
gap” or “lapse” in appropriations.gap” or “lapse” in appropriations. When this occurs,When this occurs, partial shutdown of government functions and emergency partial shutdown of government functions and emergency
furlough of employeesfurlough of employees ensues for functions that are not funded through fee revenuesensues for functions that are not funded through fee revenues or multiyearor multiyear appropriations, appropriations,
and do not immediatelyand do not immediately protect life and property. protect life and property.
The DisasterThe Disaster Relief Relief Fund appropriation can fund disaster reliefappropriation can fund disaster relief operations, as its appropriations do not expire at the end operations, as its appropriations do not expire at the end
of the fiscal yearof the fiscal year, —DHS contingency plans for lapses in annual appropriations specifically note that “Disaster Relief Fund activities wil continue operations”—but lapses in annual appropriations have an impact on agency efficiency.but lapses in annual appropriations have an impact on agency efficiency. Some disaster-related Some disaster-related
functions have been subject to emergencyfunctions have been subject to emergency furlough in the past.furlough in the past.8876 Such furloughs may indirectly affect the ability of Such furloughs may indirectly affect the ability of
a component to carry out its mission.a component to carry out its mission. For example,For example, in the event of a in the event of a shutdown and furlough, while staff directly shutdown and furlough, while staff directly
~~engaged in activities to prevent loss of life or property are not subject~~ engaged in activities to prevent loss of life or property are not subject the President and Congress for Fiscal Year 2021, Washington, DC, January 19, 2021, p. 8, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/sequestration_final_January_2021_speaker.pdf. 71 S.Con.Res. 14, §4004(b)(6). 72 P.L. 118-5, §101(b)(3). For further discussion, see “Changes in the Budget Process” later in this report. 73 For more information on continuing resolutions, see CRS Report R46595, Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and Practices. 74 P.L. 97-92; 95 Stat. 1187. 75 See, for example, P.L. 115-56, Division D, §129; P.L. 115-245, Division C, §124; and P.L. 116-59, §133. 76 For details, see CRS Report R43252, FY2014 Appropriations Lapse and the Department of Homeland Security: Impact and Legislation, by William L. Painter. Congressional Research Service 17 link to page 44 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues to furlough, other staff are not available to review ~~to furlough, other staff are not available to~~
~~review~~ grant requests or approve the releasegrant requests or approve the release of appropriated funds for nonemergency disaster recoveryof appropriated funds for nonemergency disaster recovery grants grants
from the DRF. from the DRF.
DRF Funding History~~: FY1964-FY2021~~
The following figures show appropriations for the DRF from FY1964 through The following figures show appropriations for the DRF from FY1964 through ~~FY2021~~FY2023. .
Each fiscal year shows a gross total of annual appropriations and discretionary appropriations Each fiscal year shows a gross total of annual appropriations and discretionary appropriations
(represented by a two-part bar) and a net total (represented by a black mark on each bar), which (represented by a two-part bar) and a net total (represented by a black mark on each bar), which
takes into account rescissions and transfers from the DRF. An inset graphic provides the scale to takes into account rescissions and transfers from the DRF. An inset graphic provides the scale to
include funding levels for several outlier years,include funding levels for several outlier years,8977 while showing the detail of appropriations for while showing the detail of appropriations for
the more typical years. The first figure shows data in nominal dollars, and the second shows the more typical years. The first figure shows data in nominal dollars, and the second shows
constant constant ~~FY2021~~FY2023 dollars. dollars.
The figures show an increase in appropriations for the DRF starting in the 1990s, largely due to The figures show an increase in appropriations for the DRF starting in the 1990s, largely due to
increases in supplemental appropriations. Annual appropriations rose significantly in the early increases in supplemental appropriations. Annual appropriations rose significantly in the early
2000s and again starting in FY2013. FY2021 saw the DRF receive its largest gross appropriations 2000s and again starting in FY2013. FY2021 saw the DRF receive its largest gross appropriations
in its history, in nominal dollars, due to the $50 in its history, in nominal dollars, due to the $50 ~~bil ion~~ billion in mandatory supplemental funding in mandatory supplemental funding
provided in the American Rescue Plan Act. However, when inflation is taken into account, provided in the American Rescue Plan Act. However, when inflation is taken into account,
FY2005 remains the single highest year for appropriations for the DRF, when a series of FY2005 remains the single highest year for appropriations for the DRF, when a series of
hurricanes, including Katrina, Rita, and Wilmahurricanes, including Katrina, Rita, and Wilma hit the southeastern United States.hit the southeastern United States.90

~~87 P.L. 115-56, Division D, §129; P.L. 115-245, Division C, §124; and P.L. 116-59, §133.~~
~~88 For details, see CRS Report R43252,~~ ~~FY2014 Appropriations Lapse and the Department of Homeland Security:~~
~~Im pact and Legislation, by William L. Painter.~~
8978 A table showing the underlying data for each figure appears in the Appendix. 77 FY2005, FY2006, and FY2017. FY2005, FY2006, and FY2017.
~~90 T he~~78 The following year, a significant amount of what had been provided was following year, a significant amount of what had been provided was ~~rescinded~~ rescinded and re-appropriated to and re-appropriated to ~~ot her~~other
agenciesagencies to provide disaster assistance and repair storm and flood damage.to provide disaster assistance and repair storm and flood damage.
~~Congressional Research Service~~

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~~link to page 44~~ ~~The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues~~

~~A table showing the underlying data for each figure appears in the Appendix.~~

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

2018

Figure 2. Nominal Dollar Disaster Relief Appropriations, FY1964-~~FY2021~~FY2023

Source: CRS analysis of appropriations laws. CRS analysis of appropriations laws.
Notes: Totals for FY2005, FY2006, FY2018, FY2020 Totals for FY2005, FY2006, FY2018, FY2020, FY2021, and FY2023, ~~and FY2021~~ referenced referenced by the arrows,by the arrows, are beyond the scale of the main graph and are shown on the inset.are beyond the scale of the main graph and are shown on the inset. FY2013 FY2013
numbers do not reflect the impact of sequestration.numbers do not reflect the impact of sequestration. Supplemental data include contingent appropriations and Supplemental data include contingent appropriations and ~~al appropriation s~~all appropriations under the heading of “Disaster under the heading of “Disaster Relief” or Relief” or
“Disaster“Disaster Relief Fund” including the language “for an additional amount.” Reductions reflected in the Net Total data include transfers and rescissionsRelief Fund” including the language “for an additional amount.” Reductions reflected in the Net Total data include transfers and rescissions ~~specifical y~~
specifically enumerated in appropriations acts. For information on trends in the declarations that helped drive the demand for these appropriations, see CRS Report R42702, enumerated in appropriations acts. For information on trends in the declarations that helped drive the demand for these appropriations, see CRS Report R42702,
Stafford Act Declarations 1953-2016: Trends, Analyses, and Implications for Congress, by Bruce R. Lindsay. , by Bruce R. Lindsay.
CRS- CRS-2119

Figure 3. FY2021 Dollar Disaster Relief Appropriations, FY1964-~~FY2021~~FY2023

Source: CRS analysis of appropriations laws. CRS analysis of appropriations laws.
Notes: Totals for FY2005, FY2006, FY2018, FY2020, Totals for FY2005, FY2006, FY2018, FY2020, ~~and FY2021~~FY2021, and FY2023, referenced by the arrows, referenced by the arrows, are beyond the scale of the main graph and are shown on the inset.are beyond the scale of the main graph and are shown on the inset. FY2013 FY2013
numbers do not reflect the impact of sequestration.numbers do not reflect the impact of sequestration. Supplemental data include contingent appropriations and Supplemental data include contingent appropriations and ~~al appropriation s~~all appropriations under the heading of “Disaster under the heading of “Disaster Relief” or Relief” or
“Disaster“Disaster Relief Fund” including the language “for an additional amount.” Reductions reflected in the Net Total data include transfers and rescissionsRelief Fund” including the language “for an additional amount.” Reductions reflected in the Net Total data include transfers and rescissions ~~specifical y~~
specifically enumerated in appropriations acts. For information on trends in the declarations that helped drive the demand for these appropriations, seeenumerated in appropriations acts. For information on trends in the declarations that helped drive the demand for these appropriations, see CRS Report R42702, CRS Report R42702,
Stafford Act Declarations 1953-2016: Trends, Analyses, and Implications for Congress, by Bruce R. Lindsay. , by Bruce R. Lindsay.
CRS- CRS-2220

The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

Factors in Changing Appropriations Levels
For years, FEMA’s budget justifications have noted, in one form or another, that “[t]he primary For years, FEMA’s budget justifications have noted, in one form or another, that “[t]he primary
cost driver associated with Major Disasters is disaster activity.”cost driver associated with Major Disasters is disaster activity.”9179 While year-to-year disaster While year-to-year disaster
relief appropriations are largely driven by disaster activity and ongoing recovery needs, when relief appropriations are largely driven by disaster activity and ongoing recovery needs, when
analyzing historical data over an extended time frame, other factors such as programmatic analyzing historical data over an extended time frame, other factors such as programmatic
changes in general disaster relief and certain changes in the budget process may also warrant changes in general disaster relief and certain changes in the budget process may also warrant
consideration. consideration.
COVID-19 and the DRF
In the interest In the interest of discussing the traditional applications of the DRFof discussing the traditional applications of the DRF, the fol owing analysis for the most part leaves the fol owing analysis for the most part leaves
aside the single largest draw on its resources—theaside the single largest draw on its resources—the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 pandemic. ~~As noted above, the decision~~ The decision to use to use
Stafford Act Stafford Act ~~resources~~ resources in the pandemic response was unprecedented: by the end of the first quarter of in the pandemic response was unprecedented: by the end of the first quarter of ~~FY2022,~~
~~more than $89 bil ion~~ FY2024, more than $120 bil ion had been obligated for COVID-19 pandemic response and recovery fromhad been obligated for COVID-19 pandemic response and recovery from the DRF—even the DRF—even
when adjusted for inflation, this was morewhen adjusted for inflation, this was more than had been appropriated for the DRF fromthan had been appropriated for the DRF from its inception through its inception through
~~FY2001.~~ FY2004. The Trump AdministrationThe Trump Administration also chose to use a large amount of DRF resourcesalso chose to use a large amount of DRF resources ~~for~~ to fund a new unemployment a new unemployment
assistance initiative,assistance initiative, which led to morewhich led to more than $40 bil ionthan $40 bil ion in additional obligations from the DRF in lessin additional obligations from the DRF in less than two than two
months—approximately five timesmonths—approximately five times what had already been provided as assistance to states. what had already been provided as assistance to states.
Given the unique Given the unique ~~nature of the~~ applications of DRF funding for COVID-19 responseDRF funding for COVID-19 response and recovery,and recovery, the analyses in this section the analyses in this section
focus on the changing appropriations levelsfocus on the changing appropriations levels for the DRF infor the DRF in its roleits role as a resourceas a resource ~~to respond to~~ for more traditional “kinetic” traditional “kinetic”
disasters,disasters, such as earthquakes, flooding, and storms,such as earthquakes, flooding, and storms, rather than pandemics. More information on this topic can be found in CRS Report R47048, FEMA’s Role in the COVID-19 Federal Pandemic Response~~rather than pandemics.~~
~~A separate CRS analysis of the use of Stafford Act authorities to address the COVID-19 pandemic is currently~~
~~under development~~. .
Incident Frequency and Severity
The two largest factors affecting year-to-year disaster relief appropriations are disaster activity, The two largest factors affecting year-to-year disaster relief appropriations are disaster activity,
which varies in frequency and severity, and the ongoing recovery costs from previous disasters. which varies in frequency and severity, and the ongoing recovery costs from previous disasters.
Federal involvement in disaster response and recovery occurs when lower levels of government Federal involvement in disaster response and recovery occurs when lower levels of government
find their capabilities are overwhelmed and turn to the federal government for help. Reduced (or find their capabilities are overwhelmed and turn to the federal government for help. Reduced (or
increased) numbers of increased) numbers of ~~cal s~~calls for relief mean reduced (or increased) need for disaster relief for relief mean reduced (or increased) need for disaster relief
appropriations. appropriations.
The incidents that lead to expenditures from the DRF vary in scale. The incidents that lead to expenditures from the DRF vary in scale. ~~Equal y~~Equally powerful storms may powerful storms may
strike a community with a glancing blow or a direct hit. An earthquake may strike a rural area, or strike a community with a glancing blow or a direct hit. An earthquake may strike a rural area, or
a major city with complex infrastructure. Stricken communities, states, territories, and tribes have a major city with complex infrastructure. Stricken communities, states, territories, and tribes have
varying levels of preparedness for particular types of disaster, and different amounts of public varying levels of preparedness for particular types of disaster, and different amounts of public
infrastructure to repair and replace. infrastructure to repair and replace.
Some observers have noted that as the U.S. population grows and develops property in disaster- Some observers have noted that as the U.S. population grows and develops property in disaster-
prone areas, and as patterns of severe weather shift, the costs of disasters are likely to continue to prone areas, and as patterns of severe weather shift, the costs of disasters are likely to continue to
rise.rise.9280 According to the National Centers for Environmental Information of the National Oceanic According to the National Centers for Environmental Information of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, from 1980 through and Atmospheric Administration, from 1980 through ~~2021~~2023, the United States has averaged more , the United States has averaged more

91than eight weather-related disaster events that each cost $1 billion or more each year.81 The 79 Department of Homeland Security, Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2019 Congressional Budget Justification , ,
FederalFederal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, February 2018,Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, February 2018, p. FEMA-DRF-30. FEMA budget p. FEMA-DRF-30. FEMA budget
justifications from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budgetjustifications from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget . .
9280 For information on forecasts for hurricane-specific disaster costs, see Congressional For information on forecasts for hurricane-specific disaster costs, see Congressional ~~Budget~~ Budget Office, Office, Potential
Increases in Hurricane ~~Dam age~~Damage in the United States: ~~Im plications~~Implications for the Federal Budget, Washington, DC, June , Washington, DC, June
2016, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/51518. 2016, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/51518.
81 These cost figures are based on CPI-adjusted data. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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link to page link to page 2624 link to page link to page 2827 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

