Israel: Major Issues and U.S. Relations

Changes from September 16, 2021 to October 25, 2021

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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief
~~September 16~~October 25, 2021 , 2021
Israel has forged close bilateral cooperation with the United States in many areas. U.S. law Israel has forged close bilateral cooperation with the United States in many areas. U.S. law
requires the executive branch to take certain actions to preserve Israel’s “qualitative military requires the executive branch to take certain actions to preserve Israel’s “qualitative military
Jim Zanotti
edge,” or QME, and expedites aid and arms sales to Israel in various ways. Additionally, a 10- edge,” or QME, and expedites aid and arms sales to Israel in various ways. Additionally, a 10-
Specialist in Middle Specialist in Middle
year bilateral military aid memorandum of understanding—signed in 2016—commits the United year bilateral military aid memorandum of understanding—signed in 2016—commits the United
Eastern Affairs Eastern Affairs
States to provide Israel $3.3 billion in Foreign Military Financing and to spend $500 million States to provide Israel $3.3 billion in Foreign Military Financing and to spend $500 million

annually on joint missile defense programs from FY2019 annually on joint missile defense programs from FY2019 to FY2028,to FY2028, subject to congressional subject to congressional
appropriations. In 2021, some Members of Congress have increased their scrutiny over Israel’s appropriations. In 2021, some Members of Congress have increased their scrutiny over Israel’s

use of U.S. security assistance, contributing to debate on the subject. This report also discusses use of U.S. security assistance, contributing to debate on the subject. This report also discusses
the following matters: the following matters:
New government and domestic issues. Prime Minister Naftali Bennett of the Yamina party heads a power-sharing Prime Minister Naftali Bennett of the Yamina party heads a power-sharing
government featuring a group of disparate parties from across the political spectrum that replaced the government of the government featuring a group of disparate parties from across the political spectrum that replaced the government of the
long-serving Binyamin Netanyahu in June 2021. Despite reportedly holding more nationalistic positions than Netanyahu on long-serving Binyamin Netanyahu in June 2021. Despite reportedly holding more nationalistic positions than Netanyahu on
Palestinian issues and settlements, Bennett may be constrained by left-of-center and Arab-led parties in the coalition from Palestinian issues and settlements, Bennett may be constrained by left-of-center and Arab-led parties in the coalition from
taking action in line with those positions. Although Bennett’s policies on various foreign policy matters may not differ taking action in line with those positions. Although Bennett’s policies on various foreign policy matters may not differ
significantly from those of Netanyahu, his government has thus far offered a less confrontational approach to disagreements significantly from those of Netanyahu, his government has thus far offered a less confrontational approach to disagreements
with U.S. officials. The government will likely try to focus on pragmatic management of Israel’s security and economy rather with U.S. officials. The government will likely try to focus on pragmatic management of Israel’s security and economy rather
than controversial political initiatives, but Netanyahu and others in opposition may challenge its cohesion. To prevent the than controversial political initiatives, but Netanyahu and others in opposition may challenge its cohesion. To prevent the
government’s dissolution, Israel’s Knesset (its unicameral parliament) must pass a budget for 2021-2022 by government’s dissolution, Israel’s Knesset (its unicameral parliament) must pass a budget for 2021-2022 by ~~early~~ mid-November November
2021. The Arab-led, Islamist United Arab List is part of the coalition and is seeking to have the government address 2021. The Arab-led, Islamist United Arab List is part of the coalition and is seeking to have the government address
socioeconomic inequalities among the Arab citizens who make upsocioeconomic inequalities among the Arab citizens who make up around 20% of Israel’s population.around 20% of Israel’s population.
Israeli-Palestinian issues. In hopes of preserving the viability of a negotiated two-state solution among Israelis and In hopes of preserving the viability of a negotiated two-state solution among Israelis and
Palestinians, Biden Administration officials have sought to help manage tensions, bolster Israel’s defensive capabilities, and Palestinians, Biden Administration officials have sought to help manage tensions, bolster Israel’s defensive capabilities, and
strengthen U.S.-Palestinian ties that frayed during the Trump Administration. In May 2021, an 11-day conflict took place strengthen U.S.-Palestinian ties that frayed during the Trump Administration. In May 2021, an 11-day conflict took place
between Israel and Hamasbetween Israel and Hamas (a U.S.-designated terrorist organization), which maintains de facto control within Gaza. It was the (a U.S.-designated terrorist organization), which maintains de facto control within Gaza. It was the
fourth major conflict of its kind, with previous ones occurring in 2008-2009, 2012, and 2014. Intercommunal protests and fourth major conflict of its kind, with previous ones occurring in 2008-2009, 2012, and 2014. Intercommunal protests and
violence also took place among Arabs and Jews within Israel and Jerusalem—with existing tensions in Jerusalem violence also took place among Arabs and Jews within Israel and Jerusalem—with existing tensions in Jerusalem
contributing to the conflict’s outbreak. In the conflict’s aftermath, President Biden has pledged to replenish Israel’s Iron contributing to the conflict’s outbreak. In the conflict’s aftermath, President Biden has pledged to replenish Israel’s Iron
Dome anti-rocket system, and Dome anti-rocket system, and ~~legislative proposals may be forthcoming on supplemental U.S. military aid for Israel. With~~
the House has passed a supplemental bill that would provide $1 billion for Iron Dome through FY2024. With Gaza still under Hamas control, obstacles to post-conflict recovery persist. Beyond providing short-term humanitarian Gaza still under Hamas control, obstacles to post-conflict recovery persist. Beyond providing short-term humanitarian
assistance, the United States and other international actors face assistance, the United States and other international actors face ~~significant~~sig nificant challenges in seeking to help with longer-term challenges in seeking to help with longer-term
reconstruction without bolstering Hamas. reconstruction without bolstering Hamas.
The Biden Administration has followed agreements reached during the Trump Administration that normalized or improved The Biden Administration has followed agreements reached during the Trump Administration that normalized or improved
relations between Israel and four Arab states—the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco. Biden relations between Israel and four Arab states—the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco. Biden
Administration officials have said that any further U.S. efforts to assist with Israel-Arab state normalization would seek to Administration officials have said that any further U.S. efforts to assist with Israel-Arab state normalization would seek to
preserve the viability of a negotiated two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Palestinian leaders have denounced preserve the viability of a negotiated two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Palestinian leaders have denounced
normalization as an abandonment of the Palestinian national cause, given Arab states’ previous insistence that Israel address normalization as an abandonment of the Palestinian national cause, given Arab states’ previous insistence that Israel address
Palestinian negotiating demands as a precondition for improved ties. Possible economic benefits and U.S. arms sales Palestinian negotiating demands as a precondition for improved ties. Possible economic benefits and U.S. arms sales
stemming from Israel-Arab state normalization may influence relationships among regional actors. stemming from Israel-Arab state normalization may influence relationships among regional actors.
Iran and other regional issues. Israeli officials seek to counter Iranian regional influence and prevent Iran from acquiring Israeli officials seek to counter Iranian regional influence and prevent Iran from acquiring
nuclear weapons. Israel supported President Trump’s withdrawal of the United States from the 2015 international agreement nuclear weapons. Israel supported President Trump’s withdrawal of the United States from the 2015 international agreement
that constrained Iran’s nuclear activities. Prime Minister Bennett has made statements opposing the Biden Administration’s that constrained Iran’s nuclear activities. Prime Minister Bennett has made statements opposing the Biden Administration’s
possible reentry into the agreement. Observers have speculated about future Israeli covert or military actions to influence possible reentry into the agreement. Observers have speculated about future Israeli covert or military actions to influence
nuclear diplomacy. Israel also has reportedly conducted a number of military operations in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon against nuclear diplomacy. Israel also has reportedly conducted a number of military operations in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon against
Iran and its allies due to its concerns about Iran’s presence in these areas and Lebanese Hezbollah’s missile arsenal. Iran and its allies due to its concerns about Iran’s presence in these areas and Lebanese Hezbollah’s missile arsenal.
China: Investments in Israel and U.S. concerns. U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over Chinese U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over Chinese
investments in Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure that could increase China’s ability to gather intelligence investments in Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure that could increase China’s ability to gather intelligence
and acquire security-related technologies. While Chinese state-owned companies remain engaged in some specific and acquire security-related technologies. While Chinese state-owned companies remain engaged in some specific
infrastructure projects, including the management of a seaport terminal in Haifa, Israel has taken some steps to reduce infrastructure projects, including the management of a seaport terminal in Haifa, Israel has taken some steps to reduce
Chinese investment in strategically important areas. Chinese investment in strategically important areas.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