~~than seven weather-related disaster events that each cost $1 bil ion or more each year.93 The~~
frequency of these events is increasing. From 1980 through 2007, more than seven frequency of these events is increasing. From 1980 through 2007, more than seven ~~bil ion~~billion-dollar -dollar
events occurred in only one year (1998). Since 2007, these events have become more frequent: events occurred in only one year (1998). Since 2007, these events have become more frequent:
only one year since 2007 has seen only one year since 2007 has seen fewer than seven such events. Ten or more such events have than seven such events. Ten or more such events have
occurred each year since occurred each year since ~~2015~~2011. The average over the last five years (2019-2023) is more than 20 billion-dollar events. The United States was struck by . The United States was struck by 2228 such events in such events in ~~2020, an~~
~~annual record.94~~
~~The contrast~~2023, exceeding the previous annual record set in 2020 of 22 events.82 The contrast in funding for the DRF between the period of high-frequency, high-impact events from FY2012 to the between the period of high-frequency, high-impact events from FY2012 to the
present day and the relatively calm period of the 1980s is present day and the relatively calm period of the 1980s is ~~il ustrated i~~n illustrated in Figure 3. Without the Without the
driver of large disasters, DRF appropriations remained modest. During the period from FY1981 driver of large disasters, DRF appropriations remained modest. During the period from FY1981
to FY1991, to FY1991, ~~abnormal y~~unusually low levels of disaster activity led to no supplemental appropriations for 7 low levels of disaster activity led to no supplemental appropriations for 7
of those 11 fiscal years, and no annual appropriations in either FY1984 or FY1991—the only two of those 11 fiscal years, and no annual appropriations in either FY1984 or FY1991—the only two
fiscal years for which this has occurred since FY1964. By contrast, over the last fiscal years for which this has occurred since FY1964. By contrast, over the last ~~nine~~seven years, the years, the
DRF has required sustained high levels of appropriationsDRF has required sustained high levels of appropriations~~, including five of its seven highest total~~
~~appropriations ever by fiscal year,~~. Total nominal dollar appropriations for the DRF for each year never went below $12 billion. Even adjusting for adjusting for inflation, all seven fiscal years were among the 11 highest years of funding for the DRF, and four were within the top five. The top four years of outlays from the DRF all occurred over the four-year period of FY2020 through FY2023. Figure 4 shows the relationship between billion-dollar events and catastrophic incidents—those that cost the DRF more than $500 million each. Note that not all of the billion-dollar loss events resulted in more than $500 million in expenditures from the DRF. The most expensive of the catastrophic events—pandemic COVID-19—is not included in NOAA’s billion-dollar event accounting, as it is not weather-related. The right axis shows annual obligations from the DRF, to illuminate the effect of these events on DRF obligations. Given its unprecedented nature and high cost, white dots with green borders show DRF obligations for non-COVID events. 82~~inflation, and its three largest annual~~
~~appropriations ever from FY2019 through FY2021.~~
~~Further analysis of recent pre-COVID-19 pandemic years shows the association between~~
~~appropriations for the DRF and the frequency of high-cost events is closer than the association~~
~~with the number of major disaster declarations. Table 1 shows data from FEMA regarding the~~
~~number of major disasters declared from FY2004 through FY2019 It also shows FEMA’s~~
~~accounting for the number of major disasters incurring more than $500 mil ion in projected costs~~
~~to FEMA in terms of the federal share of Stafford Act programs, and the totals of those costs by~~
~~fiscal year of the incident. The last column shows the total gross appropriations for the DRF for~~
~~each fiscal year. Given the unusual Stafford Act and DRF activity related to COVID-19, FY2020~~
~~is set aside when calculating the annual average.~~
~~Table 1. Disaster Declaration Activities and Projected Costs of Catastrophic~~
~~Disaster Declarations, FY2004-FY2020~~
~~Total Projected~~
~~Number of~~
~~FEMA Costs of~~
~~Number of~~
~~Catastrophic~~
~~Catastrophic~~
~~Total Gross DRF~~
~~Major Disaster~~
~~Disaster~~
~~Disasters~~
~~Appropriation~~
~~Fiscal Year~~
~~Declarations~~
~~Declarations~~
~~($millions, nominal)~~
~~($millions, nominal)~~
~~2004~~
65
5
~~6,906~~
~~4,023~~
~~2005~~
45
5
~~47,919~~
~~68,427~~
~~2006~~
53
1
~~2,606~~
~~-16,391~~
~~2007~~
67
0
—
~~5,743~~
~~2008~~
68
3
~~8,048~~
~~12,935~~
~~2009~~
63
0
—
~~1,178~~
~~2010~~
79
1
~~573~~
~~6,573~~
~~2011~~
98
2
~~1,344~~
~~2,650~~
~~2012~~
46
1
~~706~~
~~7,076~~
~~2013~~
65
3
~~22,767~~
~~18,469~~

~~93 T hese cost figures are based on CPI-adjusted data.~~
94 NOAA, National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), NOAA, National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
(2018), https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/(2018), https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/. Note that NOAA data here is presented as calendar years (January-December) rather than fiscal years (October-September). .
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2422 link to page 27 link to page 28 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues Figure 4. Number of $1 Billion Loss Events and Catastrophic Incidents, FY2014-FY2023, with DRF Obligations, Controlling for COVID-19 Obligations Source: CRS analysis of NOAA bil ion-dol ar events research and DRF monthly reports. Notes: All events tallied by fiscal year. Amounts are not indexed for inflation. DRF obligations data does not reflect the year-end closeout adjustments performed in the month after the fiscal year is complete; however, these amounts are not large enough to be reflected in the Figure. Total obligations do not reflect set-asides or obligations associated with the Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities program. Deobligations of funding, rescissions, and transfers are not reflected. Figure 4 nevertheless shows the increasing trend in the number of billion-dollar loss events over the last 10 years, and an increasing number of half-billion DRF cost events. It also shows, as expected due to the significance of recovery costs from large events, that relief most often comes in the form of reimbursements after the fact. However, the level of obligations from the DRF has more to do with the relative severity of the event, as opposed to the number of events, as the severity of the COVID-19 response shows. Further analysis of the 10 most recent fiscal years reinforces the association between catastrophic incidents and the level of appropriations for and obligations from the DRF. Figure 5 shows the level of appropriations for the DRF for each of the last 10 fiscal years, followed by two columns showing total DRF obligations and DRF obligations for catastrophic disasters. Congressional Research Service 23 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues Figure 5. DRF Appropriations and Obligations, FY2014-FY2023 (Reflecting the comparative size of obligations for catastrophic events) Source: CRS analysis of fiscal year-ending Disaster Relief Fund: Monthly Reports from FEMA, FY2014-FY2023, Appendices A and B. Notes: Data does not reflect the year-end closeout adjustments performed in the month after the fiscal year is complete. However, these amounts are not large enough to be reflected in the figure. Total obligations do not reflect set-asides or obligations associated with the Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities program. Deobligations of funding, rescissions, and transfers also are not reflected. FEMA credits $16 bil ion in supplemental appropriations for the DRF in the same measure as the FY2024 Continuing Resolution as FY2024 funding, so those funds are not reflected in this figure. The DRF continues

~~link to page 29 link to page 29 link to page 28 link to page 31 link to page 31~~ ~~The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues~~

~~Total Projected~~
~~Number of~~
~~FEMA Costs of~~
~~Number of~~
~~Catastrophic~~
~~Catastrophic~~
~~Total Gross DRF~~
~~Major Disaster~~
~~Disaster~~
~~Disasters~~
~~Appropriation~~
~~Fiscal Year~~
~~Declarations~~
~~Declarations~~
~~($millions, nominal)~~
~~($millions, nominal)~~
~~2014~~
48
0
—
~~5,897~~
~~2015~~
44
0
—
~~6,729~~
~~2016~~
41
2
~~3,407~~
~~6,329~~
~~2017~~
60
8
~~85,991~~
~~13,996~~
~~2018~~
54
2
~~2,914~~
~~45,011~~
~~2019~~
53
4
~~6,628~~
~~12,005~~
~~2020~~
~~100~~
~~33a~~
~~79,601~~
~~62,863~~
~~Total~~
~~1,049~~
~~70a~~
~~269,410~~
~~263,513~~
~~Total (setting~~
~~949~~
37
~~189,809~~
~~200,650~~
~~aside FY2020)~~
~~Adjusted~~
~~59.3~~
~~2.3~~
~~11,863~~
~~12,541~~
~~Average~~
Source: Emails from FEMA Office of Congressional Affairs to CRS, September 24, 2019, and November 9, 2020;
~~and data from FEMA’s database of disaster declarations by year, as of November 12, 2019~~
~~(https://www.fema.gov/disasters/year).~~
Notes: DRF appropriations totals reflect the impacts of rescissions and legislatively directed transfers. Due to
~~the nature of the data presented, the information in the figure represents nominal dol ars. FY2013 data does not~~
~~include the impact of sequestration.~~
~~a. Of the 59 major disaster declarations made for COVID-19 as of this writing, 31 individual declarations were~~
~~projected to have a federal share of over $500 mil ion as of November 2020. Given the changing level of~~
~~FEMA involvement and increasing federal cost shares for certain elements of response and recovery, that~~
~~number is likely to increase.~~
~~Taking the FEMA catastrophic event cost projections and the net total DRF appropriations from~~
~~the two right-hand columns in Table 1 and matching them up in Figure 4 il uminates two key~~
~~points about the DRF. First, catastrophic events are the major driver of DRF funding, rather than~~
~~the volume of major disaster declarations. Second, while a large amount of appropriations are~~
~~provided for the DRF in the immediate aftermath of catastrophic incidents, subsequent years’~~
~~appropriations and obligations are also elevated to address long-term recovery costs.95~~
Figure 4 focuses on FY2000 through FY2019, supplementing the above data with obligation data
~~that il ustrate total annual obligations for the DRF.96 This il ustrates visual y how appropriations~~
~~are driven by catastrophic events, and are spent over the ensuing years to pay for recovery costs.~~
~~The yel ow bars show the FEMA-projected DRF costs for catastrophic disasters that occurred in a~~
~~given fiscal year. For example, FY2005 shows a bar denoting the projected costs of Hurricanes~~
~~Katrina, Rita, and Wilma, while FY2013 shows a bar denoting the costs of Hurricane Sandy. The~~
~~blue line shows total annual and supplemental appropriations for the DRF, and the green line~~

~~95 FEMA’s projected cost data cannot be consistently deflated to a constant dollar value. T he $45 billion provided in~~
~~the CARES Act and COVID-19 obligations are excluded from this analysis as their scale masks the trend line of~~
~~obligations from prior-year catastrophic incidents.~~
~~96 Due to the novel uses of the Stafford Act and DRF resources for the COVID-19 response, FY2020 and FY2021 are~~
~~outlier years that do not reflect the overall trend of DRF appropriations and obligations, and projections of total costs~~
~~for COVID-19 response and recovery from the DRF are in complete at best as the situation continues to evolve.~~
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~~shows the annual obligations from the DRF each year. Note that the blue line shows the surge in~~
~~appropriations provided by a series of supplemental appropriations provided in the days after~~
~~Katrina in FY2005, and a rescission of some of those resources in FY2006 to pay for other relief~~
~~programs.~~
~~Harvey, Irma, Maria, and the 2017 California wildfires led to large projected costs of FY2017~~
~~catastrophic disasters. The spike in immediate appropriations did not align with that large~~
~~projected need, but instead appears the following year, as the three hurricanes occurred close to~~
~~the end of the fiscal year, and the obligations for recovery and mitigation activities do not occur~~
~~immediately.~~
~~Disaster relief appropriations continue~~ to pay the costs of recovery from catastrophic incidents for to pay the costs of recovery from catastrophic incidents for
years after they occur. For example, in years after they occur. For example, in ~~FY2021~~FY2023, FEMA obligated , FEMA obligated ~~almost $12.6 bil ion~~ $7.9 billion in DRF ~~in DRF~~
funding for ongoing recovery from funding for ongoing recovery from ~~past~~non-pandemic catastrophic disasters catastrophic disasters ~~(not including the COVID-19~~
~~pandemic)~~that occurred in FY2020 or earlier, including , including almost $5.6 billion for Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Maria, and the 2017 California wildfires, $146 million ~~almost $9.4 bil ion for the four 2017 events mentioned above, $569 mil ion~~
for Hurricane Sandy (2012)for Hurricane Sandy (2012), and $ and $~~69 mil ion~~267 million for costs from for costs from ~~hurricanes~~Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma Katrina, Rita, and Wilma
~~(2005).~~
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~~Figure 4. Catastrophic Disaster Costs, DRF Appropriations and Obligations~~
~~(FY2000-FY2019)~~