link to page link to page 1819 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Overview: Major Issues for U.S.-Israel Relations
Israel (Israel (~~see~~see Appendix A for a map and basic facts) has forged close bilateral cooperation with the for a map and basic facts) has forged close bilateral cooperation with the
United States in many areas. For more background, including on aid, arms sales, and missile United States in many areas. For more background, including on aid, arms sales, and missile
defense cooperation, see CRS Report RL33476, defense cooperation, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim , by Jim
Zanotti; and CRS Report RL33222, Zanotti; and CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp. , by Jeremy M. Sharp.
The Trump Administration made U.S. policy changes affecting bilateral relations when it The Trump Administration made U.S. policy changes affecting bilateral relations when it
recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital in 2017 and moved the location of the U.S. embassy to recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital in 2017 and moved the location of the U.S. embassy to
Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem in 2018. These actions could affect future negotiations and Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem in 2018. These actions could affect future negotiations and
outcomes regarding Jerusalem’s status—given Palestinian claims to East Jerusalem as their future outcomes regarding Jerusalem’s status—given Palestinian claims to East Jerusalem as their future
national capital—though the Trump Administration did not take a position on the boundaries of national capital—though the Trump Administration did not take a position on the boundaries of
Israeli sovereignty in the city. The Biden Administration has said that the embassy Israeli sovereignty in the city. The Biden Administration has said that the embassy ~~will~~ wil remain in remain in
Jerusalem. Jerusalem.
The Biden Administration also has announced—without specifying the timing—that it plans to The Biden Administration also has announced—without specifying the timing—that it plans to
reopen the U.S. consulatereopen the U.S. consulate ~~general~~ in Jerusalem that had previously functioned as an independent in Jerusalem that had previously functioned as an independent
diplomatic mission in handling relations with the Palestinians. The Trump Administration merged diplomatic mission in handling relations with the Palestinians. The Trump Administration merged
the consulatethe consulate ~~general~~ into the embassy in March 2019, with the consulate’s functions taken over into the embassy in March 2019, with the consulate’s functions taken over
by a Palestinian Affairs Unit within the embassy. Some media reports suggest that the Biden by a Palestinian Affairs Unit within the embassy. Some media reports suggest that the Biden
AdministrationAdministration may delay the consulate’s reopening until sometime after a critical budget may delay the consulate’s reopening until sometime after a critical budget
deadline for Israel’s new government in deadline for Israel’s new government in ~~early~~ mid-November 2021 (discussed below).1 November 2021 (discussed below).1 ~~Israeli~~Several top Israeli officials, including Prime Minister Naftali Bennett and Foreign Foreign
Minister Yair LapidMinister Yair Lapid ~~has~~ , have voiced opposition to the proposed reopening.2 It is unclear whether Israel’s approval of a U.S. consulate reopening is essential y a practical matter—given Israel’s control over Jerusalem—or is also founded on law such as the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations.3 For more information on this issue, see CRS Report RL34074, The Palestinians: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti.~~voiced opposition to the reopening, stating concerns that it could~~
~~destabilize the government and insisting that “Jerusalem is the sovereign capital of Israel and~~
~~Israel alone.”2~~
U.S.-Israel security cooperation—a critical part of the bilateral relationship—is multifaceted. U.S. U.S.-Israel security cooperation—a critical part of the bilateral relationship—is multifaceted. U.S.
law requires the executive branch to take certain actions to preserve Israel’s “qualitative military law requires the executive branch to take certain actions to preserve Israel’s “qualitative military
edge,” or QME, and expedites aid and arms sales to Israel in various ways. edge,” or QME, and expedites aid and arms sales to Israel in various ways. ~~Additionally~~Additional y, a 10-, a 10-
year bilateralyear bilateral military aid memorandum of understanding (MOU)—signed in 2016—commits the military aid memorandum of understanding (MOU)—signed in 2016—commits the
United States to provide Israel $3.3 United States to provide Israel $3.3 ~~billion~~ bil ion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and to spend in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and to spend
$500 $500 ~~million annually~~mil ion annual y on joint missile defense programs from FY2019 to FY2028, subject to on joint missile defense programs from FY2019 to FY2028, subject to
congressional appropriations. Israel was the first foreign country to purchase and operate the F-35 congressional appropriations. Israel was the first foreign country to purchase and operate the F-35
Joint Strike Fighter. Congress also has authorized and encouraged bilateral cooperation in a Joint Strike Fighter. Congress also has authorized and encouraged bilateral cooperation in a
number of specific security-related areas, including anti-tunnel defense and countermeasures for number of specific security-related areas, including anti-tunnel defense and countermeasures for
drone aircraft. drone aircraft.
Additional Additional issues to be discussed below with significant implications for U.S.-Israel relations include 1 See, for example, Jonathan Lis and Ben Samuels, “ Ahead of First Meeting, Biden and Bennett T ry to Dismantle a Jerusalem Landmine,” haaretz.com, August 16, 2021. 2 Shalom Yerushalmi, “ Bennett suggested Biden reopen consulate in Ramallah or Abu Dis, US said no,” Times of Israel, September 28, 2021; “ Israel opposes Biden plan to reopen U.S. Palestinian mission in Jerusalem ,” Reuters, September 1, 2021; “ Israeli minister sees no compromise on U.S. Palestinian mission in Jerusalem ,” Reuters, October 12, 2021. 3 For varying views, see Efron and Dalalsha, “Reopening the U.S. Consulate”; Alan Baker, “ A U.S. Consulate for the Palestinians Should Be on Palestinian T erritory – Not in Jerusalem,” Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, July 15, 2021. T he text of the Vienna Convention is available at https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/9_2_1963.pdf . Congressional Research Service 1 link to page 5 link to page 20 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief  Chal enges facing the Israeli power-sharing government that took office in June 2021, headed by Prime Minister Bennett.  Israeli-Palestinian issues, including the aftermath of May 2021 Israel-Gaza Strip violence, some human rights considerations and heightened scrutiny of U.S. aid, and Israel’s normalization of relations with various Arab states.  Concerns about Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence, including with Lebanon-based Hezbollah. ~~issues to be discussed below with significant implications for U.S.-Israel relations~~
~~include:~~
~~ Challenges facing the Israeli power-sharing government that took office in June~~
~~2021, headed by Prime Minister Naftali Bennett.~~
~~ Israeli-Palestinian issues, including the aftermath of May 2021 Israel-Gaza Strip~~
~~violence, some human rights considerations and heightened scrutiny of U.S. aid,~~
~~and Israel’s normalization of relations with various Arab states.~~
~~ Concerns about Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence, including with~~
~~Lebanon-based Hezbollah.~~

~~1 See, for example, Jonathan Lis and Ben Samuels, “Ahead of First Meeting, Biden and Bennett Try to Dismantle a~~
~~Jerusalem Landmine,” haaretz.com, August 16, 2021.~~
~~2 “Israel opposes Biden plan to reopen U.S. Palestinian mission in Jerusalem,” Reuters, September 1, 2021.~~
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~~link to page 5 link to page 19~~ ~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

 Chinese investment in Israeli companies and infrastructure, and U.S. concerns Chinese investment in Israeli companies and infrastructure, and U.S. concerns
about implications for U.S. national security. about implications for U.S. national security.
New Israeli Government
A new power-sharing government headed by Prime Minister A new power-sharing government headed by Prime Minister ~~Naftali~~ Bennett (see the text box Bennett (see the text box
below for a brief biography) took office on June 13, 2021, ending Binyamin Netanyahu’s 12-year below for a brief biography) took office on June 13, 2021, ending Binyamin Netanyahu’s 12-year
tenure as prime minister.tenure as prime minister.34 Since Netanyahu’s criminal indictment on corruption charges in Since Netanyahu’s criminal indictment on corruption charges in
February 2019, Israel has held four separate elections—the most recent in March 2021—and February 2019, Israel has held four separate elections—the most recent in March 2021—and
experienced experienced considerable political turmoil. Netanyahu had stayed in power during that time for considerable political turmoil. Netanyahu had stayed in power during that time for
various reasons, including lack of Israeli consensus on replacing him during the crisis over the various reasons, including lack of Israeli consensus on replacing him during the crisis over the
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and his prominence on national security Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and his prominence on national security
issues. Netanyahu and his Likud party now lead the Knesset’s opposition, as was the case from issues. Netanyahu and his Likud party now lead the Knesset’s opposition, as was the case from
2006 to 2009. 2006 to 2009.
Bennett—a right-of-center figure who leads the Yamina party—and the centrist Yesh Atid party Bennett—a right-of-center figure who leads the Yamina party—and the centrist Yesh Atid party
leader Yair Lapid reached agreement with other key political party leaders to form a new leader Yair Lapid reached agreement with other key political party leaders to form a new
government and replace Netanyahu. Bennett is scheduled to serve as prime minister until August government and replace Netanyahu. Bennett is scheduled to serve as prime minister until August
27, 2023, at which point Lapid would become prime minister. The new government draws its 27, 2023, at which point Lapid would become prime minister. The new government draws its
support from a disparate coalition of parties on the right (Yamina, New Hope, Yisrael Beitenu), support from a disparate coalition of parties on the right (Yamina, New Hope, Yisrael Beitenu),
center (Yesh Atid and Kahol Lavan), and left (Labor, Meretz) of the politicalcenter (Yesh Atid and Kahol Lavan), and left (Labor, Meretz) of the political spectrum, as spectrum, as ~~well~~ wel as as
from the Arab-led, Islamist United Arab List (UALfrom the Arab-led, Islamist United Arab List (UAL or Ra’am) (or Ra’am) (~~see~~see Table 1 ~~and~~and Appendix B). .
The participation of UALThe participation of UAL in the coalition is the first instance of an independent Arab party joining in the coalition is the first instance of an independent Arab party joining
an Israeli government.an Israeli government.45 Women make up approximately one-third of Israel’s new cabinet, with Women make up approximately one-third of Israel’s new cabinet, with
nine female ministers, more than in any previous government.nine female ministers, more than in any previous government.56
Table 1. Israeli Power-Sharing Government: Key Positions
Position
Name
Party
Prime Prime Minister Minister
Naftali Bennett Naftali Bennett
Yamina Yamina
Foreign Minister Foreign Minister and and
Yair Lapid Yair Lapid
Yesh Atid Yesh Atid
Alternate Prime Alternate Prime Minister Minister
Defense Minister Defense Minister
Benny Gantz Benny Gantz
Kahol Lavan Kahol Lavan
Finance Minister Finance Minister
Avigdor Lieberman Avigdor Lieberman
Yisrael Yisrael Beitenu 4~~Beitenu~~
~~Justice Minister~~
~~Gideon Sa’ar~~
~~New Hope~~
~~Interior Minister~~
~~Ayelet Shaked~~
~~Yamina~~
~~Transportation Minister~~
~~Merav Michaeli~~
~~Labor~~
~~Public Security Minister~~
~~Omer Bar Lev~~
~~Labor~~
~~Health Minister~~
~~Nitzan Horowitz~~
~~Meretz~~

3 Netanyahu also served an earlier 1996-1999 term as prime minister. Netanyahu also served an earlier 1996-1999 term as prime minister.
45 According to one Israeli media source, “Only twice have Arab According to one Israeli media source, “Only twice have Arab Israeli parties backed an Israeli government. In the Israeli parties backed an Israeli government. In the
1950s, a small faction composed of one Arab1950s, a small faction composed of one Arab parliamentarian entered the coalition. The faction was far from parliamentarian entered the coalition. The faction was far from
independent, essentially operating as an Arab franchise of Israel’s rulingindependent, essentially operating as an Arab franchise of Israel’s ruling socialist party, Mapai. In the 1990s, when the socialist party, Mapai. In the 1990s, when the
government of leftgovernment of left -wing Labor party leader Yitzhak Rabin was-wing Labor party leader Yitzhak Rabin was in danger of collapsing, the Arab parties stepped in to in danger of collapsing, the Arab parties stepped in to
prevent a vote of no confidence.” Aaron Boxerman, “prevent a vote of no confidence.” Aaron Boxerman, “ History made as Arab Israeli Ra’am party joins BennettHistory made as Arab Israeli Ra’am party joins Bennett -Lapid -Lapid
coalition,” coalition,” ~~Times~~Tim es of Israel, June, June 3, 2021. 3, 2021.
56 Mazal Mualem, “Israeli female ministers introduce reforms, shake up agenda,” Mazal Mualem, “Israeli female ministers introduce reforms, shake up agenda,” Al-Monitor, September 10, 2021. , September 10, 2021.
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Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Justice Minister Gideon Sa’ar New Hope Interior Minister Ayelet Shaked Yamina Transportation Minister Merav Michaeli Labor Public Security Minister Omer Bar Lev Labor Health Minister Nitzan Horowitz Meretz Prime Minister Naftali Bennett: Biography
Bennett, born in 1972, is a leading figure of the Israeli Bennett, born in 1972, is a leading figure of the Israeli national religious,national religious, pro-settlerpro-settler right. He right. He
hails from a modern Orthodox Jewish background. Having parents who emigratedhails from a modern Orthodox Jewish background. Having parents who emigrated from the from the
United States, Bennett lived in AmericaUnited States, Bennett lived in America at multipleat multiple times as a youth and adult. He served in times as a youth and adult. He served in
various Israelivarious Israeli special forces units (and remainsspecial forces units (and remains a reservist)a reservist) before starting what became a very before starting what became a very
successful career as a software entrepreneur. successful career as a software entrepreneur.
Entering politics in 2006, Bennett served as chief of staff for Binyamin Netanyahu until 2008, Entering politics in 2006, Bennett served as chief of staff for Binyamin Netanyahu until 2008,
while Netanyahu was serving as opposition leader in the Knesset.while Netanyahu was serving as opposition leader in the Knesset. Later,Later, Bennett served as Bennett served as
director-generaldirector-general of the Yesha Council (the of the Yesha Council (the ~~umbrella~~ umbrel a organization for Israeliorganization for Israeli West Bank West Bank
settlers) settlers) from 2010 to 2012. from 2010 to 2012.
He then became the party leader for HaBayit HaYehudi (The Jewish Home) and led the party into the Knesset in He then became the party leader for HaBayit HaYehudi (The Jewish Home) and led the party into the Knesset in
2013. In 2018 he left The Jewish Home,2013. In 2018 he left The Jewish Home, seeking various right-of-center electoralseeking various right-of-center electoral ~~alliances before finally~~ al iances before final y becoming becoming
head of Yamina in 2020. Bennett has participated in severalhead of Yamina in 2020. Bennett has participated in several coalition governmentscoalition governments led by Netanyahu, serving as led by Netanyahu, serving as
economy ministereconomy minister (2013-2015), education minister(2013-2015), education minister (2015-2019), and defense minister(2015-2019), and defense minister (2019-2020). In May 2020, (2019-2020). In May 2020,
he led Yamina into the opposition when Netanyahu and Likud formedhe led Yamina into the opposition when Netanyahu and Likud formed a power-sharing government with Benny a power-sharing government with Benny
Gantz and Kahol Lavan. Gantz and Kahol Lavan.
Bennett openly opposes the creation of a Palestinian state, though he approves of greater Palestinian autonomy in Bennett openly opposes the creation of a Palestinian state, though he approves of greater Palestinian autonomy in
West Bank urban areas. He supports continued expansion of IsraeliWest Bank urban areas. He supports continued expansion of Israeli ~~settlements~~ settlements in the Westin the West Bank and the Bank and the
annexation of Jewish-settled areas.annexation of Jewish-settled areas. However,However, he has agreed not to pursue annexation as primehe has agreed not to pursue annexation as prime ~~minister~~ minister in the in the
current power-sharing government. current power-sharing government.
On domesticOn domestic issues,issues, Bennett Bennett ~~generally~~general y supports free-market supports free-market policies,policies, a modest government safety net, and a focus a modest government safety net, and a focus
on equality of opportunity and education for on equality of opportunity and education for ~~economically challenged~~economical y chal enged Israelis. Israelis. He has supported efforts by his He has supported efforts by his
close politicalclose political col eague Ayelet Shaked, who servedcol eague Ayelet Shaked, who served as justice ministeras justice minister from 2015 to 2019, to limitfrom 2015 to 2019, to limit the power of the power of
the judiciary and other justice sector and public security institutions to curb executive and legislativethe judiciary and other justice sector and public security institutions to curb executive and legislative actions.actions.67
Key Domestic Issues
In its first few months in office, the government has focused largely on addressing pragmatic In its first few months in office, the government has focused largely on addressing pragmatic
solutions to solutions to ~~challenges~~chal enges such as enacting a budget and addressing the Coronavirus Disease 2019 such as enacting a budget and addressing the Coronavirus Disease 2019
(COVID-19) pandemic. The fractious nature of the coalition makes it less likely(COVID-19) pandemic. The fractious nature of the coalition makes it less likely to pursue to pursue
comprehensive action on more comprehensive action on more ~~politically~~political y contentious issues like those pertaining to the contentious issues like those pertaining to the
Palestinians. Significant disagreements within or defections from the government could lead to its Palestinians. Significant disagreements within or defections from the government could lead to its
collapse and new elections—perhaps leaving open the possibility of a return by Netanyahu to collapse and new elections—perhaps leaving open the possibility of a return by Netanyahu to
power.power.
In early August, Israel’s cabinet approved a budget for the first time in more than three years. In early August, Israel’s cabinet approved a budget for the first time in more than three years.
Israeli law requires that the Knesset approve the budget by Israeli law requires that the Knesset approve the budget by ~~early~~ mid-November to prevent the government’s dissolution and a new round of elections. As of late October, one report signaled possible discontent—which could conceivably spil over to the budget’s legislative prospects—from left-of-center coalition members over other ministers’ actions to designate Palestinian civil society groups as terrorist organizations (discussed in the textbox below) and advance West Bank settlement construction.8 7 Dahlia Scheindlin, “T he Assault on Israel’s Judiciary,” T he Century Foundation, July 7, 2021. 8 Raoul Wootliff, “ Coalition increasingly split on left -right lines as budget deadline looms.” Times of Israel, October Congressional Research Service 3 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief ~~November to prevent the~~
~~government’s dissolution and a new round of elections.~~ The budget, which covers 2021-2022, The budget, which covers 2021-2022,
would emphasize spending on infrastructure and pandemic recovery as would emphasize spending on infrastructure and pandemic recovery as ~~well~~ wel as various reforms.as various reforms.7
9 Of the $360 Of the $360 ~~billion~~bil ion budgeted for these two years, budgeted for these two years, approximately $11 approximately $11 ~~billion would be specifically~~
~~allocated~~bil ion would be specifical y al ocated to the infrastructure, education, health care, and crime prevention needs of Arab to the infrastructure, education, health care, and crime prevention needs of Arab
Israelis,Israelis,810 whose income and education levels are markedly lower than those of Jewish Israelis. whose income and education levels are markedly lower than those of Jewish Israelis.
Securing this level of funding for Arab citizens of Israel would be a major accomplishment for Securing this level of funding for Arab citizens of Israel would be a major accomplishment for
UAL leader Mansour Abbas, who joined the UAL leader Mansour Abbas, who joined the government based on budgetary assurances from government based on budgetary assurances from
~~coalition partners.9~~

~~6 Dahlia Scheindlin, “The Assault on Israel’s Judiciary,” The Century Foundation, July 7, 2021.~~
~~7 “Israel's 2021/22 budget set for parliament battle after cabinet approval,” Reuters, August 2, 2021.~~
~~8 Mazel Mualem, “Israeli budget approved in victory for Arab coalition party,” Al-Monitor, August 3, 2021.~~
~~9 Aaron Boxerman, “History made as Arab Israeli Ra’am party joins Bennett-Lapid coalition,” Times of Israel, June 3,~~
~~2021.~~
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~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~
coalition partners.11
Issues for U.S. Policy
The new Israeli government’s approach to regional The new Israeli government’s approach to regional ~~challenges~~chal enges related to Iran and the Palestinians related to Iran and the Palestinians
~~will~~ wil affect its relations with the United States. Prime Minister Bennett met with President Biden affect its relations with the United States. Prime Minister Bennett met with President Biden
at the White House in August 2021. A White House readout of the meeting said that Bennett and at the White House in August 2021. A White House readout of the meeting said that Bennett and
Biden “reiterated their commitments to work constructively and deepen cooperation to address Biden “reiterated their commitments to work constructively and deepen cooperation to address ~~all~~
al aspects of Israel’s security against Iran and other threats,” and the statement included additional aspects of Israel’s security against Iran and other threats,” and the statement included additional
points on the Palestinians (see below).points on the Palestinians (see below).1012 Although Bennett’s policies on regional issues may not Although Bennett’s policies on regional issues may not
differ significantly from those of former Prime Minister Netanyahu, his government has thus far differ significantly from those of former Prime Minister Netanyahu, his government has thus far
publicized a less confrontational approach to disagreements with U.S. officials on Iran—publicized a less confrontational approach to disagreements with U.S. officials on Iran—
apparently seeking to improve Israel’s bipartisan standing with Democrats.apparently seeking to improve Israel’s bipartisan standing with Democrats.1113
Israeli-Palestinian Issues
Biden Administration officials have said that they seek to preserve the viability of a negotiated Biden Administration officials have said that they seek to preserve the viability of a negotiated
two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, while playing down near-term prospects for two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, while playing down near-term prospects for
direct Israeli-Palestinian negotiations.direct Israeli-Palestinian negotiations.14 In doing so, they seek to help manage tensions, bolster In doing so, they seek to help manage tensions, bolster
Israel’s defensive capabilities, and strengthen U.S.-Palestinian ties that frayed during the Trump Israel’s defensive capabilities, and strengthen U.S.-Palestinian ties that frayed during the Trump
Administration. In May 2021, Secretary of State Antony Blinken spoke out against steps taken by Administration. In May 2021, Secretary of State Antony Blinken spoke out against steps taken by
~~either~~ Israelis or Palestinians that he said could risk sparking violence and undermining the vision Israelis or Palestinians that he said could risk sparking violence and undermining the vision
of two states—including settlement activity, demolitions, evictions, incitement to violence, and of two states—including settlement activity, demolitions, evictions, incitement to violence, and
payment to terrorists.payment to terrorists.1215 In October 2021, the State Department spokesperson voiced concern about prospective Israeli actions to advance settlements deep in the West Bank, and cal ed upon Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA) to “refrain from unilateral steps that exacerbate tension and undercut efforts to advance a negotiated two-state solution. This certainly includes settlement activity, as wel as retroactive legalization of settlement outposts.”16 25, 2021. 9 “Israel’s 2021/22 budget set for parliament battle after cabinet approval,” Reuters, August 2, 2021. 10 Mazel Mualem, “Israeli budget approved in victory for Arab coalition party,” Al-Monitor, August 3, 2021. 11 Aaron Boxerman, “ History made as Arab Israeli Ra’am party joins Bennett -Lapid coalition,” Times of Israel, June 3, 2021. 12 White House, “ Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr.’s Meeting with Prime Minister Naftali Bennett of Israel,” August 27, 2021. 13 Steven A. Cook, “Netanyahu Is Gone. Netanyahu-ism Still Reigns.” foreignpolicy.com, September 1, 2021; “ Lapid vows to rebuild international ties after ‘reckless’ last government ,” Times of Israel, June 14, 2021. 14 White House, “ Remarks by President Biden Before the 76th Session of the United Nations General Assembly ,” September 21, 2021. 15 State Department, “ Secretary Antony J. Blinken at a Press Availability,” Jerusalem, May 25, 2021. 16 State Department Press Briefing, October 22, 2021. Congressional Research Service 4 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief During 2021, Administration officials have renewed diplomatic ties with West Bank-based PA
~~During 2021, Administration officials have renewed diplomatic ties with West Bank-based~~
~~Palestinian Authority (PA)~~ President Mahmoud Abbas and resumed various forms of U.S. aid for President Mahmoud Abbas and resumed various forms of U.S. aid for
Palestinians.Palestinians.1317 As part of As part of the FY2021 Consolidated Appropriations Act enacted in December the FY2021 Consolidated Appropriations Act enacted in December
2020, the Nita M. Lowey Middle East Partnership for Peace Act of 2020 (Title VIII of P.L. 116-2020, the Nita M. Lowey Middle East Partnership for Peace Act of 2020 (Title VIII of P.L. 116-
260) authorized the future establishment of a fund to support Israeli-Palestinian dialogue and 260) authorized the future establishment of a fund to support Israeli-Palestinian dialogue and
reconciliation programs, and reconciliation programs, and an initiativean initiative to promote Israeli-Palestinian economic cooperation. to promote Israeli-Palestinian economic cooperation.
A White House summary of the August 2021 meeting between President Biden and Prime A White House summary of the August 2021 meeting between President Biden and Prime
Minister Bennett said: Minister Bennett said:
The President underscored the importance of steps to improve the lives of Palestinians and The President underscored the importance of steps to improve the lives of Palestinians and
supportsupport ~~greater~~ greater economic opportunitieseconomic opportunities for them. He also notedfor them. He also noted the importance of the importance of
refraining from actions that could exacerbate tensions, contribute to a sense of unfairness, refraining from actions that could exacerbate tensions, contribute to a sense of unfairness,
and undermine efforts to build trust. President Biden reaffirmed his view that a negotiated and undermine efforts to build trust. President Biden reaffirmed his view that a negotiated
two-statetwo-state solution is the onlysolution is the only viable path to achieving a lasting resolution to the Israeli-viable path to achieving a lasting resolution to the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict.Palestinian conflict.1418
Days before the Biden-Bennett meeting, Israeli Defense Minister Benny Gantz met PA President Days before the Biden-Bennett meeting, Israeli Defense Minister Benny Gantz met PA President
Abbas—the first meeting between Abbas and an Israeli cabinet minister since 2010. Gantz said Abbas—the first meeting between Abbas and an Israeli cabinet minister since 2010. Gantz said
that the two discussed steps to improve security coordination and assist the PA that the two discussed steps to improve security coordination and assist the PA ~~financially,~~