Source: CRS analysis of FEMA data reflected in Table 1 and provided via email to CRS in October 2020.
Notes: DRF appropriations totals reflect the impacts of rescissions and legislatively directed transfers. Due to
~~the nature of the data presented, the information in the figure represents nominal dol ars. Obligations are net of~~
~~deobligations.~~
(2005). Programmatic Changes in Disaster Relief
Over the long term, alterations to the scope of federal disaster relief programs affect the type and Over the long term, alterations to the scope of federal disaster relief programs affect the type and
level of federal spending when disasters occur. level of federal spending when disasters occur. ~~Initial y~~Initially, the first appropriation for disaster relief , the first appropriation for disaster relief
and the Disaster Relief Act of 1950 authorized funding to repair local public facilities at the and the Disaster Relief Act of 1950 authorized funding to repair local public facilities at the
President’s discretion. As the brief history above relates, the federal program for general disaster President’s discretion. As the brief history above relates, the federal program for general disaster
relief has evolved into a much broader program, of which local public facilities is only one facet. relief has evolved into a much broader program, of which local public facilities is only one facet.
This evolution has occurred This evolution has occurred ~~gradual y~~gradually. Some of this evolution was the result of incorporating . Some of this evolution was the result of incorporating
assistance offered in response to specific disasters in the 1960s and 1970s into the general relief assistance offered in response to specific disasters in the 1960s and 1970s into the general relief
programs under the Stafford Act. Additional changes were brought about by the broadening of the programs under the Stafford Act. Additional changes were brought about by the broadening of the
federal role in federal role in ~~smal er~~smaller-scale incidents, as -scale incidents, as ~~wel~~ well as proactive declarations prior to potential disasters as proactive declarations prior to potential disasters
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to reduce their impact. In addition, disaster relief programs funded through the DRF now include to reduce their impact. In addition, disaster relief programs funded through the DRF now include
disaster mitigation programs that are not limited to mitigating the type of disaster that triggered disaster mitigation programs that are not limited to mitigating the type of disaster that triggered
Congressional Research Service 24 link to page 24 link to page 15 link to page 15 link to page 16 link to page 20 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues them, but are also intended to reduce the impact (and by extension, the cost) of disasters over the them, but are also intended to reduce the impact (and by extension, the cost) of disasters over the
long term. long term.
The impacts of programmatic expansions are reflected i The impacts of programmatic expansions are reflected in Figure 3, with the trend of increased , with the trend of increased
general disaster relief appropriations on a general disaster relief appropriations on a ~~smal~~ small scale associated with expansions under the scale associated with expansions under the
Disaster Relief Act of 1969 and the Disaster Relief Act of 1970, and on a larger scale with the Disaster Relief Act of 1969 and the Disaster Relief Act of 1970, and on a larger scale with the
expansion of programs under the Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Amendments of expansion of programs under the Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Amendments of
1988. While the decrease in disaster activities in the 1980s reduced the annual demand for 1988. While the decrease in disaster activities in the 1980s reduced the annual demand for
disaster relief appropriations, once the number of declared disasters rose again, and emergencies disaster relief appropriations, once the number of declared disasters rose again, and emergencies
and mitigationand mitigation also drew on DRF resources, demand for those resources grew rapidly. also drew on DRF resources, demand for those resources grew rapidly.
Programmatic broadening in general disaster relief has continued in the 21st century. It remains to Programmatic broadening in general disaster relief has continued in the 21st century. It remains to
be seen if the be seen if the ~~unprecedented~~novel use of the Stafford Act to support COVID-19 response use of the Stafford Act to support COVID-19 response~~, including~~
~~expansions of unemployment assistance beyond state unemployment eligibility, wil become a~~
~~regular application of DRF resources. For a more detailed discussion of changes to authorized~~
~~programs, see “1966-1974: The Disaster Relief Act of 1966—General Relief Broadens” and~~
~~“1974-Present: The Era of Federal y Coordinated Emergency Management.”~~
will become a precedent for future use of the Stafford Act and DRF resources.83 Changes in the Budget Process
Changes in congressional budget processes have at times been discussed as a means of limiting Changes in congressional budget processes have at times been discussed as a means of limiting
the budgetary impact of disaster relief spending. However, the budget controls that have been the budgetary impact of disaster relief spending. However, the budget controls that have been
approved and implemented approved and implemented ~~general y~~generally have been provided with provisions to ensure disaster relief have been provided with provisions to ensure disaster relief
budget authority remains availablebudget authority remains available if needed. if needed.
Prior to 1985, Congress provided appropriations to fund the federal government without specific Prior to 1985, Congress provided appropriations to fund the federal government without specific
statutory limitations on statutory limitations on ~~overal~~ overall spending. The 1985 Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit spending. The 1985 Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit
Control Act put limits on deficit spending in place. The Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 placed Control Act put limits on deficit spending in place. The Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 placed
express limits on discretionary spending for the first time. express limits on discretionary spending for the first time.
The 1990 act also provided an exception to those limits, The 1990 act also provided an exception to those limits, ~~al owing~~allowing Congress, together with the Congress, together with the
President, to declare certain spending to be an emergency requirement, and therefore not subject President, to declare certain spending to be an emergency requirement, and therefore not subject
to those limits. This was used to provide additional appropriations for disaster relief. Although the to those limits. This was used to provide additional appropriations for disaster relief. Although the
original set of discretionary limits expired, the emergency spending designation has continued as original set of discretionary limits expired, the emergency spending designation has continued as
part of the appropriations process. part of the appropriations process.
In 2011, the Budget Control Act (P.L. 112-25, BCA) not only reestablished statutory spending In 2011, the Budget Control Act (P.L. 112-25, BCA) not only reestablished statutory spending
limits, but also provided a special designation for the costs of major disasters, in addition to the limits, but also provided a special designation for the costs of major disasters, in addition to the
emergency designation.emergency designation. ~~The amount of funding that can be designated as disaster relief—defined~~
~~as spending pursuant to a major disaster declaration—is limited by a formula based on past~~
~~spending on disaster relief. It is not a restriction on how much can be spent on disasters,~~
~~however—funding in excess of the al owable adjustment for disaster relief is stil eligible for an~~
~~emergency designation. This formula was adjusted by the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018 to~~
~~account for emergency-designated spending on disasters. The special designation for disaster~~
~~spending expires along with the discretionary spending limits in 2021.~~
~~The impact of these changes in the budget process on disaster relief appropriations appears to be~~
~~limited to the structure of the total appropriations, rather than the amount. The Congressional~~
~~Budget Office (CBO) noted that in the 1970s, “about 5%” of supplemental funding was for~~
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~~disasters.97 In a report reviewing supplemental appropriations enacted during the 1980s, CBO~~
~~indicated that number fel to less than 1%.98 This can be attributed to the drop in disaster activity~~
~~discussed above. In a similar report on the 1990s, CBO observed an increase in the use of~~
~~supplemental appropriations to provide disaster relief, noting the following:~~
84 The impact of these changes in the budget process on disaster relief appropriations appears to be limited to the structure of the total appropriations, rather than the amount. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) noted that in the 1970s, “about 5%” of supplemental funding was for disasters.85 In a report reviewing supplemental appropriations enacted during the 1980s, CBO indicated that number fell to less than 1%.86 This can be attributed to the drop in disaster activity discussed above. In a similar report on the 1990s, CBO observed an increase in the use of supplemental appropriations to provide disaster relief, noting the following: 83 For a more detailed discussion of changes to authorized programs, see “1966-1974: The Disaster Relief Act of 1966—General Relief Broadens” and “1974-2017: The Era of Federally Coordinated Emergency Management.” 84 See the “Disaster Relief Designation” subheading under “Annual Appropriations,” above, for further discussion. 85 Congressional Budget Office, Supplemental Appropriations in the 1970s, Staff Working Paper, Washington, DC, July 1981, p. xiv, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/15398. 86 Congressional Budget Office, Supplemental Appropriations in the 1980s, Washington, DC, February 1, 1990, pp. 29, 32, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/17127. Congressional Research Service 25 link to page 23 link to page 24 link to page 31 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues [I]n the 1990s, Presidents Bush and Clinton tended to request—and the Congress tended [I]n the 1990s, Presidents Bush and Clinton tended to request—and the Congress tended
to provide in regular appropriations—less than what would eventually be spent in those to provide in regular appropriations—less than what would eventually be spent in those
disaster-related accounts. (Some observers say the underfunding was an effort to keep total disaster-related accounts. (Some observers say the underfunding was an effort to keep total
appropriations under the [budget enforcement] caps.) When a disaster or emergency arose, appropriations under the [budget enforcement] caps.) When a disaster or emergency arose,
thethe ~~Congress enacted supplemental appropriations during the fiscal year, usually at~~ Congress enacted supplemental appropriations during the fiscal year, usually at the the
request of the President. That supplemental funding was designated emergency spending request of the President. That supplemental funding was designated emergency spending
and was therefore not counted under the discretionary spending caps.and was therefore not counted under the discretionary spending caps.9987
Figure 2 andand Figure 3 do not show a distinct impact of budget controls on the do not show a distinct impact of budget controls on the ~~overal~~ overall level of level of
disaster spending. However, they do show an increase in the amount of funding provided in disaster spending. However, they do show an increase in the amount of funding provided in
annual appropriations versus supplemental appropriations starting in FY2012. The addition of the annual appropriations versus supplemental appropriations starting in FY2012. The addition of the
disaster relief designation under the BCAdisaster relief designation under the BCA enabled higher funding levels for disasters in the annual enabled higher funding levels for disasters in the annual
appropriations appropriations ~~bil s~~bills, as disaster relief-designated appropriations did not compete with other , as disaster relief-designated appropriations did not compete with other
appropriations for limited discretionary resources, either within the appropriations for limited discretionary resources, either within the ~~al ocations~~allocations provided to the provided to the
subcommittee funding FEMA, or within the subcommittee funding FEMA, or within the ~~overal~~ overall discretionary spending limit. In the early discretionary spending limit. In the early
years of the disaster relief designation, this increased annual funding also reduced the frequency years of the disaster relief designation, this increased annual funding also reduced the frequency
and urgency of supplemental appropriations for the DRF. and urgency of supplemental appropriations for the DRF.
However, Congress has provided emergency-designated relief for catastrophic disasters in However, Congress has provided emergency-designated relief for catastrophic disasters in
supplemental appropriations, whether statutory budget controls were in place or not.supplemental appropriations, whether statutory budget controls were in place or not.
Figure 56 shows shows a 20-year gross funding history ~~funding~~ for the DRF from FY2004 through for the DRF from FY2004 through ~~FY2021,~~ FY2023, showing, for each fiscal showing, for each fiscal
year, the breakdown between annual and supplemental appropriations, then the year, the breakdown between annual and supplemental appropriations, then the ~~breakdow n~~breakdown of of
funding provided within budget limitationsfunding provided within budget limitations (discretionary spending) and beyond budget (discretionary spending) and beyond budget
~~limitations~~ limitations (disaster relief and emergency designated spending). It shows the pre-BCA usage of (disaster relief and emergency designated spending). It shows the pre-BCA usage of
the emergency designation to cover supplemental appropriations for the DRF, and the usage of the emergency designation to cover supplemental appropriations for the DRF, and the usage of
the disaster relief designation to cover increased DRF annual appropriations, beginning in the disaster relief designation to cover increased DRF annual appropriations, beginning in
~~FY2013~~FY2013—the only time that the disaster relief designation was used in a supplemental appropriations measure. The absence of the gross discretionary bar from FY2021 through FY2023 shows the reliance of the DRF “base” on carryover balances from the CARES Act in that period. It also shows the first mandatory supplemental spending for the DRF—$50 . It also shows the first mandatory supplemental spending for the DRF—$50 ~~bil ion~~
billion through the American Rescue Plan Act (P.L. 117-2) in FY2021—which is subject to different through the American Rescue Plan Act (P.L. 117-2) in FY2021—which is subject to different
controls than discretionary appropriations. controls than discretionary appropriations.

~~97 Congressional Budget Office, Supplemental Appropriations in the 1970s, Staff Working Paper, Washington, DC,~~
~~July 1981, p. xiv, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/15398.~~
98 87 Congressional Budget ~~Congressional Budget Office, Supplemental Appropriations in the 1980s, Washington, DC, February 1, 1990, pp. 29,~~
~~32, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/17127.~~
~~99 Congressional Budget~~ Office, Office, Supplemental Appropriations in the 1990s, Washington, DC, March 2001, p. 13, , Washington, DC, March 2001, p. 13,
https://www.cbo.gov/publication/12999. https://www.cbo.gov/publication/12999.
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Figure 56. DRF Annual and Supplemental Appropriations Within and Beyond
Discretionary Spending Limits, FY2004-~~FY2021~~
FY2023
Source: CRS analysis of DRF appropriations database. CRS analysis of DRF appropriations database.
Notes: Does not show the impact of transfers or rescissions. Does not show the impact of transfers or rescissions. FY2013 data does not include the impact of FY2013 data does not include the impact of
sequestration. sequestration.
Budgeting Practices for Disaster Relief
Management of Disaster Relief Funds
The responsibility for managing DRF appropriations has shifted among agencies as the general The responsibility for managing DRF appropriations has shifted among agencies as the general
disaster relief function has grown. In March 1951, President Truman disaster relief function has grown. In March 1951, President Truman ~~initial y delegated the~~initially delegated the authority for directing federal agencies in a disaster to the Housing and Home Finance
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~~authority for directing federal agencies in a disaster to the Housing and Home Finance~~
Administrator at the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD);Administrator at the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD);~~100~~88 then in January then in January
1953 the responsibility was shifted to the Federal Civil1953 the responsibility was shifted to the Federal Civil Defense AdministrationDefense Administration in the Department in the Department
of Defense (DOD).of Defense (DOD).~~101~~89 In 1961, the authority was moved within the department to the Office of In 1961, the authority was moved within the department to the Office of
CivilCivil Defense Mobilization, which had its name changed in 1961 to the Office of Emergency Defense Mobilization, which had its name changed in 1961 to the Office of Emergency
Planning, and changed again in 1968 to the Office of Emergency Preparedness.Planning, and changed again in 1968 to the Office of Emergency Preparedness.~~102~~90 It remained It remained
with that office until its abolishment in 1973, when disaster relief powers were transferred from with that office until its abolishment in 1973, when disaster relief powers were transferred from
DOD back to HUD, where those powers were exercised by the Federal Disaster Assistance DOD back to HUD, where those powers were exercised by the Federal Disaster Assistance
Administration (FDAA).Administration (FDAA).~~103~~
91 Although management responsibilities were vested in various parts of the federal bureaucracy, Although management responsibilities were vested in various parts of the federal bureaucracy,
appropriations for general disaster relief were provided directly to the Executive Office of the appropriations for general disaster relief were provided directly to the Executive Office of the
President from FY1948 through FY1973. For FY1974, funds were President from FY1948 through FY1973. For FY1974, funds were ~~stil~~ still described as “Funds described as “Funds
Appropriated to the President,” but they were provided within HUD’s appropriations.Appropriated to the President,” but they were provided within HUD’s appropriations.~~104~~
92 1978: The Creation of the Federal Emergency Management Agency
In 1978, responding to support In 1978, responding to support from state governors for a more cohesive emergency management structure at the for a more cohesive emergency management structure at the
federal level, President Jimmy Carter issued Reorganization Plan #3, which created the Federal federal level, President Jimmy Carter issued Reorganization Plan #3, which created the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). At the time, disaster relief functions were vested in Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). At the time, disaster relief functions were vested in
three agencies: the FDAA (at HUD, managing general federal disaster relief), the Federal three agencies: the FDAA (at HUD, managing general federal disaster relief), the Federal
Preparedness Agency (FPA—part of the General Services Administration); and the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (FPA—part of the General Services Administration); and the Defense Civil
Preparedness Agency (DCPA—part of the Department of Defense). This was the first time that Preparedness Agency (DCPA—part of the Department of Defense). This was the first time that
emergency management functions at the national level were expressly centralized into a single emergency management functions at the national level were expressly centralized into a single
federal agency. FEMA had a three-part role: federal agency. FEMA had a three-part role:
• Mobilizing Mobilizing federal resources, federal resources,
• Coordinating federal efforts with state and local governments, and Coordinating federal efforts with state and local governments, and
• Managing the efforts of the public and private sectors in disaster responses. Managing the efforts of the public and private sectors in disaster responses.
FY1980 was the first year appropriations for “Disaster Relief” were provided to FEMA. FY1980 was the first year appropriations for “Disaster Relief” were provided to FEMA.
Calculation of the Annual Appropriations Request
A review of selected FEMA budget justifications shows how the executive branch has discussed A review of selected FEMA budget justifications shows how the executive branch has discussed
its decision concerning how much to request for disaster relief. its decision concerning how much to request for disaster relief.
“Past Experience” and Various Averages
In the early 1980s (1983-1985), FEMA provided justifications for the Disaster Relief In the early 1980s (1983-1985), FEMA provided justifications for the Disaster Relief
appropriation that included management and coordination, individualappropriation that included management and coordination, individual assistance, and public assistance, and public
assistance activities. These activities were also supported under the Emergency Management assistance activities. These activities were also supported under the Emergency Management
Planning and Assistance appropriation and the Salaries and Expenses appropriation for FEMA. Planning and Assistance appropriation and the Salaries and Expenses appropriation for FEMA.
These justifications noted that actual disaster relief requirements were based on unpredictable These justifications noted that actual disaster relief requirements were based on unpredictable

~~100 Harry S. T ruman~~external factors. The FY1984 justification noted, “The budget requests mentioned are based on 88 Harry S. Truman, Executive Order 10221, “Providing for the Administration of Disaster Relief,” March 2, 1951. , Executive Order 10221, “Providing for the Administration of Disaster Relief,” March 2, 1951.
~~101~~89 Harry S. Harry S. ~~T ruman~~ Truman, Executive Order 10427, “Administration of Disaster Relief,” January 16, 1953., Executive Order 10427, “Administration of Disaster Relief,” January 16, 1953.
~~102 CRS~~ 90 CRS Report 78-102, Report 78-102, Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Assistance: Federal Organization and ~~Program s~~Programs, by , by
Clark F. Norton, April 18, 1978, p. CRS-37Clark F. Norton, April 18, 1978, p. CRS-37 (out of print; available to congressional clients from the author). 91.
~~103~~ Norton, p. CRS-38. Norton, p. CRS-38.
~~104~~92 After FY1986, the “Funds Appropriated to the President” heading fell out of use. After FY1986, the “Funds Appropriated to the President” heading fell out of use.
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~~external factors. The FY1984 justification noted, “The budget requests mentioned are based on~~
average projection of disaster occurrence. Any significant change from the projected totals, average projection of disaster occurrence. Any significant change from the projected totals,
through either more or larger size incidents, could generate an increased request.”through either more or larger size incidents, could generate an increased request.”~~105~~93
However, despite that uncertainty, a request for a specific budget number leads to questions about However, despite that uncertainty, a request for a specific budget number leads to questions about
the basis for that particular number. In the FY1986 process, FEMA explicitly noted it was the basis for that particular number. In the FY1986 process, FEMA explicitly noted it was
projecting its anticipated need “on the basis of past experience with disasters.”projecting its anticipated need “on the basis of past experience with disasters.”~~106~~94 Between Between
September 1984, when FEMA submitted its budget request to the Office of Management and September 1984, when FEMA submitted its budget request to the Office of Management and
Budget for review, and February 1985, when the budget justification was provided to Congress, Budget for review, and February 1985, when the budget justification was provided to Congress,
~~additional~~ additional “experience” was apparently accumulated that reduced the projected demand for “experience” was apparently accumulated that reduced the projected demand for
disaster relief from $350 disaster relief from $350 ~~mil ion to $275 mil ion.107~~million to $275 million.95
By the FY1989 appropriations cycle, the language justifying the request had evolved into “an By the FY1989 appropriations cycle, the language justifying the request had evolved into “an
assessment of historical averages,” and included specific data on the average annual disaster relief assessment of historical averages,” and included specific data on the average annual disaster relief
obligations for a seven-year period,obligations for a seven-year period,~~108 as wel~~ 96 as well as the disaster relief obligations for the most as the disaster relief obligations for the most
recently concluded fiscal year. The budget justification then included a request, noting the request recently concluded fiscal year. The budget justification then included a request, noting the request
and the projected obligation data that justified it included $30 and the projected obligation data that justified it included $30 ~~mil ion~~ million in savings through in savings through
unspecified “legislativeunspecified “legislative and administrative reforms.”and administrative reforms.”~~109~~97
As has been noted before, by the late 1980s and into the 1990s, concerns about deficit spending As has been noted before, by the late 1980s and into the 1990s, concerns about deficit spending
led to the discussion of budget controls, and ultimately their implementation. led to the discussion of budget controls, and ultimately their implementation.
The FY1992 request highlighted the difficulty in simply using averages of past obligations. The FY1992 request highlighted the difficulty in simply using averages of past obligations.
According to the justification, the average annual obligation from 1981 to 1989 of $270 According to the justification, the average annual obligation from 1981 to 1989 of $270 ~~mil ion~~million
was exceeded by the FY1990 obligation of over $2 was exceeded by the FY1990 obligation of over $2 ~~bil ion~~ billion for costs related to Hurricane for costs related to Hurricane ~~Hugo110~~
Hugo98 and the Loma Prieta earthquake.and the Loma Prieta earthquake.~~111~~99
The FY1994 request included a great deal of information on prior-year activities, discussing these The FY1994 request included a great deal of information on prior-year activities, discussing these
elements in the context of average levels of obligations, and noting the impact of larger disasters elements in the context of average levels of obligations, and noting the impact of larger disasters
in prior years, but did littlein prior years, but did little ~~to specifical y~~ to specifically justify the request level of $292 justify the request level of $292 ~~mil ion.112~~million.100
Five-Year Averages (With Exceptions)
For FY1995, the budget discussion evolved, as FEMA justified the request on the basis of the For FY1995, the budget discussion evolved, as FEMA justified the request on the basis of the
first five years of activities under the Stafford Act, and the series of major disasters that had first five years of activities under the Stafford Act, and the series of major disasters that had

~~105~~struck.101 The use of the five-year average continued through the 1990s and early 2000s, with 93 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1984 (submitted to Congress), (submitted to Congress),
January 1983, p. DR-7. January 1983, p. DR-7.
~~106~~94 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1986 (submitted to Office of (submitted to Office of
Management and Budget), September 1984, p. DR-2; and Federal Emergency Management Agency, Management and Budget), September 1984, p. DR-2; and Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of
~~Estim ates~~Estimates, Fiscal Year 1986 (submitted to Congress), February (submitted to Congress), February 1985, p. DR-2. 1985, p. DR-2.
~~107~~95 Ibid. Ibid.
~~108 T he~~96 The data for this average went back to 1981, when cost data for this average went back to 1981, when cost -sharing measures-sharing measures were first applied to the public assistance were first applied to the public assistance
program. Adoption of those measures wouldprogram. Adoption of those measures would have affected the baselinehave affected the baseline level of spending from the DRF.level of spending from the DRF.
~~109~~ 97 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1989 (submitted to Congress), (submitted to Congress),
Washington, DC, FebruaryWashington, DC, February 1988, p. DR-2. 1988, p. DR-2.
~~110~~ 98 Hurricane Hugo occurred Hurricane Hugo occurred late in FY1989 (making landfall on September 22), so most of its disaster relief costs were late in FY1989 (making landfall on September 22), so most of its disaster relief costs were
reflected in FY1990. reflected in FY1990.
~~111~~99 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1992 (submitted to Congress), (submitted to Congress),
Washington, DC, FebruaryWashington, DC, February 1991, p. DR-2. 1991, p. DR-2.
~~112~~100 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1994 (submitted to Congress), (submitted to Congress),
Washington, DC, March 1993, p. DR-3. Washington, DC, March 1993, p. DR-3.
101 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1995 (submitted to Congress), (continued...) Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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~~struck.113 The use of the five-year average continued through the 1990s and early 2000s, with~~
disaster support costs—the costs of maintaining disaster response capabilities that are not disaster support costs—the costs of maintaining disaster response capabilities that are not
attributable to a specific disaster—included as attributable to a specific disaster—included as ~~wel~~ well. Certain very large disasters were not included . Certain very large disasters were not included
in the average. For example, for FY1999, FEMA explicitlyin the average. For example, for FY1999, FEMA explicitly excluded the costs of the 1994 excluded the costs of the 1994
Northridge earthquake, plus disaster support costs.Northridge earthquake, plus disaster support costs.~~114~~102 For FY2003, not only were the ongoing For FY2003, not only were the ongoing
recovery costs from Northridge excluded from the average, but so were the impacts of the 9/11 recovery costs from Northridge excluded from the average, but so were the impacts of the 9/11
terrorist attacks. terrorist attacks.
By FY2009, the justification had again evolved: By FY2009, the justification had again evolved: “Coupled with funding from recoveries of prior “Coupled with funding from recoveries of prior
year obligations and unobligated funds carried forward, the appropriation request year obligations and unobligated funds carried forward, the appropriation request ~~wil~~ will fund the fund the
five-year average obligation levelfive-year average obligation level for direct disaster activity (excluding extraordinary events, such for direct disaster activity (excluding extraordinary events, such
as the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, the 2004 hurricanes in Florida and other states, and as the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, the 2004 hurricanes in Florida and other states, and
Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma in 2005 and 2006 and excluding disaster readiness and Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma in 2005 and 2006 and excluding disaster readiness and
support functions).”support functions).”~~115~~103 In FY2011, the Administration simplified the request language by referring In FY2011, the Administration simplified the request language by referring
to disasters that cost less than $500 to disasters that cost less than $500 ~~mil ion~~million as “non-catastrophic disaster activity.” That year, in as “non-catastrophic disaster activity.” That year, in
addition to the request for the DRF based on the five-year average of “non-catastrophic” disaster addition to the request for the DRF based on the five-year average of “non-catastrophic” disaster
relief obligations, the Administration made a concurrent request for $3.6 relief obligations, the Administration made a concurrent request for $3.6 ~~bil ion~~billion for the costs of for the costs of
prior catastrophic storms and wildfires. prior catastrophic storms and wildfires.
The Budget Control Act Era: Ten-Year Averages, Reserves, and Flexibility
The 2010s saw continued debate on deficit spending, coupled with a continuing desire to fund The 2010s saw continued debate on deficit spending, coupled with a continuing desire to fund
disaster relief programs. When Congress passed the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25; disaster relief programs. When Congress passed the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25;
BCA), it created statutory caps on spending as BCA), it created statutory caps on spending as ~~wel~~ well as a special mechanism to exempt some of the as a special mechanism to exempt some of the
costs of major disasters from those caps. (costs of major disasters from those caps. (~~See~~ See “Changes in the Budget Process” ” for details.) for details.)
A $500 A $500 ~~mil ion~~ million reserve fund was included in the Administration’s budget request for FY2012. reserve fund was included in the Administration’s budget request for FY2012.
This was intended to help ensure resources were available on short notice in hurricane season.This was intended to help ensure resources were available on short notice in hurricane season.~~116~~104
This rose to $1 This rose to $1 ~~bil ion~~ billion in FY2015. For FY2019, the reserve request increased to $2 in FY2015. For FY2019, the reserve request increased to $2 ~~bil ion~~billion “due to “due to
the uncertainty around the availabilitythe uncertainty around the availability of additional supplemental funding to continue addressing of additional supplemental funding to continue addressing
the 2017 hurricanes.”the 2017 hurricanes.”~~117~~105
In FY2013, FEMA shifted from using a 5-year average to using a 10-year average of non- In FY2013, FEMA shifted from using a 5-year average to using a 10-year average of non-
catastrophic obligations, plus the estimated requirements for past major disasters, plus the catastrophic obligations, plus the estimated requirements for past major disasters, plus the
reserve, as the basis for their reserve, as the basis for their ~~overal~~ overall DRF request.106 Washington, DC, February ~~DRF request.118~~

~~113 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1995 (submitted to Congress),~~
~~Washington, DC, February~~ 1994, pp. DR-2, DR-3. It also made special note that the budget justification had been 1994, pp. DR-2, DR-3. It also made special note that the budget justification had been
developed prior to the January 17, 1994 earthquake in Northridge, California, and that a supplemental appropriation developed prior to the January 17, 1994 earthquake in Northridge, California, and that a supplemental appropriation
request of $4.7 billion had already been sent to Congress. request of $4.7 billion had already been sent to Congress.
~~114~~102 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 1999 (submitted to Congress), (submitted to Congress),
Washington, DC, FebruaryWashington, DC, February 1998, pp. DR-8, DR-13, DR-23. 1998, pp. DR-8, DR-13, DR-23.
~~115~~103 Department of Homeland Security, Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2009 Congressional Budget Justification , ,
FederalFederal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 2008, pp. FEMA (DRF) 1. FEMAEmergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 2008, pp. FEMA (DRF) 1. FEMA ~~budget~~ budget justifications justifications
from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget. from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget.
~~116~~ 104 Department of Homeland Security, Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2012 Congressional Budget Justification , ,
FederalFederal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 2011, pp. DRF-5, DRF-6. FEMA budgetEmergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 2011, pp. DRF-5, DRF-6. FEMA budget justifications justifications
from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget. from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget.
~~117~~105 Department of Homeland Security, Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2019 Congressional Budget Justification , ,
FederalFederal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, February 2018, p. FEMAEmergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, February 2018, p. FEMA -DRF-3. FEMA budget -DRF-3. FEMA budget
justifications from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budgetjustifications from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget .
~~118~~. 106 Department of Homeland Security, Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2013 Congressional Budget Justification ,, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 2012, pp. DRF-5, DRF-6, FEMA budget justifications from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget.
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~~The Post-BCA Era: Current Practices~~
~~The FY2022 budget proposed by the Biden Administration was similar to the FY2021 Trump~~
~~Administration budget proposal in its calculation for the DRF appropriations request.~~
~~To calculate the anticipated need for the DRF base, the request relied on:~~
~~ The ten-year historical average of the non-pay costs of~~
~~ emergency declarations,~~
~~ Fire Management Assistance Grants, and~~
~~ pre-disaster surge activities,~~
~~ plus spend plan information for Disaster Readiness and Support Activities,~~
~~ and the five-year historical average for pay costs.119~~
~~Given the large unobligated balance in the DRF base, there was no request for additional~~
~~resources to cover the estimated $668 mil ion needed for FY2022.~~
~~For the costs of major disasters, the request relied on:~~
~~ The ten-year historical average of the non-pay costs of major disasters costing~~
~~less than $500 mil ion each,~~
~~ plus the planned spending for past catastrophic disasters,~~
~~ and the five-year historical average for pay costs.~~
~~The Biden Administration proposed an additional $500 mil ion in the DRF specifical y for~~
~~mitigation grants for communities confronting climate change.120~~
~~As was noted earlier, the statutory al owable adjustment mechanism in the BCA expired at the~~
~~end of FY2021, along with the BCA discretionary budget caps. In its FY2022 budget request, the~~
~~Biden Administration proposed extending special budgetary treatment for disaster relief, and the~~
~~budget resolution accommodated this for FY2022.~~