~~10 White House, “Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr.’s Meeting with Prime Minister Naftali Bennett of Israel,”~~
~~August 27, 2021.~~
~~11 Steven A. Cook, “Netanyahu Is Gone. Netanyahu-ism Still Reigns.” foreignpolicy.com, September 1, 2021; “Lapid~~
~~vows to rebuild international ties after ‘reckless’ last government,” Times of Israel, June 14, 2021.~~
~~12 State Department, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken at a Press Availability,” Jerusalem, May 25, 2021.~~
~~13 CRS In Focus IF10644, The Palestinians: Overview, Aid, and U.S. Policy Issues, by Jim Zanotti.~~
~~14 White House, “Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr.’s Meeting with Prime Minister Naftali Bennett of Israel,”~~
~~August 27, 2021.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

4

~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~including a $155 million Israeli loan.15 Bennett later said that while Israel is open to helping the~~
~~PA economically, Israel has no intention of engaging in a diplomatic process at this time.16~~
~~May 2021 Israel-Gaza Conflict~~
~~From May 10 through May 21, 2021, a conflict took place between Israel and Hamas (a U.S.-~~
~~designated terrorist organization), which maintains de facto control within Gaza.17 The following~~
~~were key aspects of the conflict:~~
~~ Overview. Palestinian militants fired rockets with unprecedented intensity from Gaza~~
financial y, including a $155 mil ion Israeli loan.19 Bennett said in late August that while Israel is open to helping the PA economical y, Israel had no intention of engaging in a diplomatic process at the time.20 In addition to the loan mentioned above, Israel has taken some steps to improve Palestinians’ circumstances, “including issuing 15,000 new work permits inside Israel for [West Bank] Palestinians… re-establishing Joint Economic Committees to discuss future projects, al owing reunification (i.e. legal status) for Palestinian spouses in the West Bank, and tentatively approving 2,000 new housing units for Palestinians in the part of the West Bank under full Israeli control.”21 In October 2021, Israeli authorities announced an additional 3,000 work permits inside Israel for Gazans.22 However, some critics charge that the measures mirror past Israeli efforts to manage the conflict’s effects unilateral y rather than responsively address its causes through dialogue and negotiation with Palestinians.23 Israeli Terrorist Designations Against Palestinian Civil Society Groups In October 2021, Defense Minister Gantz—apparently acting with the approval of the state prosecutor, but without consulting Prime Minister Bennett or other key cabinet ministers—announced the designation of six Palestinian civil society groups as terrorist organizations under Israeli law because of purported links to the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP, a U.S.-designated terrorist organization).24 According to the New York Times, “The six [groups] are variously involved in highlighting rights abuses by Israel, the Palestinian Authority and Hamas, as wel as in promoting the rights of Palestinian prisoners in Israeli jails, women, 17 CRS In Focus IF10644, The Palestinians: Overview, Aid, and U.S. Policy Issues, by Jim Zanotti. 18 White House, “ Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr.’s Meeting with Prime Minister Naftali Bennett of Israel,” August 27, 2021. 19 Yaniv Kubovich, “Gantz Says Agreed with Abbas on Confidence-building Measures, Including $155m Loan,” haaretz.com, August 30, 2021. 20 Ibid. 21 Neri Zilber, “Israel’s new plan is to ‘shrink,’ not solve, the Palestinian conflict. Here’s what that looks like,” CNN, September 16, 2021. 22 “Israel announces 3,000 new Gaza work permits,” Al-Monitor, October 20, 2021. 23 Zilber, “Israel’s new plan is to ‘shrink,’ not solve, the Palestinian conflict.” 24 “Shin Bet, Foreign Ministry rep heading to US over outlawed Palestinian groups,” Times of Israel, October 24, 2021. Congressional Research Service 5 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief farmworkers and children.”25 The designations, which have sparked some domestic and international criticism, could significantly curtail these groups’ funding and activities, and subject their supporters to Israeli criminal prosecution. Some of the groups receive funding from the European Union and other international actors. In response to a U.S. request for clarification, Israeli officials were preparing as of late October to share evidence that they claim supports the terrorist designations.26 May 2021 Israel-Gaza Conflict From May 10 through May 21, 2021, a conflict took place between Israel and Hamas (a U.S.-designated terrorist organization), which maintains de facto control within Gaza.27 The following were key aspects of the conflict:  Overview. Palestinian militants fired rockets with unprecedented intensity from Gaza into central Israel. The Iron Dome anti-rocket system played a prominent ~~into central Israel. The Iron Dome anti-rocket system played a prominent~~ role in role in
defending Israeli population centers. Israel conducted sustained air and defending Israeli population centers. Israel conducted sustained air and ~~artillery~~artil ery strikes in strikes in
~~Gaza. Additionally,~~ Gaza. Additional y, intercommunal protests and violence took place within Israel and intercommunal protests and violence took place within Israel and
Jerusalem (see below for a description of events in Jerusalem prior to the conflict)—Jerusalem (see below for a description of events in Jerusalem prior to the conflict)—
involving some Arab citizens of Israel, Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, Jewish involving some Arab citizens of Israel, Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, Jewish
nationalists, and Israeli authorities. nationalists, and Israeli authorities.
  Political context. Some factors that may have influenced the outbreak and Some factors that may have influenced the outbreak and trajectory of trajectory of
conflict included tensions over Jerusalem during Ramadan, the presence of a new U.S. conflict included tensions over Jerusalem during Ramadan, the presence of a new U.S.
Administration, and significant domestic political uncertainty for both Israelis and Administration, and significant domestic political uncertainty for both Israelis and
Palestinians (including a recent postponement of PA elections). Palestinians (including a recent postponement of PA elections).
  Fatalities. In exchanges of fire between Israel and Gaza, 12 people in Israel In exchanges of fire between Israel and Gaza, 12 people in Israel (including 2 (including 2
Thai nationals) and more than 250 people in Gaza (including more than 60 children) were Thai nationals) and more than 250 people in Gaza (including more than 60 children) were
~~killed.18~~kil ed.28 Amid unrest in the West Bank during that same Amid unrest in the West Bank during that same timeframe (May 10-21), one timeframe (May 10-21), one
source estimates that Israeli security forces source estimates that Israeli security forces ~~killed~~kil ed 27 Palestinians. 27 Palestinians.1929
Gaza and Its Challenges
The Gaza Strip—control ed The Gaza Strip—control ed by Hamas,by Hamas, but significantly affected by general Israelibut significantly affected by general Israeli and Egyptian access and and Egyptian access and
import/exportimport/export restrictions—facesrestrictions—faces difficult and complicated political,difficult and complicated political, economic,economic, and humanitarian conditions.and humanitarian conditions.2030
Palestinian militants in Gaza Palestinian militants in Gaza ~~periodically~~ periodical y clash with Israel’sclash with Israel’s ~~military~~ military as it patrols Gaza’s frontiers with Israel,as it patrols Gaza’s frontiers with Israel, with with
militant actions and Israeli responsesmilitant actions and Israeli responses ~~sometimes~~ sometimes endangering civilianendangering civilian areas in southern Israel and Gaza, areas in southern Israel and Gaza,
respectively.respectively. These incidents These incidents ~~periodically~~ periodical y escalate toward larger conflict, as in May 2021. Hamas and Israel escalate toward larger conflict, as in May 2021. Hamas and Israel
reportedlyreportedly work through Egypt and Qatar to helpwork through Egypt and Qatar to help manage the flow of necessary resourcesmanage the flow of necessary resources into Gaza and prevent or manage conflict escalation. 25 Patrick Kingsley, “ Palestine Rights Groups Called T errorists by Israel,” New York Times, October 23, 2021. 26 “Shin Bet, Foreign Ministry rep heading to US.” 27~~into Gaza and prevent~~
~~or manage conflict escalation.~~
~~Various actions exacerbated the tension in Jerusalem that led to conflict. These included Israeli~~
~~measures restricting Palestinian movement and worship in and around the Temple Mount/Haram~~
~~al Sharif (“Mount/Haram”) holy sites in the Old City,21 disputes about and responses to these~~