~~When the DRF Runs Low~~
~~At times, the balance in the DRF has dropped to a point that raised concerns about the availability of adequate~~
~~resources in the DRF to fund Stafford Act programs in the face of disasters.~~ In FY2020, FEMA began to request funding for a statutorily established set-aside for the Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities program mitigation program outlined in P.L. 115-254, §1234.107 The set-aside amount is equal to 6% of the estimated aggregate amount of eight types of assistance required for each major disaster. The law, as it requires there to be no reduction in those grants as a result of the set-aside, implies the need for additional funding in the DRF appropriation.108 The Post-BCA Era: Current Practices As noted in the “Disaster Relief Designation” subsection above, the statutory discretionary spending limits of the BCA and the disaster relief allowable adjustment expired at the end of FY2021. Since then, the Administration has requested, and Congress has continued to provide a similar adjustment within the budget process, both in FY2022 without statutory limits, and under the budget agreement that set discretionary budget limitations for FY2024 and FY2025. The methodology for calculating the DRF request has remained consistent since FY2013: • To calculate the anticipated need for the DRF base, the annual budget request relies on the 10-year historical average of the costs of emergency declarations, Fire Management Assistance Grants, and pre-disaster surge activities, plus spend plan information for Disaster Readiness and Support Activities. Within those amounts, FEMA projects pay costs based on a five-year historical average.109 • For the costs of major disasters, the annual budget request relies on the 10-year historical average of the costs of major disasters costing less than $500 million each, plus the planned spending for past catastrophic disasters. Within those amounts, FEMA projects pay costs based on a five-year historical average. • In addition, the DRF request for major disasters has continued to a $2 billion reserve for initial operations in response to significant events, and funding the set-aside for the BRIC program.110 • These amounts are offset by projected unobligated budget authority carried over from the prior fiscal year and deobligations of previously awarded disaster relief budget authority that is no longer eligible for use due to changes in project parameters. Known Limitations to this Calculation Given the structure of the budget process, the federal role in disaster response and recovery, and the realities of major disasters as events of limited predictability and highly variable expense, developing an annual budget request that is authoritatively reflective of future requirements is a virtual impossibility. FEMA notes several limitations of the current methodology in its annual statement of its DRF funding requirements: 107 For more information, see CRS Insight IN11515, FEMA Pre-Disaster Mitigation: The Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC) Program, and other work by Diane P. Horn available on the CRS website. 108 42 U.S.C. §5133(i)(3). 109 Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2022 Congressional Budget Justification, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 2021, pp. FEMA-DRF-25 and 28. FEMA budget justifications from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget. 110 FEMA, “Disaster Relief Fund: Fiscal Year 2024 Funding Requirements,” Fiscal Year 2023 Report to Congress, March 13, 2023, p. 6. Congressional Research Service 31 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues • Leaving out new catastrophic disasters, beyond the reserve for new significant event response, as FEMA points out, means the Administration will need to seek supplemental appropriations in the event of almost any catastrophic event. Not only are the costs of new catastrophic disasters not reflected in the budget request for the coming fiscal year, that request does not include the cost of catastrophic disasters that occur in the fiscal year during which the request is being considered. These omissions are the largest driver in shortfalls in the major disasters subaccount of the DRF. • The practical inability of the request to reflect disaster activity in the fiscal year when it is under consideration—activity that will affect the size of carryover balances and recoveries that may be relied on in the request—means the request is almost certain to mismatch with the actual need. One aspect of this is that the delay of obligations from one project into the next fiscal year may help mitigate a shortfall in one year, only to exacerbate one in the next. • For existing catastrophic disasters, the request for a given fiscal year is based on cost estimates. It is then matched up with projections based on spend plans, which are more reflective of projected needs, as they just reflect the obligation plans for the current year. Even these spending plans shift, which can result in monthly fluctuations of projected end-of-year balances and potential shortfalls, resulting in uncertainty about the required level of supplemental appropriations. Predicting future events, especially ones as out-of-the-ordinary as disasters, presents a real challenge. This is compounded by the rising potential costs of the catastrophic events that drive most of the spending from the DRF. Without an agreed-upon model to project those costs in the budgeting process, even if these events become more rare, the DRF by necessity will continue to rely on supplemental appropriations to meet disaster funding requirements. When the DRF Runs Low At times, the balance in the DRF has dropped to a point that raises concern about its ability to address current and/or impending incidents. When this occurs, FEMA implements When this occurs, FEMA implements
“Immediate“Immediate Needs Funding” (INF) restrictions,Needs Funding” (INF) restrictions, which which ~~al ow~~allow FEMA to prioritize, FEMA to prioritize, to an extent, obligation of to an extent, obligation of funds from the DRF, limiting them to “life-safety and life sustaining efforts.” This restriction is made through FEMA guidance documents, rather than regulations. INF restrictions were put into place seven out of the nine years from FY2003 through FY2011. After management changes (see “If the DRF Runs Out of Money” below), INF restrictions were not implemented again until FY2017, when a series of major hurricanes, including Hurricane Maria, and wildfires were poised to draw heavily on DRF resources. The most recent implementation of INF restrictions was on August 29, 2023. FEMA initiated immediate needs funding as the unobligated balance in the DRF dropped to $3.4 billion in the middle of responses to multiple major disasters.111 FEMA lifted the restriction on October 2, 2023, after enactment of a continuing resolution112 that provided up to $19.95 billion in temporary budget authority for the DRF through November 17, 2023, and a $16 billion supplemental appropriation ($15.50 billion for the costs of major disasters, and $500 million for the DRF base). 111 FEMA, “FEMA Advisory: FEMA Announces Implementation of Immediate Needs Funding,” Office of External Affairs email, August 29, 2003. 112 P.L. 118-15. Congressional Research Service 32 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues Under the most recent INF restriction, FEMA indicated that it would pause new Public Assistance (PA) and Hazard Mitigation obligations that were not essential for lifesaving and life-sustaining activities. It further indicated that under the restriction, it would continue to provide: • Individual Assistance payments directly to survivors for critical needs and housing; • Public Assistance for states, tribes and territories essential for lifesaving and life- sustaining activities; • State management costs; • Mission assignments of federal partners for critical response activities; • Fire Management Assistance grants; and • Essential ongoing disaster operations, including salaries of FEMA field staff (Stafford Act employees). If the DRF Runs Out of Money… The DRF came close to depletion in FY2011. FEMA had implemented immediate needs funding restrictions late that August. Four days before the end of the fiscal year, the Director of OMB noted in a letter to the Senate Majority Leader that “the DRF wil likely finish the fiscal year exhausted with a de minimis cash flow balance of less than a day’s operating expenses.” A continuing resolution (P.L. 111-242) was enacted the day before the end of the fiscal year, which replenished the DRF with temporary budget authority. Today’s DRF is managed differently than it was in 2011. After the 2011 close call, FEMA changed the internal processes of obligation from the DRF, to maintain unobligated balances longer over the course of regular operations. Also, the DRF is no longer managed as a single fund. As noted earlier in the report, the DRF is now divided into a base subaccount and a major disasters subaccount. As they have distinct purposes, the resources from one subaccount cannot be used for the other without fol owing formal reprogramming procedures. Since FY2013, “depletion of the DRF” is usually shorthand for the unobligated balance in the major disasters DRF subaccount falling to zero. Although unobligated resources for the BRIC program are not included in FEMA’s calculation of the balance of the major disasters DRF subaccount, since May 2021, FEMA has indicated in its monthly reporting that those resources could be redirected to help cover the immediate response and recovery needs pursuant to major disasters once the major disasters subaccount is otherwise depleted.113 (This remedy has yet to be effected.) If the major disasters DRF subaccount (including BRIC funding) were exhausted, decisions on whether certain activities could continue would be based on the same exceptions that allow other unfunded activities to continue in a lapse in annual appropriations. There are existing statutory exceptions for: 1. activities where authorization exists in law to incur obligations without prior appropriations; 2. activities where such authorization is implied; 3. activities necessary for the discharge of the President’s duties under the Constitution; 4. activities necessary for the protection of life and property; and 5. activities required for an orderly shutdown of operations. The fourth item is obviously the most significant exception in regards to disaster response and recovery. The exception is generally considered to be for direct federal activity—not for grants, not for financial assistance, and not for salaries of federal employees working on disaster activity that had been funded through the DRF. If the DRF is exhausted, it is likely that a significant number of personnel would be furloughed, as without funding, a number of activities cease, including: • Planning (such as strategic, business, or budgetary activities); • Research and development activities; • Most policy functions, administrative, as well as programmatic, unless those functions are justified by an exception; 113 FEMA, Disaster Relief Fund: Monthly Report, May 11, 2021, p. 4, https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_may-2021-disaster-relief-fund-report.pdf. Congressional Research Service 33 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues • Auditing; • Most regulatory, legislative, public affairs, and intergovernmental affairs unless those functions are justified by an exception; and • Training and development not deemed an excepted activity. Emergency Contingency Funding and Reserve Funds At times, the Administration and Congress have examined methods of speeding up or broadening the availability of funds to address emergencies and disasters by changing how they were appropriated. Examples of this include the use of contingent appropriations and the proposal to ~~funds~~
~~for short-term requirements from the DRF.~~
~~These INF restrictions do not affect individual assistance, or public assistance programs that reimburse emergency~~
~~response work and protective measures carried out by state and local authorities—it temporarily puts on hold~~
~~funding for long-term recovery projects and hazard mitigation projects that FEMA does not have in its system.121~~

~~Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 2012, pp. DRF-5, DRF-6, FEMA budget justifications~~
~~from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget.~~
~~119 Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2022 Congressional Budget Justification ,~~
~~Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washin gton, DC, 2021, FEMA-DRF-25 and 28. FEMA budget~~
~~justifications from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget .~~
~~120 Department of Homeland Security, Disaster Relief Fund, Fiscal Year 2022 Congressional Budget Justification ,~~
~~Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, 2021, FEMA-DRF-35 and 38. FEMA budget justifications~~
~~from FY2009 going forward are available at https://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget.~~
~~121 https://www.fema.gov/blog/2011-08-29/setting-record-straight-about-femas-disaster-fund.~~
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~~The most recent example of INF restrictions as of this report was in August 2017, when Hurricane Harvey hit~~
~~Texas, and Hurricane Irma was anticipated to strike U.S. interests. FEMA initiated immediate needs fund ing on~~
~~August 28, 2017, as the unobligated balance in the DRF fel below $2.8 bil ion in the middle of responses to~~
~~multiple major disasters.122 FEMA lifted the restriction on October 2, 2017, when the DRF was replenished by a~~
~~$7.4 bil ion supplemental enacted on September 8, 2017 (P.L. 115-56, Division B), and by the release of additional~~
~~budget authority pursuant to a continuing resolution (P.L. 115-56, Division D, §129).123~~
~~Prior to that implementation, INF restrictions were put into place in each year from FY2003 through FY2006, as~~
~~wel as FY2010.~~
~~Emergency Contingency Funding and Reserve Funds~~
~~At times, the Administration and Congress have examined methods of speeding up or broadening~~
~~the availability of funds to address emergencies and disasters by changing how they were~~
~~appropriated. Examples of this include the use of contingent appropriations and the proposal to~~
establish a reserve fund for disaster relief. establish a reserve fund for disaster relief.
Contingent Appropriations
In some of its first exercises of the emergency designation, Congress chose to provide a portion In some of its first exercises of the emergency designation, Congress chose to provide a portion
of the appropriation for the DRF as emergency-designated budget authority contingent on the of the appropriation for the DRF as emergency-designated budget authority contingent on the
Administration Administration ~~specifical y~~specifically requesting the additional funds and designating them as an emergency requesting the additional funds and designating them as an emergency
requirement. An example of this structure can be found in P.L. 103-75, a supplemental requirement. An example of this structure can be found in P.L. 103-75, a supplemental
appropriations appropriations ~~bil~~ bill for FY1993: for FY1993:
For an additional amount for ‘‘Disaster relief”, $1,735,000,000, and in addition, For an additional amount for ‘‘Disaster relief”, $1,735,000,000, and in addition,
$265,000,000,$265,000,000, which shall be available only to the extent an official budget request for a which shall be available only to the extent an official budget request for a
specific dollar amount, that includes designation of the entire amount of the request as an specific dollar amount, that includes designation of the entire amount of the request as an
emergency requirement as defined in the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control emergency requirement as defined in the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control
Act of 1985,Act of 1985, as amended, is transmitted by the President to Congress, to remain available as amended, is transmitted by the President to Congress, to remain available
until September 30, 1997, for the Midwest floods and other disasters: until September 30, 1997, for the Midwest floods and other disasters: Provided, That the , That the
entire amount is designated by Congress as an emergency requirement pursuant to section entire amount is designated by Congress as an emergency requirement pursuant to section
251(b)(2)(D)(i)251(b)(2)(D)(i) of the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985, as of the Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985, as
amended, and title I, chapter II, of amended, and title I, chapter II, of ~~Public Law~~P.L. 102-229. 102-229.~~124~~114
The FY2002 annual disaster relief appropriation was the last annual appropriation that included The FY2002 annual disaster relief appropriation was the last annual appropriation that included
this type of contingent appropriation. this type of contingent appropriation.
Reserve Funds
While appropriations requests for the DRF for many years included a special appropriated reserve While appropriations requests for the DRF for many years included a special appropriated reserve
within the DRF for unanticipated catastrophic disasters, the concept of a budgetary reserve fund within the DRF for unanticipated catastrophic disasters, the concept of a budgetary reserve fund
outside the DRF has also been proposed in the past, which would enable appropriations for outside the DRF has also been proposed in the past, which would enable appropriations for
broader non-Stafford disaster relief initiatives. broader non-Stafford disaster relief initiatives.
In FY2002, alongside a request for the DRF that included disaster support costs and funding for In FY2002, alongside a request for the DRF that included disaster support costs and funding for
prior-year disasters, the Administration proposed the creation a of $5.6 prior-year disasters, the Administration proposed the creation a of $5.6 ~~bil ion~~billion National National
Emergency Reserve Emergency Reserve ~~al owance~~allowance to support the costs of “significant new disasters.” The DRF, the to support the costs of “significant new disasters.” The DRF, the