~~15 Yaniv Kubovich, “Gantz Says Agreed with Abbas on Confidence-building Measures, Including $155m Loan,”~~
~~haaretz.com, August 30, 2021.~~
~~16 Ibid.~~
17 Another U.S.-designated terrorist organization, Palestine Islamic Jihad, also took part from Gaza. Another U.S.-designated terrorist organization, Palestine Islamic Jihad, also took part from Gaza.
1828 Dina Kraft and Laura King, “ Dina Kraft and Laura King, “ Israel’s Netanyahu, master of political survival, tested by conflict with Gaza,”Israel’s Netanyahu, master of political survival, tested by conflict with Gaza,” Los
Angeles ~~Times~~Tim es, May 23, 2021; “, May 23, 2021; “ 2 T hai~~2 Thai~~ workers killed, several people injured workers killed, several people injured as Hamas bombardsas Hamas bombards southern Israel,” southern Israel,”
~~Times~~Tim es of Israel, May 18, 2021. , May 18, 2021.
1929 U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs – Occupied U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs – Occupied Palestinian Palestinian ~~Territory, “~~T erritory, “ West Bank: Escalation West Bank: Escalation
of Violenceof Violence 13 April - 21 May 2021,” June 6, 2021. 13 April - 21 May 2021,” June 6, 2021.
2030 CRS CRS Report RL34074, Report RL34074, The Palestinians: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
~~21 For background on Jerusalem and its holy sites, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations,~~
~~by Jim Zanotti.~~
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Various actions exacerbated the tension in Jerusalem that led to conflict. These included Israeli measures restricting Palestinian movement and worship in and around the Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif (“Mount/Haram”) holy sites in the Old City,31 disputes about and responses to these measures, isolated attacks by Palestinians, and demonstrations by Jewish nationalist groups.measures, isolated attacks by Palestinians, and demonstrations by Jewish nationalist groups.2232
Unrest intensified in response to controversy over the possible eviction of several Palestinian Unrest intensified in response to controversy over the possible eviction of several Palestinian
families from their longtime residences in the Sheikh Jarrah neighborhood of East Jerusalem, families from their longtime residences in the Sheikh Jarrah neighborhood of East Jerusalem,
stemming from an Israeli law that stemming from an Israeli law that ~~allows~~al ows for Jewish recovery of property abandoned in for Jewish recovery of property abandoned in
connection with the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.connection with the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.2333 The case remains ongoing in Israel’s Supreme Court, The case remains ongoing in Israel’s Supreme Court,
which reportedly may be seeking an outcome calculated to defuse tensions.which reportedly may be seeking an outcome calculated to defuse tensions.2434 Palestinian leaders Palestinian leaders
and some activists and international actors claim that the Sheikh Jarrah case is part of a and some activists and international actors claim that the Sheikh Jarrah case is part of a
systematic Israeli disregard for Palestinian rights in East Jerusalem since the area’s capture and systematic Israeli disregard for Palestinian rights in East Jerusalem since the area’s capture and
effective annexation as a result of the 1967 Arab-Israeli war.effective annexation as a result of the 1967 Arab-Israeli war.25
35 Critics of Israeli actions connect controversies in Jerusalem with concerns about Jewish Critics of Israeli actions connect controversies in Jerusalem with concerns about Jewish
settlement activity and other settlement activity and other ~~allegations~~al egations that Israel violates international law and Palestinian that Israel violates international law and Palestinian
human rights.human rights.2636 During the conflict, some Members of Congress who criticized Israel’s conduct During the conflict, some Members of Congress who criticized Israel’s conduct
during hostilities, and/or voiced concern about the impact of conflict on civilians in Gaza, sought during hostilities, and/or voiced concern about the impact of conflict on civilians in Gaza, sought
to restrict the sale of precision-guided munitions (PGMs) to Israel.to restrict the sale of precision-guided munitions (PGMs) to Israel.~~27 In August, Israel announced~~
~~approvals for more than 2,200 homes in West Bank settlements, while also announcing the~~
~~approval of construction permits for more than 800 Palestinian homes in Israel-controlled areas of~~
~~the West Bank that have featured little Palestinian development in recent years.28~~37
The Conflict’s Aftermath: Aid for Iron Dome and Gaza Relief
In the aftermath of the May 2021 conflict, the Biden Administration has sought to strengthen In the aftermath of the May 2021 conflict, the Biden Administration has sought to strengthen
Israel’s defensive capabilities, restore regional calm, and improve humanitarian conditions.Israel’s defensive capabilities, restore regional calm, and improve humanitarian conditions.2938
Within Congress, there has been broad bipartisan support for replenishing the Iron Dome Within Congress, there has been broad bipartisan support for replenishing the Iron Dome
system.system.3039 During the conflict, Palestinian armed groups (mostly Hamas and Palestine Islamic During the conflict, Palestinian armed groups (mostly Hamas and Palestine Islamic
Jihad) fired some 4,300 rockets into Israel, and the Israel Defense Forces reported that Iron Dome Jihad) fired some 4,300 rockets into Israel, and the Israel Defense Forces reported that Iron Dome
intercepted around 1,500 (representing 90% of those projectiles that were headed toward intercepted around 1,500 (representing 90% of those projectiles that were headed toward
~~populated areas).31 Each of Iron Dome’s Tamir interceptors, which are co-produced in Israel and~~

~~22 “From TikTok to Temple Mount Clashes: 28 Days of Violence in Jerusalem,” haaretz.com, May 10, 2021.~~
~~23 Nir Hasson, “Jerusalem Clashes: How Palestinians Rallied~~ 31 For background on Jerusalem and its holy sites, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. 32 “From T ikTok to T emple Mount Clashes: 28 Days of Violence in Jerusalem ,” haaretz.com, May 10, 2021. 33 Nir Hasson, “ Jerusalem Clashes: How Palestinians Rallied Behind Sheikh Jarrah,” haaretz.com, May 8, 2021. Some Behind Sheikh Jarrah,” haaretz.com, May 8, 2021. Some
Israeli human rights organizations estimate that more than 1,000 Palestinians in East Jerusalem across a number of Israeli human rights organizations estimate that more than 1,000 Palestinians in East Jerusalem across a number of
casescases are at risk of beingare at risk of being evicted from their current residences. Joseph Krauss,evicted from their current residences. Joseph Krauss, “ “Palestinians fear loss of family homes Palestinians fear loss of family homes
as evictions loom,” as evictions loom,” Associated Press, May 10, 2021. May 10, 2021.
~~24 The~~34 T he court has proposed a compromise that would allow court has proposed a compromise that would allow the Palestinian defendants to stay in their homes on the the Palestinian defendants to stay in their homes on the
condition that they recognize the Israeli plaintiff as being registered ascondition that they recognize the Israeli plaintiff as being registered as the property’s owner in Israel (without the property’s owner in Israel (without
necessarily conceding ownership claims). Jacobnecessarily conceding ownership claims). Jacob Magid,Magid, “ “Israel asking USIsrael asking US to push Palestinians toward compromise on to push Palestinians toward compromise on
Sheikh Jarrah,” Sheikh Jarrah,” ~~Times~~Tim es of Israel, August, August ~~10, 2021; “Ruling on East Jerusalem flashpoint evictions postponed,” Reuters,~~
~~August 2, 2021.~~
~~25 Patrick Kingsley, “~~ 10, 2021; T aghreed Ali, “ Israel offers Sheikh Jarrah residents to remain tenants for 15 years,” Al-Monitor, October 12, 2021. 35 Patrick Kingsley, “ Israel’s Supreme Court Delays Expulsion of Palestinian Families in East JerusalemIsrael’s Supreme Court Delays Expulsion of Palestinian Families in East Jerusalem ,” ,” New York
~~Times~~Tim es, May 10, 2021. , May 10, 2021.
2636 Al-Haq, “Action Alert: International Community Must Al-Haq, “Action Alert: International Community Must ~~Take~~T ake Immediate and Concrete Measures to Halt Israel’s Immediate and Concrete Measures to Halt Israel’s
AggressionAggression against Palestinian Jerusalemites,” May 10, 2021. For additional information, see CRSagainst Palestinian Jerusalemites,” May 10, 2021. For additional information, see CRS Report R46433, Report R46433,
Israel’s Possible Annexation of West Bank Areas: Frequently Asked Questions, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
2737 “U.S. Sen. Sanders “U.S. Sen. Sanders Offers Resolution Blocking Arms SalesOffers Resolution Blocking Arms Sales to Israel,” to Israel,” Reuters, May 20, 2021. , May 20, 2021.
~~28 “Israel set to approve new Palestinian and Jewish building in West Bank,” Times of Israel, August 11, 2021;~~
~~Foundation for Middle East Peace, Settlement & Annexation Report: August 13, 2021.~~
2938 White House, “ White House, “ Remarks by President BidenRemarks by President Biden on the Middleon the Middle East ~~East~~,” May 20, 2021. ,” May 20, 2021.
3039 Representative Josh Gottheimer, “Release: Bipartisan Group Representative Josh Gottheimer, “Release: Bipartisan Group ofo f 56 House Members 56 House Members Back Urgent FundingBack Urgent Funding for Israel’s for Israel’s
Iron Dome MissileIron Dome Missile Defense System,” JuneDefense System,” June ~~2, 2021.~~
~~31 Sebastien Roblin, “How Hamas’ Arsenal Shaped the Gaza War of May 2021,” forbes.com, May 25, 2021.~~
2, 2021. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

67 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief populated areas).40 Each of Iron Dome’s Tamir interceptors, which are co-produced in Israel and the United States, cost approximately $50,000.41 A

~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~the United States, cost approximately $50,000.32 In an August 10 hearing before the Senate~~
~~Foreign Relations Subcommittee on the Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and~~
~~Counterterrorism, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for the Middle East Dana Stroul~~
~~communicated the Administration’s “unequivocal support” for emergency or supplemental~~
~~appropriations to sustain Iron Dome, and said that the Administration has consulted with~~
~~Congress and provided paperwork to support how Congress chooses to proceed in “funding the~~
~~request.”33~~
~~A proposal for supplemental appropriations is likely to come in connection with a~~ provision in the provision in the
2016 MOU2016 MOU ~~that allows~~ al ows the United States and Israel to agree on amounts beyond the regular the United States and Israel to agree on amounts beyond the regular
annual U.S. aid annual U.S. aid ~~allocations~~al ocations under exceptional circumstances (such as major armed conflict), under exceptional circumstances (such as major armed conflict),
subject to congressional action. In August 2014, near the end of the last major Israel-subject to congressional action. In August 2014, near the end of the last major Israel- Gaza Gaza
conflict, Congress enacted an emergency supplemental appropriations resolution (P.L. 113-145) conflict, Congress enacted an emergency supplemental appropriations resolution (P.L. 113-145)
to provide $225 to provide $225 ~~million~~ mil ion in Department of Defense funding for Iron Dome on an expedited basis, in Department of Defense funding for Iron Dome on an expedited basis,
without co-production requirements. Since FY2011, Congress has provided $1.72 without co-production requirements. Since FY2011, Congress has provided $1.72 ~~billion~~ bil ion (in (in
~~current dollars) for Iron Dome.~~
current dollars) for Iron Dome. In September 2021, the House voted (by a 420-9 margin, with two voting “present”) to pass the Iron Dome Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2022 (H.R. 5323), which would provide $1 bil ion in supplemental funding for Iron Dome over the next three years (FY2022-FY2024). H.R. 5323 awaits possible action in the Senate. President Biden also has committed to “working with the United Nations and other international President Biden also has committed to “working with the United Nations and other international
stakeholders to provide rapid humanitarian assistance and to marshal international support for the stakeholders to provide rapid humanitarian assistance and to marshal international support for the
people of Gaza and the Gaza reconstruction efforts” in partnership with the PA “in a manner that people of Gaza and the Gaza reconstruction efforts” in partnership with the PA “in a manner that
does not permit Hamas to simply restock its military arsenal.”does not permit Hamas to simply restock its military arsenal.”3442 With Gaza under Hamas control, With Gaza under Hamas control,
the obstacles to the obstacles to ~~internationally~~international y-supported post-conflict recovery remain largely the same as after -supported post-conflict recovery remain largely the same as after
previous Israel-Hamas conflicts in 2008-2009, 2012, and 2014.previous Israel-Hamas conflicts in 2008-2009, 2012, and 2014.3543 Because of the PA’s inability to Because of the PA’s inability to
control security in Gaza, it has been control security in Gaza, it has been ~~unwilling~~unwil ing to manage donor pledges toward reconstruction. to manage donor pledges toward reconstruction.
Without the PA’s involvement, international organizations and governments reportedly Without the PA’s involvement, international organizations and governments reportedly ~~generally~~general y
have less confidence that they can prevent Hamas from diverting assistance for its own have less confidence that they can prevent Hamas from diverting assistance for its own
purposes.purposes.3644 Since 2018, Qatar has provided $300 Since 2018, Qatar has provided $300 ~~million~~mil ion in cash assistance for Gaza, but due to in cash assistance for Gaza, but due to
Israeli concerns about the potential for its diversion, Qatar began an arrangement in September Israeli concerns about the potential for its diversion, Qatar began an arrangement in September
2021 to provide money transfers to needy families through the United Nations.2021 to provide money transfers to needy families through the United Nations.3745 However, this However, this
mechanism does not address the unresolved issue of providing salaries to Gaza’s civil servants.mechanism does not address the unresolved issue of providing salaries to Gaza’s civil servants.3846
Other Israel-Hamas disputes have continued and could conceivably escalate, including over what Other Israel-Hamas disputes have continued and could conceivably escalate, including over what
Israel Israel ~~allows~~al ows into Gaza, and Israelis in Hamas custody. into Gaza, and Israelis in Hamas custody.3947
Certain Human Rights Considerations: International Criminal
Court and U.S. Aid
Some international bodies have taken actions that open Some international bodies have taken actions that open ~~alleged~~al eged Israeli human rights violations Israeli human rights violations
against Palestinians to further legal and political scrutiny, in the context of broader debate on this against Palestinians to further legal and political scrutiny, in the context of broader debate on this