~~122 Email to CRS from FEMA Legislative Affairs, August 29, 2017.~~
~~123 Federal Emergency Management Agency, “FEMA Congressional Advisory: Immediate Needs Funding (INF)~~
~~Update,” press release, October 2, 2017.~~
~~124 107 Stat. 750.~~
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~~Smal~~ Small Business Administration (SBA) Disaster Loan Program, and wildfire programs at the Business Administration (SBA) Disaster Loan Program, and wildfire programs at the
Department of Agriculture and Department of the Interior would have been the primary recipients Department of Agriculture and Department of the Interior would have been the primary recipients
of this funding.of this funding.~~125~~115 The annual reserve would have been established in the budget resolution, and The annual reserve would have been established in the budget resolution, and
based on the average annual spending on “extraordinarily large events.” It would have been based on the average annual spending on “extraordinarily large events.” It would have been
~~al ocated~~allocated to the appropriations subcommittees to fund presidential requests for emergency to the appropriations subcommittees to fund presidential requests for emergency
114 107 Stat. 750. 115 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 2002 (submitted to Congress), Washington, DC, 2001, pp. DR-6, DR-7. Congressional Research Service 34 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues requirements if two criteria were met: “the events were sudden, urgent, unforeseen, and not requirements if two criteria were met: “the events were sudden, urgent, unforeseen, and not
permanent; and adequate funding for a normal year has been provided for the applicable program permanent; and adequate funding for a normal year has been provided for the applicable program
by the Appropriations Committees.” Unused reserve amounts could be rolled over into the next by the Appropriations Committees.” Unused reserve amounts could be rolled over into the next
year.year.~~126~~116 The proposal was not adopted. The proposal was not adopted.
Rescissions and Transfers from the DRF
Rescissions are Rescissions are ~~cancel ations~~cancellations of previously appropriated budget authority. They are made at times of previously appropriated budget authority. They are made at times
to redirect unobligated balances to other purposes through further appropriation, or to offset a to redirect unobligated balances to other purposes through further appropriation, or to offset a
portion of the cost of the legislation that carried them. From the establishment of the DRF in portion of the cost of the legislation that carried them. From the establishment of the DRF in
FY1948 through FY2003, rescissions were made three times from the DRF.FY1948 through FY2003, rescissions were made three times from the DRF.~~127~~117 From FY2004 From FY2004
through the present day, rescissions have been made through the present day, rescissions have been made 1011 times. times.
Five of the Five of the 1011 occurred before the enactment of the BCA: occurred before the enactment of the BCA:
• In FY2004, $225 In FY2004, $225 ~~mil ion~~ million of an earlier $500 of an earlier $500 ~~mil ion~~ million supplemental appropriation to supplemental appropriation to
the DRF was rescinded as an offset for federal funding for certain wildfire costs the DRF was rescinded as an offset for federal funding for certain wildfire costs
in California.in California.~~128~~
118 • In FY2006, over $23.4 In FY2006, over $23.4 ~~bil ion~~billion of $60 of $60 ~~bil ion~~ billion in gross appropriations for the DRF in gross appropriations for the DRF
was rescinded and reappropriated to other disaster recovery programs across the was rescinded and reappropriated to other disaster recovery programs across the
government.government.~~129~~
119 • In FY2008 and FY2009, three rescissions of DRF funding for the Hazard In FY2008 and FY2009, three rescissions of DRF funding for the Hazard
Mitigation Program for the state of Mississippi were made to pay for a grant for Mitigation Program for the state of Mississippi were made to pay for a grant for
the state to purchase and deploy an interoperable communications system.the state to purchase and deploy an interoperable communications system.~~130~~120
With the restructuring of the DRF appropriation under the BCA, FEMA faced a new With the restructuring of the DRF appropriation under the BCA, FEMA faced a new ~~chal enge.~~
~~Periodical y~~challenge. Periodically, obligated funds that were no longer needed or eligible, obligated funds that were no longer needed or eligible to be used for their original to be used for their original
purpose would be “deobligated” and returned to the DRF for use. It was unclear whether those purpose would be “deobligated” and returned to the DRF for use. It was unclear whether those
deobligateddeobligated funds should be assigned to the base, or to the costs of major disasters. Deobligated funds should be assigned to the base, or to the costs of major disasters. Deobligated
funds that had been appropriated without a designation were ultimately considered to be a part of funds that had been appropriated without a designation were ultimately considered to be a part of
the base, as they were appropriated without a specified intent. the base, as they were appropriated without a specified intent.
These were not insignificant amounts—in FY2013, FEMA recovered almost $910 These were not insignificant amounts—in FY2013, FEMA recovered almost $910 ~~mil ion.131~~million.121
Because the base is spent at a much slower rate than the disaster relief-designated portion of the Because the base is spent at a much slower rate than the disaster relief-designated portion of the
DRF, a sizeable unobligated balance accrued. Both the Obama Administration and Trump DRF, a sizeable unobligated balance accrued. Both the Obama Administration and Trump

~~125 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Justification of Estimates, Fiscal Year 2002 (submitted to Congress),~~
~~Washington, DC, 2001, pp. DR-6, DR-7.~~
126 Office of Management and Budget, Analytical Perspectives, Budget Enforcement Act Preview Report, FY2002 Administration proposed rescinding portions of the unobligated recovered funds, including a request from the Trump Administration to rescind $250 million in FY2020. From FY2014 through FY2017, almost $2.5 billion was rescinded from the DRF, which offset a portion of the cost of the annual DHS appropriations bills.122 116 Office of Management and Budget, Analytical Perspectives, Budget Enforcement Act Preview Report, FY2002, ,
Executive Office of the President, Washington, DC, 2001, p. 243.Executive Office of the President, Washington, DC, 2001, p. 243.
~~127~~ 117 P.L. 97-12; P.L. 100-6; and P.L. 104-134. P.L. 97-12; P.L. 100-6; and P.L. 104-134.
~~128~~118 P.L. 108-199, Division H, §102. P.L. 108-199, Division H, §102.
~~129~~119 P.L. 109-148, Division B. P.L. 109-148, Division B.
~~130~~120 P.L. 101-161, §573; P.L. 110-329, Div. B, §10501; P.L. 111-32, §603. P.L. 101-161, §573; P.L. 110-329, Div. B, §10501; P.L. 111-32, §603.
~~131~~121 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Disaster Relief Fund: Monthly Report, October 7, 2021, p. 4, , October 7, 2021, p. 4,
https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_disaster-relief-fund-report_102021.pdf. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_disaster-relief-fund-report_102021.pdf.
122 This accumulation of base funds in this fashion was a temporary issue, as pre-FY2011 budget authority was used up, and most obligations are now made from disaster relief-designated funding. FEMA’s last monthly report for FY2021 indicated they had recovered more than $8.1 billion over the course of the fiscal year (reflecting the elevated level of (continued...) Congressional Research Service 35~~Congressional Research Service~~

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~~Administration proposed rescinding portions of the unobligated recovered funds, including a~~
~~request from the Trump Administration to rescind $250 mil ion in FY2020. From FY2014~~
~~through FY2017, almost $2.5 bil ion was rescinded from the DRF, which offset a portion of the~~
~~cost of the annual DHS appropriations bil s.132~~
~~The appropriations committees took a different approach in FY2019, specifical y including~~
~~language in the DHS appropriations act to use unobligated balances to fund part of the existing~~
~~DRF appropriation.133 This had the same net effect as rescinding the funds, in that the total net~~
~~appropriation was smal er, but also made a statement that the DRF balances were being used for~~
~~Stafford Act purposes. For FY2020, the consolidated appropriations act that included DHS~~
~~appropriations returned to the more frequently used approach, rescinding $300 mil ion.134 No~~
~~rescissions were taken from the DRF in the FY2021 annual appropriations act.~~
~~Issues for Congress~~
~~The federal government has defined a role for itself in emergency management and disaster~~
~~recovery as a backstop for state, local, territorial, and tribal governments, providing limited relief~~
The appropriations committees took a different approach in FY2019, when the Administration requested a $300 million rescission from the DRF in its budget proposal. Congress included language in the FY2019 DHS appropriations act to use $300 million in unobligated balances to fund part of the existing DRF appropriation.123 This had the same net effect as rescinding the funds, in that the net appropriation was smaller, but also made a statement that the DRF balances were being used for Stafford Act purposes. Additional rescissions were taken in FY2020 ($300 million)124 and FY2022 ($147.6 million). In all of these cases, the rescissions were taken from the DRF base, rather than funds used to pay for costs pursuant to major disasters. At times transfers have been made from the DRF appropriation to fund specific disaster-related costs. The first of these was a $5 million transfer to cover the costs of assistance to certain workers adversely affected by a drought in 1988. Recent transfers from the DRF include: • Office of Inspector General—First transfer from the DRF in annual appropriations for FY2000. Starting with the FY2002 DRF appropriation, transfers were made to support OIG oversight of disaster relief activities, first to the FEMA OIG, then the DHS OIG. Such transfers are now frequently part of supplemental appropriations for the DRF. • Community Disaster Loans—Authorized in 1974, Community Disaster Loans (CDLs) provide support for communities suffering revenue losses as the result of a disaster.125 Loans are funded through the Disaster Assistance Direct Loan Program (DADLP). Although the program is part of the Stafford Act, as specific separate appropriations were provided for it in FY1992, the DADLP is not eligible for funding through the general DRF appropriation absent specific transfer language. DADLP received its first transfer from the DRF for CDLs in a supplemental appropriation for the DRF in FY1992.126 • Hermit’s Peak / Calf Canyon Fire Settlement—The FY2023 Continuing Appropriations Act included a $2.5 billion transfer of unobligated balances from the DRF base to settle claims of victims injured by the Hermit’s Peak/Calf Canyon Fire.127 This transfer was specifically made from the unobligated resources provided in the CARES Act, specifically the remains of $15 billion that was directed to the DRF base.128 • USAID Compact Aid Agreement—Unlike the other transfers, which are made on the basis of language in appropriations measures, a small transfer from the DRF base is projected each year to cover the costs of disaster relief pursuant to the Compacts of Free Association, under which USAID manages disaster relief funding flowing from the DRF in recent years), but more than $7.5 billion of that went to the major disasters designation, and less than $600 million to the base. Current balances in the base are due to a large appropriation provided at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, when it was unclear how much of the response would be handled through major disaster declarations. 123 P.L. 116-6, Division A. 124 P.L. 116-93, Division D, §540. 125 P.L. 93-288, §414. 126 P.L. 102-139. 127 P.L. 117-180, Section 136. 128 P.L. 116-136. Congressional Research Service 36 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues and reconstruction assistance for the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau.129 These transfers are distinct from the BRIC funding “set-aside,” which earmarks budget authority within the major disasters subaccount of the DRF for program use. Should other funding in the major disasters subaccount become fully obligated, unobligated balances originally designated for the BRIC program can be made available for immediate response needs. Issues for Congress The federal government has defined a role for itself in emergency management and disaster recovery as a backstop for state, local, territorial, and tribal governments, providing limited relief for individuals and support for mitigation efforts. FEMA’s DRF appropriation funds a great deal for individuals and support for mitigation efforts. FEMA’s DRF appropriation funds a great deal
of the federal effort. As the DRF appropriation is simply an amount of budget authority provided of the federal effort. As the DRF appropriation is simply an amount of budget authority provided
to support disaster activities defined through separately crafted laws and policies, many of the to support disaster activities defined through separately crafted laws and policies, many of the
issues related to the DRF are less about the appropriation than they are about the defined federal issues related to the DRF are less about the appropriation than they are about the defined federal
role. role.
Should the purpose of the DRF be rescoped?
Despite the magnitude of funding provided through the DRF and the breadth of Stafford Act Despite the magnitude of funding provided through the DRF and the breadth of Stafford Act
relief, other appropriations support additional disaster-related activities in other departments and relief, other appropriations support additional disaster-related activities in other departments and
agencies. As noted earlier,agencies. As noted earlier, HUD, USDA, DOT, DOD, and SBA HUD, USDA, DOT, DOD, and SBA al all fund various disaster relief and fund various disaster relief and
recovery programs. With the COVID-19 pandemic, relief and recovery funds have come from a recovery programs. With the COVID-19 pandemic, relief and recovery funds have come from a
wide variety of accounts through a range of programs. wide variety of accounts through a range of programs.
At various times in the past, efforts have been made to fund activities through the DRF that are At various times in the past, efforts have been made to fund activities through the DRF that are
not part of the current portfolio of Stafford Act programs. The Stafford Act already encompasses a not part of the current portfolio of Stafford Act programs. The Stafford Act already encompasses a
wide range of emergency management, disaster relief, and disaster response activities. Making wide range of emergency management, disaster relief, and disaster response activities. Making
non-Stafford programs eligible for DRF funding is something Congress could choose to do, but it non-Stafford programs eligible for DRF funding is something Congress could choose to do, but it
~~would~~may not provide any obvious policy or budgetary advantage. Existing non-Stafford programs not provide any obvious policy or budgetary advantage. Existing non-Stafford programs
have their own funding streams, management, and oversight. Providing their resources through a have their own funding streams, management, and oversight. Providing their resources through a
new appropriation could complicate their funding stream and congressional oversight. While new appropriation could complicate their funding stream and congressional oversight. While
making the programs eligible for funding from the DRF could make additional budget authority making the programs eligible for funding from the DRF could make additional budget authority
available, it would be more transparent and direct for Congress to simply fund the program available, it would be more transparent and direct for Congress to simply fund the program
~~through its existing appropriation.~~

~~132 T his accumulation of base funds in this fashion was a temporary issue, as pre-FY2011 budget authority was used up,~~
~~and most obligations are now made from disaster relief-designated funding. FEMA’s last monthly report for FY20 21~~
~~indicated they had recovered more than $8.1 billion over the course of the fiscal year (reflecting the elevated level of~~
~~funding flowing from the DRF in recent years), but more than $7.5 billion of that went to the major disasters~~
~~designation, and less than $600 million to the base. Current balances in the base are due to a large appropriation~~
~~provided at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, when it was unclear how much of the response would be~~
~~handled through major disaster declarations.~~
~~133 P.L. 116-6, Division A.~~
~~134 P.L. 116-93, Division D, §540.~~
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through its existing appropriation. There is no special budgetary treatment for appropriations for the DRF—only for appropriations There is no special budgetary treatment for appropriations for the DRF—only for appropriations
which are designated for the costs of major disasters or designated as emergency requirements, which are designated for the costs of major disasters or designated as emergency requirements,
following the terms outlined in budget resolutions. Shifting discretionary spending out of one following the terms outlined in budget resolutions. Shifting discretionary spending out of one
appropriations subcommittee’s jurisdiction into another provides no appropriations subcommittee’s jurisdiction into another provides no ~~overal~~ overall budgetary benefit—budgetary benefit—
the total amount of spending remains the same. Subcommittee the total amount of spending remains the same. Subcommittee ~~al ocations~~allocations are set and reset every are set and reset every
year (sometimes multiple times each year) at the discretion of the House and Senate year (sometimes multiple times each year) at the discretion of the House and Senate
appropriations committees, so such a move could appropriations committees, so such a move could ~~wel~~ well result in no net impact on available result in no net impact on available
~~resources.~~resources. 129 For more context, see CRS Report R46573, The Freely Associated States and Issues for Congress; and USAID/ FEMA, “Operational Blueprint for Disaster Relief and Reconstruction in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI),” January 31, 2017, https://2017-2020.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1861/Operational_Blueprint_FEMA-USAID-OFDA_FINAL_31JAN17.pdf. Congressional Research Service 37 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues
The concept of a broader funding stream providing discretionary resources for DRF, SBA, and The concept of a broader funding stream providing discretionary resources for DRF, SBA, and
USDA disaster relief programs has also been considered before. Such an idea, floated by a USDA disaster relief programs has also been considered before. Such an idea, floated by a
previous Administration but rejected by Congress, might have made more resources available in previous Administration but rejected by Congress, might have made more resources available in
the immediate aftermath of a disaster, but it is not clear that the immediate aftermath of a disaster, but it is not clear that ~~reorganizing funding~~such reorganization would make the would make the
programs programs ~~subject to more thorough oversight or make them more effective. It could limit the~~
~~ability~~ more effective or subject to more thorough oversight. The move could actually limit the ability of Congress to provide specific oversight or direction through appropriations to the of Congress to provide specific oversight or direction through appropriations to the
separate programs. separate programs.
Congress could also break up the DRF into appropriations for the individual Stafford Act Congress could also break up the DRF into appropriations for the individual Stafford Act
programs or groups of programs, similar to what was provided for COVID-19 pandemic-related programs or groups of programs, similar to what was provided for COVID-19 pandemic-related
funeral expenses in Division N of P.L. 116-260. This might funeral expenses in Division N of P.L. 116-260. This might ~~al ow~~allow for additional specific for additional specific
congressional oversight and direction, but it could reduce the flexibilitycongressional oversight and direction, but it could reduce the flexibility that exists within the that exists within the
DRF to shift its resources to meet unanticipated disaster needs by segmenting the available DRF to shift its resources to meet unanticipated disaster needs by segmenting the available
resources, and possibly inadvertently limiting the amount of resources available for the resources, and possibly inadvertently limiting the amount of resources available for the
highlighted programs in the future.highlighted programs in the future.
In response to the COVID-19 epidemic, the Administration and Congress used the major disaster In response to the COVID-19 epidemic, the Administration and Congress used the major disaster
provisions of the Stafford Actprovisions of the Stafford Act ~~for the first time~~ to respond to a public health crisis to respond to a public health crisis for the first time. As the country . As the country
emerges from the COVID-19 pandemic, Congress may choose to reexamine a number of issues, emerges from the COVID-19 pandemic, Congress may choose to reexamine a number of issues,
including the following: including the following:
• Are the Stafford Act and DRF the best vehicles for providing assistance in Are the Stafford Act and DRF the best vehicles for providing assistance in
responding to a public health crisis? responding to a public health crisis?
• How should Congress approach funding future public health needs? How should Congress approach funding future public health needs?
• What was the interplay between natural disaster authorities and public health What was the interplay between natural disaster authorities and public health
authorities in this situation, and how can that be made more efficient and authorities in this situation, and how can that be made more efficient and
effective? effective?
How much is enough to have on hand?
Appropriations are frequently provided on the basis of what can be spent on a project in a given Appropriations are frequently provided on the basis of what can be spent on a project in a given
fiscal year. This thinking informs part of the funding request, as it includes a basis of spending on fiscal year. This thinking informs part of the funding request, as it includes a basis of spending on
open disasters, where recovery is ongoing. A 10-year average informs the portion of the DRF open disasters, where recovery is ongoing. A 10-year average informs the portion of the DRF
budget request that pays for response and recovery from disasters that cost less than $500 budget request that pays for response and recovery from disasters that cost less than $500 ~~mil ion~~million. .
Previous and current Administrations have sought additional reserve funds over and above those Previous and current Administrations have sought additional reserve funds over and above those
projected needs to pay for potential projected needs to pay for potential significant “no notice” events“no notice” events. —this reserve request now stands at $2 billion. Even with this reserve, in FY2023, there was concern that the available funding in the major disasters DRF category could be depleted prior to the end of the fiscal year due to catastrophic events and higher-than-expected costs of previous incidents. Although FEMA indicates that funding set aside within the major disaster portion of the DRF is available for responding to events if its other funds are depleted, this is not the stated congressional intent for those funds, and FEMA has never accessed those resources. On the other hand, as noted above, from On the other hand, as noted above, from
FY2014 to FY2017, almost $2.5 FY2014 to FY2017, almost $2.5 ~~bil ion~~ billion in funding was rescinded from unobligated balances in in funding was rescinded from unobligated balances in
the DRF, and in FY2019, unobligated balances were used to offset appropriations for the DRF. the DRF, and in FY2019, unobligated balances were used to offset appropriations for the DRF. In
~~the present constrained budget environment, Congress continues to weigh the proper level of~~
~~reserves for FEMA to keep available in the DRF, especial y as the work performed under the~~
~~Stafford Act evolves.~~
FEMA’s budget explicitly states that in the event of catastrophic disaster activity, it will need to come to Congress for supplemental appropriations for the DRF, as it has in the past. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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What accommodations should be made in the federal budget for
disaster relief?
While disaster relief is a relatively While disaster relief is a relatively ~~smal~~ small part of the discretionary budget, and an even part of the discretionary budget, and an even ~~smal er~~smaller part part
of the of the ~~overal~~ overall federal budget, disaster relief spending is anticipated to continue growing in the federal budget, disaster relief spending is anticipated to continue growing in the
coming years. In modern history, Congress has been coming years. In modern history, Congress has been ~~general y wil ing~~generally willing to provide resources for to provide resources for
major disasters on an as-needed basis. However, discussions of deficit and debt continue in major disasters on an as-needed basis. However, discussions of deficit and debt continue in
Congress, and with the expiration of the Budget Control Act’s discretionary spending limits and Congress, and with the expiration of the Budget Control Act’s discretionary spending limits and
the statutory adjustment for disaster relief at the end of FY2021, new agreements the statutory adjustment for disaster relief at the end of FY2021, new agreements ~~wil~~ will need to be need to be
reached. The central question for disaster relief budgeting is this: Does disaster relief represent reached. The central question for disaster relief budgeting is this: Does disaster relief represent
enough of a priority for the federal government to maintain the status quo notwithstanding enough of a priority for the federal government to maintain the status quo notwithstanding
potential increasing costs? potential increasing costs?
When budget controls were put in place When budget controls were put in place starting in the 1980s, in the 1980s, ~~1990s, and 2010s~~up through 2022, exceptions were , exceptions were
provided to help ensure relief and recovery efforts would continue to be funded. With the provided to help ensure relief and recovery efforts would continue to be funded. With the
expiration of the Budget Control Act statutory caps on discretionary spending, one limitation on expiration of the Budget Control Act statutory caps on discretionary spending, one limitation on
disaster relief spending—albeit one with a limited practical effect, as noted above—has gone disaster relief spending—albeit one with a limited practical effect, as noted above—has gone
away. The away. The ~~al owable~~allowable adjustment for disaster relief expired as adjustment for disaster relief expired as ~~wel~~ well, although a similar mechanism , although a similar mechanism
to adjust the limits set by budget resolutions and subcommittee to adjust the limits set by budget resolutions and subcommittee ~~al ocations~~allocations was included in the was included in the
FY2022 budget resolution. The adjustment has effectively FY2022 budget resolution. The adjustment has effectively ~~al owed~~allowed most of the annual DRF most of the annual DRF
appropriation to be provided without competing against other homeland security priorities for the appropriation to be provided without competing against other homeland security priorities for the
discretionary funding provided under the Homeland Security appropriations subcommittee’s discretionary funding provided under the Homeland Security appropriations subcommittee’s
~~al ocation.135~~ allocation.130 Congress may consider whether they want that process to continue. Congress may consider whether they want that process to continue.
Congress may also debate whether to try to limit disaster relief spending. The most direct means Congress may also debate whether to try to limit disaster relief spending. The most direct means
of doing this would not be to change the DRF appropriation, but by changing the underlying laws of doing this would not be to change the DRF appropriation, but by changing the underlying laws
that authorize the programs it funds. Implementing relief limits or deductibles for states or that authorize the programs it funds. Implementing relief limits or deductibles for states or
~~smal er~~smaller jurisdictions, larger nonfederal cost shares, or changes in the declaration process may jurisdictions, larger nonfederal cost shares, or changes in the declaration process may
prove unpopular, and having to vote for them once in more durable authorizing legislationprove unpopular, and having to vote for them once in more durable authorizing legislation may be may be
more practical than doing so more practical than doing so ~~annual y~~annually in appropriations legislation. in appropriations legislation.

~~135 T his~~ 130 This is also true for other appropriations associated with funding relief and recovery efforts after major disasters, but is also true for other appropriations associated with funding relief and recovery efforts after major disasters, but
over the 10-year life of the statutory adjustment, 93% of designated appropriations went to the DRF. For more details, over the 10-year life of the statutory adjustment, 93% of designated appropriations went to the DRF. For more details,
see CRSsee CRS In FocusIn Focus IF10720, IF10720, Calculation and Use of the Disaster Relief Allowable ~~Adjustm ent~~Adjustment, by William L. , by William L. ~~P ainter~~Painter. .
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Appendix. General Disaster Relief Appropriations,
FY1964-~~FY2021~~FY2023
Table A-1. Nominal Dollar Disaster Relief Appropriations, FY1964-~~FY2021~~FY2023
Thousands of Thousands of ~~dol ars~~dollars of budget authority of budget authority
Supplemental
(includes
Fiscal
Annual
contingency
Fiscal Year
Net Fiscal Year
Year
Appropriations
appropriations)
Total
Total
1964 1964
20,000 20,000
50,000 50,000
70,000 70,000
70,000 70,000
1965 1965
20,000 20,000
35,000 35,000
55,000 55,000
55,000 55,000
1966 1966
55,000 55,000
65,000 65,000
120,000 120,000
120,000 120,000
1967 1967
15,000 15,000
9,550 9,550
24,550 24,550
24,550 24,550
1968 1968
20,000 20,000
— —
20,000 20,000
20,000 20,000
1969 1969
10,000 10,000
35,000 35,000
45,000 45,000
45,000 45,000
1970 1970
170,000 170,000
75,000 75,000
245,000 245,000
245,000 245,000
1971 1971
65,000 65,000
25,000 25,000
90,000 90,000
90,000 90,000
1972 1972
85,000 85,000
— —
85,000 85,000
85,000 85,000
1973 1973
92,500 92,500
500,000 500,000
592,500 592,500
592,500 592,500
1974 1974
400,000 400,000
32,600 32,600
432,600 432,600
432,600 432,600
1975 1975
200,000 200,000
— —
200,000 200,000
200,000 200,000
1976 1976
187,500 187,500
— —
187,500 187,500
187,500 187,500
1977 1977
100,000 100,000
200,000 200,000
300,000 300,000
300,000 300,000
1978 1978
150,000 150,000
300,000 300,000
450,000 450,000
450,000 450,000
1979 1979
200,000 200,000
194,000 194,000
394,000 394,000
394,000 394,000
1980 1980
193,600 193,600
870,000 870,000
1,063,600 1,063,600
1,063,600 1,063,600
1981 1981
375,570 375,570
— —
375,570 375,570
367,570 367,570
1982 1982
301,694 301,694
— —
301,694 301,694
301,694 301,694
1983 1983
130,000 130,000
— —
130,000 130,000
130,000 130,000
1984 1984
— —
— —
— —
— —
1985 1985
100,000 100,000
— —
100,000 100,000
100,000 100,000
1986 1986
120,000 120,000
250,000 250,000
370,000 370,000
350,000 350,000
1987 1987
120,000 120,000
57,475 57,475
177,475 177,475
170,000 170,000
1988 1988
120,000 120,000
— —
120,000 120,000
115,000 115,000
1989 1989
100,000 100,000
1,108,000 1,108,000
1,208,000 1,208,000
1,208,000 1,208,000
1990 1990
98,450 98,450
1,150,000 1,150,000
1,248,450 1,248,450
1,248,450 1,248,450
1991 1991
— —
— —
— —
— —
1992 1992
185,000 185,000
4,136,000 4,136,000
4,321,000 4,321,000
4,269,209 4,269,209
1993 1993
292,095 292,095
2,000,000 2,000,000
2,292,095 2,292,095
2,292,000 2,292,000
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link to page link to page 4546 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