~~32 Manuel Trajtenberg and Tomer Fadlon, “The~~subject. The International Criminal Court (ICC) prosecutor announced the start of an 40 Sebastien Roblin, “ How Hamas’ Arsenal Shaped the Gaza War of May 2021 ,” forbes.com, May 25, 2021. 41 Manuel T rajtenberg and T omer Fadlon, “ T he Economic Costs of Operation Guardian of the Walls,” Economic Costs of Operation Guardian of the Walls,” INSS Insight,
No. 1485, June 13, 2021. No. 1485, June 13, 2021.
~~33 Transcript accessed at http://www.cq.com/doc/congressionaltranscripts-6317506?0.~~
3442 White House, “ White House, “ Remarks by President BidenRemarks by President Biden on the Middleon the Middle East ~~East~~,” May 20, 2021. ,” May 20, 2021.
3543 David Makovsky, “Why Blinken Will Have a David Makovsky, “Why Blinken Will Have a ~~Tough~~T ough Sell,” Sell,” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, May 25, 2021. Washington Institute for Near East Policy, May 25, 2021.
3644 Ibid. Ibid.
3745 Aaron Boxerman, “ Aaron Boxerman, “ UN to begin dispensingUN to begin dispensing Qatari cash to needy Gazan families Monday underQatari cash to needy Gazan families Monday under new deal,”new deal,” Times of
Israel, September 12, 2021. , September 12, 2021.
3846 Ibid. Ibid.
3947 Judah Judah Ari Gross,Ari Gross, “ “Gaza arson attacks spark 9 fires in Israel; terror groups plan border protests,” Gaza arson attacks spark 9 fires in Israel; terror groups plan border protests,” Times of Israel, ,
AugustAugust 23, 2021. 23, 2021.
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~~subject. The International Criminal Court (ICC) prosecutor announced the start of an~~
investigation in March into possible crimes in the West Bank and Gaza.investigation in March into possible crimes in the West Bank and Gaza.4048 The investigation might The investigation might
draw from the findings of an ongoing commission of inquiry established by the U.N. Human draw from the findings of an ongoing commission of inquiry established by the U.N. Human
Rights Council in May in the wake of the recent Israel-Gaza conflict.Rights Council in May in the wake of the recent Israel-Gaza conflict.4149 The Biden Administration The Biden Administration
responded responded ~~skeptically~~skeptical y to the creation of the “open-ended” commission of inquiry. to the creation of the “open-ended” commission of inquiry.4250 Like its Like its
predecessors, the Administration has criticized the Human Rights Council for what it predecessors, the Administration has criticized the Human Rights Council for what it
characterizes as a disproportionate focus on Israel.characterizes as a disproportionate focus on Israel.4351
In 2021, some Members of Congress have increased their scrutiny over Israel’s use of U.S. In 2021, some Members of Congress have increased their scrutiny over Israel’s use of U.S.
security assistance, contributing to debate on the subject. In April 2021 a security assistance, contributing to debate on the subject. In April 2021 a ~~bill~~ bil was introduced in was introduced in
the House (H.R. 2590) that would not reduce or condition the amount of U.S. aid provided to the House (H.R. 2590) that would not reduce or condition the amount of U.S. aid provided to
Israel, but could place limits on its use in relation to some human rights Israel, but could place limits on its use in relation to some human rights ~~allegations.44~~al egations.52 Later in Later in
April, 330 Representatives wrote a letter to the chair and ranking member of the House April, 330 Representatives wrote a letter to the chair and ranking member of the House
Appropriations Committee arguing against reducing funding or adding conditions on security Appropriations Committee arguing against reducing funding or adding conditions on security
assistance to Israel,assistance to Israel,4553 quoting remarks that President Biden made during the 2020 presidential quoting remarks that President Biden made during the 2020 presidential
race.race.4654 In July, the House passed a Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related In July, the House passed a Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related
Programs appropriations Programs appropriations ~~bill~~ bil for FY2022 that would require U.S. consultation with a recipient for FY2022 that would require U.S. consultation with a recipient
government to ensure that any arms sale involving U.S. FMF complies with relevant oversight government to ensure that any arms sale involving U.S. FMF complies with relevant oversight
provisions of the Arms Export Control Act and is consistent with U.S. national security policy, provisions of the Arms Export Control Act and is consistent with U.S. national security policy,
while also requiring the State Department to report to Congress any credible information that U.S. while also requiring the State Department to report to Congress any credible information that U.S.
assistance may have been used contrary to these parameters (Section 7035(b)(8) of H.R. 4373). assistance may have been used contrary to these parameters (Section 7035(b)(8) of H.R. 4373).
Considerations regarding Israel may have partly motivated the inclusion of these legislative Considerations regarding Israel may have partly motivated the inclusion of these legislative
requirements.requirements.4755
Arab State Normalization with Israel
The Administration has followed agreements reached during the Trump Administration (the The Administration has followed agreements reached during the Trump Administration (the
“Abraham Accords”) that normalized or improved relations between Israel and four Arab states—“Abraham Accords”) that normalized or improved relations between Israel and four Arab states—
the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco.the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco.4856 Biden Administration officials Biden Administration officials
have said that U.S. efforts to assist Israeli normalization with Arab states have said that U.S. efforts to assist Israeli normalization with Arab states ~~will~~ wil continue alongside continue alongside
efforts to increase the viability of a negotiated two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian efforts to increase the viability of a negotiated two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian

~~40 CRS~~ conflict.57 Palestinian leaders denounced the Abraham Accords as an abandonment of the 48 CRS Report RL34074, Report RL34074, The Palestinians: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
4149 U.N. document, A/HRC/S-30/L.1, U.N. document, A/HRC/S-30/L.1, as orally revised, May 27, 2021. as orally revised, May 27, 2021.
4250 U.S. U.S. Mission to International Organizations in Geneva, “Mission to International Organizations in Geneva, “ Press Statement: UN Human RightsPress Statement: UN Human Rights Council SessionCouncil Session on the on the
Israeli-Palestinian Situation,” May 27, 2021. Israeli-Palestinian Situation,” May 27, 2021.
4351 U.S. U.S. Mission to International Organizations in Geneva, “Mission to International Organizations in Geneva, “ Secretary Blinken: Remarks to the 46th Session of the Secretary Blinken: Remarks to the 46th Session of the
Human Rights Council,” FebruaryHuman Rights Council,” February 24, 2021. 24, 2021.
4452 “Human Rights Watch accuses Israel of apartheid over treatment of Palestinians,” “Human Rights Watch accuses Israel of apartheid over treatment of Palestinians,” Associated Press, April 27, 2021 , April 27, 2021
(underlying Human Rights Watch report available at https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/27/threshold-crossed/israeli-(underlying Human Rights Watch report available at https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/27/threshold-crossed/israeli-
authorities-and-crimes-apartheid-and-persecution, with the State Department’s 2020 Country Report on Human Rights authorities-and-crimes-apartheid-and-persecution, with the State Department’s 2020 Country Report on Human Rights
Practices: Israel, West Bank and GazaPractices: Israel, West Bank and Gaza available at https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-available at https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-
rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/). rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/).
~~45 Text~~53 T ext of letter available at https://teddeutch.house.gov/uploadedfiles/ of letter available at https://teddeutch.house.gov/uploadedfiles/
2021.04.21_mou_letter_delauro_granger_signed.pdf. 2021.04.21_mou_letter_delauro_granger_signed.pdf.
4654 Omri Nahmias, “ Omri Nahmias, “ Biden: Israeli threats of annexation choke off hope of peace,” jpost.com, May 20, 2020. Biden: Israeli threats of annexation choke off hope of peace,” jpost.com, May 20, 2020.
4755 Ron Kampeas, “ Ron Kampeas, “ Pro-Israel groups split over whether new USPro-Israel groups split over whether new US ~~spending~~ spending bill conditions foreign aid,”bill conditions foreign aid,” Jewish
Telegraphic Agency, August, August 5, 2021. 5, 2021.
4856 Steps taken in connection with these agreements include a proposed U.S. Steps taken in connection with these agreements include a proposed U.S. ~~sale~~ sale to the UAE of F-35s, drone aircraft, to the UAE of F-35s, drone aircraft,
and munitions; Sudan’sand munitions; Sudan’s removal from the U.S. state sponsors of terrorism list; and U.S.removal from the U.S. state sponsors of terrorism list; and U.S. recognition of Moroccan recognition of Moroccan
sovereignty claims over the disputedsovereignty claims over the disputed territory of Western Sahara. territory of Western Sahara.
57 Department of State, Yael Lempert, Acting Assistant Secretary, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, “Re marks at the Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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~~conflict.49 Palestinian leaders denounced the Abraham Accords as an abandonment of the~~
Palestinian national cause, given Arab states’ previous insistence that Israel address Palestinian Palestinian national cause, given Arab states’ previous insistence that Israel address Palestinian
negotiating demands as a precondition for improved ties.negotiating demands as a precondition for improved ties.5058 In the August Biden-Bennett White In the August Biden-Bennett White
House meeting, the two leaders discussed ways to deepen the Abraham Accords relationships and House meeting, the two leaders discussed ways to deepen the Abraham Accords relationships and
identify “new opportunities to expand such partnerships.”identify “new opportunities to expand such partnerships.”5159
The Pathway to the Abraham Accords, and Its Implications for Palestinians
Before Before the Abraham Accords,the Abraham Accords, Egypt and Jordan had been the only Arab states with formalEgypt and Jordan had been the only Arab states with formal diplomatic relations diplomatic relations
with Israel.with Israel.52 60 In 1981, Saudi Arabia’sIn 1981, Saudi Arabia’s then-Crown Prince Fahd bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud proposed a formula—later then-Crown Prince Fahd bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud proposed a formula—later
enshrined in the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative (API)—under which Israelenshrined in the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative (API)—under which Israel would make certain concessions,would make certain concessions, including including
on Palestinian statehood, before Arab states would normalizeon Palestinian statehood, before Arab states would normalize their relations with it.their relations with it.5361 After Israel After Israel started started
negotiating directly with the Palestinians in the 1990s, it established limitednegotiating directly with the Palestinians in the 1990s, it established limited diplomatic relationsdiplomatic relations with Morocco, and with Morocco, and
informalinformal ties with a number of other Arab states,ties with a number of other Arab states, including the UAE and Bahrain.including the UAE and Bahrain.5462 These countries downgraded These countries downgraded
their ties with Israel after the onset of the second Palestiniantheir ties with Israel after the onset of the second Palestinian intifada (or uprising) in 2000. However,(or uprising) in 2000. However, in the past in the past
decade discreetdecade discreet ~~Israeli~~ Israeli links with Arab states on issues including links with Arab states on issues including ~~intelligence,~~ intel igence, security, and trade have become security, and trade have become
closercloser and moreand more public. Israelpublic. Israel has worked with these countries to counter common concerns, such as Iran’s has worked with these countries to counter common concerns, such as Iran’s
regional influence and militaryregional influence and military capabilities (seecapabilities (see “Iran and the Region” b~~elow~~ below) and Sunni Islamist) and Sunni Islamist populist populist
movementsmovements (including various Muslim Brotherhood branches and affiliates).(including various Muslim Brotherhood branches and affiliates).55
63 To cement its normalization of relationsTo cement its normalization of relations with the UAE, Israelwith the UAE, Israel agreed in August 2020 to suspend plans to annex agreed in August 2020 to suspend plans to annex
part of the West Bank, with one source stating that the UAE receivedpart of the West Bank, with one source stating that the UAE received a commitmenta commitment from Trump Administration from Trump Administration
officials that they would not approve Israeliofficials that they would not approve Israeli annexation until at least January 2024.annexation until at least January 2024.5664 Palestinian leaders claimed Palestinian leaders claimed
that the UAE legitimizedthat the UAE legitimized Israel’sIsrael’s annexation threats by bargaining over them, and thus acquiesced to a Westannexation threats by bargaining over them, and thus acquiesced to a West Bank Bank
status quo that somestatus quo that some ~~observers~~ observers label “de facto annexation.”label “de facto annexation.”5765 UAE officials UAE officials countered that by significantly delaying countered that by significantly delaying
IsraeliIsraeli declarations of sovereignty overdeclarations of sovereignty over West Bank areas,West Bank areas, they preservedthey preserved prospects for future negotiations toward prospects for future negotiations toward
a Palestinian state.a Palestinian state.5866 Since announcing the suspension of annexation plans, Israeli Since announcing the suspension of annexation plans, Israeli ~~officials~~ officials have appealed to have appealed to
domesticdomestic pro-settler constituencies with a number of announcements relatedpro-settler constituencies with a number of announcements related to settlement construction and to settlement construction and
expansion in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. expansion in the West Bank and East Jerusalem.

~~49 Department of State, Yael Lempert, Acting Assistant Secretary, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, “Remarks at the~~
Official statements from Saudi Arabian officials continue to condition Saudi normalization with Israel on the API’s provisions.67 Some key Saudi figures—possibly including Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman—may be wil ing to Abraham Accords Institute of Peace,” September 14, 2021. Abraham Accords Institute of Peace,” September 14, 2021.
5058 Walid Mahmoud and Muhammad Shehada, Walid Mahmoud and Muhammad Shehada, “ “Palestinians unanimously reject UAE-Israel deal,” Palestinians unanimously reject UAE-Israel deal,” Al Jazeera, August , August
14, 2020. 14, 2020.
5159 White House, “ White House, “ Readout of President Joseph R. Biden,Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr.’s Meeting with Prime Minister Naftali Bennett of Israel,” Jr.’s Meeting with Prime Minister Naftali Bennett of Israel,”
AugustAugust 27, 2021. 27, 2021.
5260 Egypt and Israel signed Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty in 1979, and Jordan and Israel dida peace treaty in 1979, and Jordan and Israel did the same in 1994.the same in 1994.
~~53 The~~ 61 T he Arab Peace Initiative offers a comprehensive Arab peace with Israel if Israel were Arab Peace Initiative offers a comprehensive Arab peace with Israel if Israel were to withdrawto withdraw fully from the fully from the
territories it occupied in 1967, agree to the establishment of a Palestinian state with a capital in East Jerusalem,territories it occupied in 1967, agree to the establishment of a Palestinian state with a capital in East Jerusalem, and and
provide for the “provide for the “ [a]chievement of a just solution to the Palestinian Refugee problem in accordance with UN General [a]chievement of a just solution to the Palestinian Refugee problem in accordance with UN General
AssemblyAssembly Resolution 194.” Resolution 194.” ~~The~~T he initiative was proposed by Saudi initiative was proposed by Saudi Arabia and adopted by the 22-member League of Arabia and adopted by the 22-member League of
Arab States in 2002, and later accepted by the then-56-member Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the 57Arab States in 2002, and later accepted by the then-56-member Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the 57 --
member Organization of Islamic Cooperation) at its 2005 Mecca summit. member Organization of Islamic Cooperation) at its 2005 Mecca summit. ~~The~~T he text of the initiative is available at text of the initiative is available at
http://www.bitterlemons.org/docs/summit.html. http://www.bitterlemons.org/docs/summit.html.
5462 Miriam Berger, Miriam Berger, “ “Israel’s relations in the Middle East, explained,” washingtonpost.com, August 15, 2020; Adam Israel’s relations in the Middle East, explained,” washingtonpost.com, August 15, 2020; Adam
Entous, “Donald Entous, “Donald ~~Trump~~T rump’s New World Order,” ’s New World Order,” New Yorker, June 11, 2018; CRS June 11, 2018; CRS Report 95-1013, Report 95-1013, Bahrain: Unrest,
Security, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman. , by Kenneth Katzman.
5563 Steve Hendrix, “ Steve Hendrix, “ Inside the secret-not-secret courtship between Israel and the United Arab Emirates,” Inside the secret-not-secret courtship between Israel and the United Arab Emirates,”
washingtonpost.com, August 14, 2020; CRSwashingtonpost.com, August 14, 2020; CRS Report 95-1013, Report 95-1013, Bahrain: Unrest, Security, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth , by Kenneth
Katzman. Katzman.
5664 Jacob Magid, Jacob Magid, “ “US assuredUS assured UAE it won’t back Israel annexation before 2024 at earliest, UAE it won’t back Israel annexation before 2024 at earliest, ~~ToI~~T oI told,” told,” Times of Israel, ,
September 13, 2020. September 13, 2020.
5765 Walid Mahmoud and Muhammad Shehada, Walid Mahmoud and Muhammad Shehada, “ “Palestinians unanimously reject UAE-Israel deal,” Palestinians unanimously reject UAE-Israel deal,” Al Jazeera, August , August
14, 2020. 14, 2020.
5866 “UAE minister: We bought lot of time on annexation; Palestinians should negotiate,” “UAE minister: We bought lot of time on annexation; Palestinians should negotiate,” Times of Israel, August, August 14, 2020. 67 HRH Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud, First Plenary Session, International Institute for Strategic Studies Manama~~14,~~
~~2020.~~
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~~Official statements from Saudi Arabian officials continue to condition Saudi normalization with Israel on the API’s~~
~~provisions.59 Some key Saudi figures—possibly including Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman—may be wil ing to~~
drop or ease preconditions for Saudi-Israel normalizationdrop or ease preconditions for Saudi-Israel normalization that relate to the Israeli-Palestinianthat relate to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Specific conflict. Specific
incentives to do so could include heightened regionalincentives to do so could include heightened regional cooperation on Iran, U.S. offers of advanced arms,cooperation on Iran, U.S. offers of advanced arms, prospects prospects
to boost Saudi economicto boost Saudi economic diversification,diversification, and greaterand greater Saudi influence over MuslimSaudi influence over Muslim holy sites in Jerusalem.holy sites in Jerusalem.6068
Nevertheless,Nevertheless, developments in 2021 such as Israel-Gaza conflict and ongoing tensions over Jerusalemdevelopments in 2021 such as Israel-Gaza conflict and ongoing tensions over Jerusalem ~~might~~ might have have
strengthened Saudi inclinations to take a cautious, gradual approach toward normalization.strengthened Saudi inclinations to take a cautious, gradual approach toward normalization.6169
Israeli normalization with Arab states could raise questions about the future of cooperation and Israeli normalization with Arab states could raise questions about the future of cooperation and
rivalry among key actors in the Middle East. Depending on global and regional geopolitical rivalry among key actors in the Middle East. Depending on global and regional geopolitical
trends, common cause could intensify, dwindle, or fluctuate between Israel and some Arab states trends, common cause could intensify, dwindle, or fluctuate between Israel and some Arab states
to counter Iran and perhaps even Turkey and Qatar, two countries that provide some support for to counter Iran and perhaps even Turkey and Qatar, two countries that provide some support for
Sunni Islamist movements. In January 2021, President Trump ordered U.S. Central Command Sunni Islamist movements. In January 2021, President Trump ordered U.S. Central Command
(CENTCOM), which commands U.S. military forces in most countries in the Middle East, to add (CENTCOM), which commands U.S. military forces in most countries in the Middle East, to add
Israel to its area of responsibility, partly to encourage military interoperability as a means of Israel to its area of responsibility, partly to encourage military interoperability as a means of
reinforcing closer ties between Israel and many Arab states.reinforcing closer ties between Israel and many Arab states.6270 Israel had previously been under the Israel had previously been under the
purview of U.S. European Command. While closer cooperation may result between Israel and purview of U.S. European Command. While closer cooperation may result between Israel and
some Arab governments, some others that have not normalized relations with Israel might some Arab governments, some others that have not normalized relations with Israel might
encounter political encounter political ~~challenges~~chal enges in joining CENTCOM deliberations involving Israel. in joining CENTCOM deliberations involving Israel.
Other factors may influence regional cooperation and rivalry. These could include U.S. arms sales Other factors may influence regional cooperation and rivalry. These could include U.S. arms sales
to Arab states and possible economic benefits from Israel-Arab state relations.to Arab states and possible economic benefits from Israel-Arab state relations.~~63 Additionally~~71 Additional y, ,
Arab state leaders considering entering into or maintaining normalization with Israel might gauge Arab state leaders considering entering into or maintaining normalization with Israel might gauge
whether expected benefits from normalization would outweigh concerns about popular criticism whether expected benefits from normalization would outweigh concerns about popular criticism
or unrest they might face for possibly undermining the Palestinian cause.or unrest they might face for possibly undermining the Palestinian cause.6472 Normalization efforts Normalization efforts
to date have not triggered significant unrest, but outside insight is limited into public opinion, its to date have not triggered significant unrest, but outside insight is limited into public opinion, its
drivers, and how popular reactions are shaped by the nature of authoritarian Arab regimes. drivers, and how popular reactions are shaped by the nature of authoritarian Arab regimes.
Iran and the Region
Israeli officials cite Iran as one of their primary concerns, largely because of (1) antipathy toward Israeli officials cite Iran as one of their primary concerns, largely because of (1) antipathy toward
Israel expressed by Iran’s revolutionary regime, (2) Iran’s broad regional influence (Israel expressed by Iran’s revolutionary regime, (2) Iran’s broad regional influence (~~especially in~~