Supplemental
(includes
Fiscal
Annual
contingency
Fiscal Year
Net Fiscal Year
Year
Appropriations
appropriations)
Total
Total
1994 1994
292,000 292,000
4,709,000 4,709,000
5,001,000 5,001,000
5,001,000 5,001,000
1995 1995
320,000 320,000
6,550,000 6,550,000
6,870,000 6,870,000
6,870,000 6,870,000
1996 1996
222,000 222,000
— —
222,000 222,000
(882,000) (882,000)
1997 1997
1,320,000 1,320,000
3,300,000 3,300,000
4,620,000 4,620,000
4,600,000 4,600,000
1998 1998
320,000 320,000
1,600,000 1,600,000
1,920,000 1,920,000
1,920,000 1,920,000
1999 1999
307,745 307,745
1,806,000 1,806,000
2,113,745 2,113,745
2,113,745 2,113,745
2000 2000
300,000 300,000
2,480,425 2,480,425
2,780,425 2,780,425
2,777,525 2,777,525
2001 2001
300,000 300,000
1,300,000 1,300,000
1,600,000 1,600,000
1,547,100 1,547,100
2002 2002
664,000 664,000
9,537,571 9,537,571
10,201,571 10,201,571
10,127,094 10,127,094
2003 2003
800,000 800,000
1,425,300 1,425,300
2,225,300 2,225,300
2,200,823 2,200,823
2004 2004
1,800,000 1,800,000
2,500,000 2,500,000
4,300,000 4,300,000
4,023,000 4,023,000
2005 2005
2,042,380 2,042,380
66,500,000 66,500,000
68,542,380 68,542,380
68,427,380 68,427,380
2006 2006
1,770,000 1,770,000
6,000,000 6,000,000
7,770,000 7,770,000
(16,390,800 (16,390,800)a
2007 2007
1,500,000 1,500,000
4,110,000 4,110,000
5,610,000 5,610,000
5,742,500 5,742,500
2008 2008
1,400,000 1,400,000
11,757,000 11,757,000
13,157,000 13,157,000
12,934,850 12,934,850
2009 2009
1,400,000 1,400,000
— —
1,400,000 1,400,000
1,178,400 1,178,400
2010 2010
1,600,000 1,600,000
5,100,000 5,100,000
6,700,000 6,700,000
6,573,400 6,573,400
2011 2011
2,650,000 2,650,000
— —
2,650,000 2,650,000
2,650,000 2,650,000
2012 2012
700,000 700,000
6,400,000 6,400,000
7,100,000 7,100,000
7,076,000 7,076,000
2013 2013
7,007,926 7,007,926
11,487,735 11,487,735
18,495,661 18,495,661
18,468,661 18,468,661
2014 2014
6,220,908 6,220,908
— —
6,220,908 6,220,908
5,896,386 5,896,386
2015 2015
7,033,464 7,033,464
— —
7,033,464 7,033,464
6,729,464 6,729,464
2016 2016
7,374,693 7,374,693
— —
7,374,693 7,374,693
6,328,814 6,328,814
2017 2017
7,328,515 7,328,515
7,400,000 7,400,000
14,728,515 14,728,515
13,996,140 13,996,140
2018 2018
7,900,720 7,900,720
42,170,000 42,170,000
50,070,720 50,070,720
45,010,720 45,010,720
2019 2019
12,558,000 12,558,000
— —
12,558,000 12,558,000
12,005,000 12,005,000
2020 2020
17,863,259 17,863,259
45,000,000 45,000,000
62,863,259 62,863,259
62,560,259 62,560,259
2021 2021
17,142,000 17,142,000
52,000,000 52,000,000
69,142,000 69,142,000
63,226,000 63,226,000
2022 18,799,000 200,000 18,999,000 18,800,907 2023 19,945,000 21,200,000 41,145,000 41,129,500 Total 152,808,019 325,625,656 478,433,675 437,568,541 ~~Total~~
~~114,064,019~~
~~304,225,656~~
~~418,289,675~~
~~377,638,134~~
Source: CRS analysis of appropriations acts. CRS analysis of appropriations acts.
Notes: FY2013 numbers do not reflectFY2013 numbers do not reflect the impact of sequestration. Supplemental column includes contingent the impact of sequestration. Supplemental column includes contingent
appropriations and appropriations and al all appropriations under the heading of “Disasterappropriations under the heading of “Disaster Relief” or “DisasterRelief” or “Disaster Relief Fund” including Relief Fund” including
the language “for an additional amount.”the language “for an additional amount.” Reductions reflectedReductions reflected in the Net Total column include transfers and in the Net Total column include transfers and
rescissionsrescissions ~~specifical y~~ specifically enumerated in appropriations acts or explanatory statements. enumerated in appropriations acts or explanatory statements.
Congressional Research Service 41 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues a. This negative total is the result of a $23.4 bil iona. This negative total is the result of a $23.4 bil ion ~~rescission from~~ rescission from the DRF, which offset the cost of other the DRF, which offset the cost of other
disaster assistance and damage repairs disaster assistance and damage repairs conducted by other agencies.conducted by other agencies.
~~Congressional Research Service~~

41

~~The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues~~

Table A-2. ~~FY2021~~FY2023 Dollar Disaster Relief Appropriations, FY1964-~~FY2021~~FY2023
Thousands of Thousands of ~~dol ars~~dollars of budget authority of budget authority
Supplemental
Appropriations
Fiscal
Annual
(includes contingency
Fiscal Year
Net Fiscal Year
Year
Appropriations
appropriations)
Total
Total
1964 1964
~~158,723~~
~~396,808~~
~~555,531~~
~~555,531~~
~~1965~~
~~156,550~~
~~273,963~~
~~430,513~~
~~430,513~~
~~1966~~
~~419,041~~
~~495,230~~
~~914,270~~
~~914,270~~
~~1967~~
~~111,825~~
~~71,195~~
~~183,021~~
~~183,021~~
~~1968~~
~~143,849~~
—
~~143,849~~
~~143,849~~
~~1969~~
~~67,629~~
~~236,700~~
~~304,329~~
~~304,329~~
~~1970~~
~~1,089,143~~
~~480,504~~
~~1,569,647~~
~~1,569,647~~
~~1971~~
~~389,387~~
~~149,764~~
~~539,151~~
~~539,151~~
~~1972~~
~~478,141~~
—
~~478,141~~
~~478,141~~
~~1973~~
~~497,568~~
~~2,689,558~~
~~3,187,126~~
~~3,187,126~~
~~1974~~
~~1,985,417~~
~~161,811~~
~~2,147,228~~
~~2,147,228~~
~~1975~~
~~904,747~~
—
~~904,747~~
~~904,747~~
~~1976~~
~~791,528~~
—
~~791,528~~
~~791,528~~
~~1977~~
~~393,531~~
~~787,061~~
~~1,180,592~~
~~1,180,592~~
~~1978~~
~~555,505~~
~~1,111,010~~
~~1,666,516~~
~~1,666,516~~
~~1979~~
~~681,526~~
~~661,080~~
~~1,342,605~~
~~1,342,605~~
~~1980~~
~~596,607~~
~~2,681,035~~
~~3,277,642~~
~~3,277,642~~
~~1981~~
~~1,041,974~~
—
~~1,041,974~~
~~1,019,779~~
~~1982~~
~~777,241~~
—
~~777,241~~
~~777,241~~
~~1983~~
~~319,236~~
—
~~319,236~~
~~319,236~~
~~1984~~
—
—
—
—
~~1985~~
~~226,053~~
—
~~226,053~~
~~226,053~~
~~1986~~
~~265,696~~
~~553,533~~
~~819,229~~
~~774,947~~
~~1987~~
~~258,246~~
~~123,689~~
~~381,935~~
~~365,849~~
~~1988~~
~~249,649~~
—
~~249,649~~
~~239,247~~
~~1989~~
~~200,140~~
~~2,217,551~~
~~2,417,691~~
~~2,417,691~~
~~1990~~
~~191,475~~
~~2,236,633~~
~~2,428,108~~
~~2,428,108~~
~~1991~~
—
—
—
—
~~1992~~
~~330,934~~
~~7,398,607~~
~~7,729,541~~
~~7,636,896~~
~~1993~~
~~507,505~~
~~3,474,932~~
~~3,982,437~~
~~3,982,272~~
~~1994~~
~~498,554~~
~~8,040,030~~
~~8,538,584~~
~~8,538,584~~
~~1995~~
~~530,596~~
~~10,860,635~~
~~11,391,231~~
~~11,391,231~~
~~1996~~
~~360,521~~
—
~~360,521~~
~~(1,432,342)~~
179,250 448,125 627,375 627,375 1965 176,795 309,390 486,185 486,185 1966 473,220 559,260 1,032,480 1,032,480 1967 126,199 80,347 206,546 206,546 1968 162,442 - 162,442 162,442 1969 76,367 267,284 343,651 343,651 1970 1,229,832 542,573 1,772,405 1,772,405 1971 439,900 169,192 609,093 609,093 1972 539,867 - 539,867 539,867 1973 562,055 3,038,136 3,600,191 3,600,191 1974 2,242,572 182,770 2,425,341 2,425,341 1975 1,021,853 - 1,021,853 1,021,853 1976 894,263 - 894,263 894,263 1977 444,421 888,843 1,333,264 1,333,264 1978 627,520 1,255,041 1,882,561 1,882,561 1979 769,589 746,501 1,516,089 1,516,089 1980 673,841 3,028,107 3,701,948 3,701,948 1981 1,177,054 - 1,177,054 1,151,981 1982 878,138 - 878,138 878,138 1983 360,658 - 360,658 360,658 1984 - - - - 1985 255,362 - 255,362 255,362 1986 300,081 625,170 925,251 875,237 1987 291,771 139,746 431,517 413,342 1988 282,047 - 282,047 270,295 1989 226,064 2,504,790 2,730,854 2,730,854 1990 216,308 2,526,711 2,743,019 2,743,019 1991 - - - - 1992 373,940 8,360,096 8,734,037 8,629,352 1993 573,437 3,926,377 4,499,814 4,499,628 1994 563,311 9,084,358 9,647,669 9,647,669 Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

42 42

The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues

Supplemental
Appropriations
Fiscal
Annual
(includes contingency
Fiscal Year
Net Fiscal Year
Year
Appropriations
appropriations)
Total
Total
~~1997~~
~~2,099,516~~
~~5,248,790~~
~~7,348,306~~
~~7,316,495~~
~~1998~~
~~504,761~~
~~2,523,807~~
~~3,028,568~~
~~3,028,568~~
~~1999~~
~~479,544~~
~~2,814,200~~
~~3,293,744~~
~~3,293,744~~
~~2000~~
~~455,920~~
~~3,769,587~~
~~4,225,507~~
~~4,221,100~~
~~2001~~
~~444,289~~
~~1,925,253~~
~~2,369,542~~
~~2,291,199~~
~~2002~~
~~968,436~~
~~13,910,427~~
~~14,878,863~~
~~14,770,239~~
~~2003~~
~~1,134,524~~
~~2,021,296~~
~~3,155,820~~
~~3,121,108~~
~~2004~~
~~2,487,890~~
~~3,455,402~~
~~5,943,292~~
~~5,560,434~~
~~2005~~
~~2,729,219~~
~~88,863,520~~
~~91,592,739~~
~~91,439,065~~
~~2006~~
~~2,286,167~~
~~7,749,718~~
~~10,035,884~~
~~(21,170,679)~~
~~2007~~
~~1,885,262~~
~~5,165,618~~
~~7,050,880~~
~~7,217,412~~
~~2008~~
~~1,700,701~~
~~14,282,245~~
~~15,982,946~~
~~15,713,081~~
~~2009~~
~~1,700,882~~
—
~~1,700,882~~
~~1,431,656~~
~~2010~~
~~1,909,780~~
~~6,087,423~~
~~7,997,203~~
~~7,846,091~~
~~2011~~
~~3,090,811~~
—
~~3,090,811~~
~~3,090,811~~
~~2012~~
~~800,520~~
~~7,319,040~~
~~8,119,560~~
~~8,092,114~~
~~2013~~
~~7,902,055~~
~~12,953,435~~
~~20,855,490~~
~~20,825,045~~
~~2014~~
~~6,905,679~~
—
~~6,905,679~~
~~6,545,435~~
~~2015~~
~~7,769,217~~
—
~~7,769,217~~
~~7,433,416~~
~~2016~~
~~8,092,208~~
—
~~8,092,208~~
~~6,944,571~~
~~2017~~
~~7,908,738~~
~~7,985,883~~
~~15,894,621~~
~~15,104,261~~
~~2018~~
~~8,335,114~~
~~44,488,572~~
~~52,823,686~~
~~47,485,479~~
~~2019~~
~~13,014,344~~
—
~~13,014,344~~
~~12,441,249~~
~~2020~~
~~18,194,178~~
~~45,833,630~~
~~64,027,808~~
~~63,719,195~~
~~2021~~
~~17,142,000~~
~~52,000,000~~
~~69,142,000~~
~~63,226,000~~
~~Total~~
~~135,120,289~~
~~373,499,177~~
~~508,619,466~~
~~459,288,316~~
Source: CRS analysis of appropriations acts.
~~Notes:~~ ~~Deflator used was drawn from “Historical Tables: Table 1.3—Summary~~ 1995 599,495 12,270,910 12,870,405 12,870,405 1996 407,326 - 407,326 (1,618,296) 1997 2,372,360 5,930,901 8,303,261 8,267,317 1998 570,352 2,851,761 3,422,113 3,422,113 1999 541,997 3,180,709 3,722,706 3,722,706 2000 515,141 4,259,229 4,774,370 4,769,390 2001 501,788 2,174,417 2,676,205 2,587,723 2002 1,093,617 15,708,511 16,802,128 16,679,463 2003 1,280,357 2,281,116 3,561,473 3,522,299 2004 2,806,330 3,897,681 6,704,011 6,272,148 2005 3,078,598 100,239,313 103,317,911 103,144,565 2006 2,577,414 8,736,997 11,314,410 (23,867,727) 2007 2,125,027 5,822,575 7,947,603 8,135,313 2008 1,916,665 16,095,878 18,012,543 17,708,409 2009 1,919,516 - 1,919,516 1,615,684 2010 2,155,041 6,869,192 9,024,233 8,853,715 2011 3,486,686 - 3,486,686 3,486,686 2012 903,420 8,259,840 9,163,260 9,132,286 2013 8,917,797 14,618,488 23,536,285 23,501,927 2014 7,791,832 - 7,791,832 7,385,361 2015 8,762,805 - 8,762,805 8,384,059 2016 9,130,640 - 9,130,640 7,835,732 2017 8,922,813 9,009,849 17,932,662 17,040,960 2018 9,404,786 50,197,936 59,602,722 53,579,446 2019 14,687,227 - 14,687,227 14,040,465 2020 20,503,666 51,651,547 72,155,214 71,807,426 2021 19,134,635 58,044,629 77,179,264 70,575,571 2022 19,820,267 210,865 20,031,133 19,822,278 2023 19,945,000 21,200,000 41,145,000 41,129,500 Total 192,010,756 442,195,160 634,205,916 578,418,015 Source: CRS analysis of appropriations acts. Notes: Deflator used was drawn from the FY2024 Budget of the United States Government, “Historical Tables: Table 1.3—Summary of Receipts, Outlays, and of Receipts, Outlays, and
Surpluses or DeficitsSurpluses or Deficits (—) in Current Dol ars,(—) in Current Dol ars, Constant (FY2012) Dol ars,Constant (FY2012) Dol ars, and as Percentages of GDP: 1940—and as Percentages of GDP: 1940—
~~2026~~2028.” FY2013 numbers do not reflect.” FY2013 numbers do not reflect the impact of sequestration. Supplemental column includes contingent the impact of sequestration. Supplemental column includes contingent
appropriations and appropriations and al all appropriations under the heading of “Disasterappropriations under the heading of “Disaster Relief” or “DisasterRelief” or “Disaster Relief Fund” including Relief Fund” including
the language “for an additional amount.” Reductions reflectedthe language “for an additional amount.” Reductions reflected in the Net Total column include transfers and in the Net Total column include transfers and
~~rescissions specifical y~~ rescissions specifically enumerated in appropriations acts or explanatory enumerated in appropriations acts or explanatory statements. Congressional Research Service 43 The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues ~~statements.~~
a. This negative total is the result of a $23.4 bil iona. This negative total is the result of a $23.4 bil ion ~~rescission from~~ rescission from the DRF, which offset the cost of other the DRF, which offset the cost of other
disaster assistance and damage repairs disaster assistance and damage repairs conducted by other agencies.conducted by other agencies.

~~Congressional Research Service~~

43

~~The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview and Issues~~

Author Information

William L. Painter William L. Painter

Specialist in Homeland Security and Appropriations Specialist in Homeland Security and Appropriations

Disclaimer
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R45484 R45484 · VERSION 2830 · UPDATED
44 44