~~59 HRH Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud, First Plenary Session, International Institute for Strategic Studies Manama~~
~~Dialogue, December 5, 2020.~~
~~60 Yoel Guzansky, “Saudi~~ especial y in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon),73 and (3) Iran’s nuclear and missile programs and advanced conventional weapons capabilities. Israeli observers who anticipate the possibility of a future war Dialogue, December 5, 2020. 68 Yoel Guzansky, “ Saudi Arabia and Normalization with Israel,” Institute for National Security Studies,Arabia and Normalization with Israel,” Institute for National Security Studies, Insight No. Insight No.
1396, October 29, 2020. 1396, October 29, 2020.
6169 Hussein Hussein Ibish, “Ibish, “ Why SaudiWhy Saudi ~~Arabia~~ Arabia Is NowIs Now in No Rushin No Rush to Recognize Israel,” haaretz.com, July 7, 2021. to Recognize Israel,” haaretz.com, July 7, 2021.
6270 Jared Szuba, Jared Szuba, ~~“Trump~~ “T rump orders US orders US Central Command to include Israel amid strategic shift,” Central Command to include Israel amid strategic shift,” Al-Monitor, January 15, , January 15,
2021. 2021.
~~63 Theresa~~71 T heresa Hitchens, “ Hitchens, “ UAE Arms SaleUAE Arms Sale Remains In Limbo Pending Biden Review,”Remains In Limbo Pending Biden Review,” Breaking Defense, August, August 5, 2021. 5, 2021.
~~The~~Agnes Helou, “ Morocco and Israel to sign kamikaze drone deal,” Defense News, October 1, 2021. T he Israel-UAE treaty signed in September 2020 says, “ Israel-UAE treaty signed in September 2020 says, “ Recognizing also their shared goal to advance regional Recognizing also their shared goal to advance regional
economic development and the flow of goodseconomic development and the flow of goods and services, the Parties shall endeavor to promote collaborations on and services, the Parties shall endeavor to promote collaborations on
strategic regional infrastructure projects and shall explore the establishment of a multilateral working group for the strategic regional infrastructure projects and shall explore the establishment of a multilateral working group for the
~~‘Tracks~~‘T racks for Regional Peace’ project.” for Regional Peace’ project.” ~~The~~T he Israeli foreign ministry released a proposal for this project, a rail line from Israeli foreign ministry released a proposal for this project, a rail line from
Israel to SaudiIsrael to Saudi Arabia and the UAE via the West Bank and Jordan, in AugustArabia and the UAE via the West Bank and Jordan, in August 2019. A major part of2019. A major part of its appeal wouldits appeal would be allowing be
~~allowing~~ the participant countries to bypass the two major chokepoints of the Strait of Hormuz (Persian Gulf) and Babthe participant countries to bypass the two major chokepoints of the Strait of Hormuz (Persian Gulf) and Bab
al al -Mandab (Red-Mandab (Red Sea). SeeSea). See Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “~~Tracks~~ T racks for regional peace—regional land bridge for regional peace—regional land bridge and and
hub initiative,” August 5, 2019. hub initiative,” August 5, 2019.
6472 See, See, for example, Jared Malsin and Amira al-Fekki, “Egypt’s ‘Cold Peace’ a Harbinger for Region,” for example, Jared Malsin and Amira al-Fekki, “Egypt’s ‘Cold Peace’ a Harbinger for Region,” Wall Street
Journal, December 17, 2020, December 17, 2020. 73 For information on this topic, see CRS Report R44017, Iran’s Foreign and Defense Policies, by Kenneth Katzman. .
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~~Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon),65 and (3) Iran’s nuclear and missile programs and advanced~~
~~conventional weapons capabilities. Israeli observers who anticipate the possibility of a future war~~
similar or greater in magnitude to Israel’s 2006 war against Lebanese Hezbollah refer to the similar or greater in magnitude to Israel’s 2006 war against Lebanese Hezbollah refer to the
~~small~~smal -scale military skirmishes or covert actions since then involving Israel, Iran, or their -scale military skirmishes or covert actions since then involving Israel, Iran, or their ~~allies~~al ies as as
the “the campaign between wars.”the “the campaign between wars.”66
74 Iranian Nuclear Issue and Regional Tensions
Israel has sought to influence U.S. decisions on the international agreement on Iran’s nuclear Israel has sought to influence U.S. decisions on the international agreement on Iran’s nuclear
program (known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or JCPOA). Then-Prime Minister program (known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or JCPOA). Then-Prime Minister
Netanyahu opposed the JCPOA in 2015 when it was negotiated by the Obama Administration, Netanyahu opposed the JCPOA in 2015 when it was negotiated by the Obama Administration,
and welcomed President Trump’s May 2018 withdrawal of the United States from the JCPOA and welcomed President Trump’s May 2018 withdrawal of the United States from the JCPOA
and accompanying reimposition of U.S. sanctions on Iran’s core economic sectors. Facing the and accompanying reimposition of U.S. sanctions on Iran’s core economic sectors. Facing the
intensified U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its compliance with the 2015 agreement. intensified U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its compliance with the 2015 agreement.
U.S.-Iran tensions since the U.S. withdrawal from the JCPOA have led to greater regional U.S.-Iran tensions since the U.S. withdrawal from the JCPOA have led to greater regional
uncertainty, with implications for Israel.uncertainty, with implications for Israel.6775 Some Israelis have voiced worries about how Iran’s Some Israelis have voiced worries about how Iran’s
demonstrated ability in 2019 to penetrate Saudi air defenses and target Saudi oil facilities could demonstrated ability in 2019 to penetrate Saudi air defenses and target Saudi oil facilities could
transfer to efforts in targeting Israel.transfer to efforts in targeting Israel.6876 In January 2021, one source claimed there was evidence In January 2021, one source claimed there was evidence
that Iran has transferred advanced drones (loitering munitions) capable of targeting Israel or Arab that Iran has transferred advanced drones (loitering munitions) capable of targeting Israel or Arab
Gulf states to the Iran-supported Houthi movement in Yemen.Gulf states to the Iran-supported Houthi movement in Yemen.~~69 Additionally,~~ 77 Additional y, reported low-level reported low-level
Israel-Iran conflict in various settings—including cyberspace, international waters, and the Israel-Iran conflict in various settings—including cyberspace, international waters, and the
territory of Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq—has further exacerbated regional tensions.territory of Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq—has further exacerbated regional tensions.7078
As the Biden Administration engages in international diplomacy and considers the possibility of As the Biden Administration engages in international diplomacy and considers the possibility of
reentering the JCPOA, Israel—whose officials are reentering the JCPOA, Israel—whose officials are ~~generally~~general y skeptical of U.S. reentry—is seeking skeptical of U.S. reentry—is seeking
to influence diplomatic outcomes.to influence diplomatic outcomes.7179 Just before his Just before his ~~installation~~instal ation as prime minister, Naftali Bennett as prime minister, Naftali Bennett
said to the Knesset, “Resuming a nuclear deal with Iran is a mistake that said to the Knesset, “Resuming a nuclear deal with Iran is a mistake that ~~will legitimize~~ wil legitimize one of the one of the
world’s most violent regimes.”world’s most violent regimes.”7280
Some observers have speculated that Israeli covert or military operations might influence or Some observers have speculated that Israeli covert or military operations might influence or
disrupt diplomacy on the nuclear issue.disrupt diplomacy on the nuclear issue.~~73 It is unclear whether Israel’s recent change in~~
~~government may affect this dynamic. In between his August White House meetings with Prime~~

~~65 For information on this topic, see CRS Report R44017, Iran’s Foreign and Defense Policies, by Kenneth Katzman.~~
~~66 See, for example, Efraim Inbar, “Iran and Israel: The~~81 In between his August White House meetings with Prime Minister Bennett, President Biden said that the United States wil first use diplomacy to “ensure Iran never develops a nuclear weapon,” but if that fails, “we’re ready to turn to other options.”82 According to one account, during these meetings Bennett restated his opposition to a 74 See, for example, Efraim Inbar, “Iran and Israel: T he Inevitable War?” Jerusalem Institute for Strategy and Security, Inevitable War?” Jerusalem Institute for Strategy and Security,
January 6, 2021. January 6, 2021.
6775 See, See, for example, CRSfor example, CRS Report R45795, Report R45795, U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman, , by Kenneth Katzman,
Kathleen J. McInnis, and Clayton Kathleen J. McInnis, and Clayton ~~Thomas.~~
68T homas. 76 Uzi Even, “Iran Attack on Saudi Arabia Shows Uzi Even, “Iran Attack on Saudi Arabia Shows Why Israel Must ShutWhy Israel Must Shut Down Its NuclearDown Its Nuclear ~~Reactor~~ Reacto r,” haaretz.com, ,” haaretz.com,
October 6, 2019. October 6, 2019.
~~69 Tom~~77 T om O’Connor, “Exclusive: Iran Positions ‘Suicide O’Connor, “Exclusive: Iran Positions ‘Suicide Drones’ in Yemen as RedDrones’ in Yemen as Red ~~Sea Tensions~~ Sea T ensions Rise,” Rise,” Newsweek,
January 13, 2021. January 13, 2021.
7078 Isabel Kershner et al., “ Isabel Kershner et al., “ Hezbollah Admits to Rocket Strike on Northern Israel, Deepening Border Hezbollah Admits to Rocket Strike on Northern Israel, Deepening Border ~~Tensions~~T ensions,” ,” New
York ~~Times~~Tim es, August, August 7, 2021; “7, 2021; “ Fighting in the Shadows:Fighting in the Shadows: Israel and Iran,” Soufan Center, March 30, 2021.Israel and Iran,” Soufan Center, March 30, 2021.
~~71 See~~ 79 See also Yaniv Kubovich and Judyalso Yaniv Kubovich and Judy Maltz, “Israel’s Chief of Staff: Return to Iran Deal Is ‘Wrong,’ Military Action Maltz, “Israel’s Chief of Staff: Return to Iran Deal Is ‘Wrong,’ Military Action
‘Should‘Should Be Be on the on the ~~Table~~T able,’” haaretz.com, January 27, 2021. ,’” haaretz.com, January 27, 2021.
7280 Noa Shpigel, Noa Shpigel, “ “Incoming PM Bennett Says ResumingIncoming PM Bennett Says Resuming Iran Nuclear Deal Would BeIran Nuclear Deal Would Be Mistake in Knesset Address,” Mistake in Knesset Address,”
haaretz.com, June 13, 2021. haaretz.com, June 13, 2021.
7381 Daniel C. Kurtzer, Aaron David Miller, and Steven N. Simon, “ Daniel C. Kurtzer, Aaron David Miller, and Steven N. Simon, “ Israel and Iran Are PullingIsrael and Iran Are Pulling the United States the United States ~~Toward~~T oward
ConflictConflict ,” foreignaffairs.com, April 26, 2021; Efraim Inbar and Eran Lerman, “,” foreignaffairs.com, April 26, 2021; Efraim Inbar and Eran Lerman, “~~The~~ T he ramifications of a US return to the ramifications of a US return to the
2015 Iran deal—opinion,” jpost.com, April 28, 2021. 2015 Iran deal—opinion,” jpost.com, April 28, 2021.
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~~Minister Bennett, President Biden said that the United States will first use diplomacy to “ensure~~
~~Iran never develops a nuclear weapon,” but if that fails, “we’re ready to turn to other options.”74~~
~~According to one account, during these meetings Bennett restated his opposition to a~~ 82 White House, “ Remarks by President Biden and Prime Minister Bennett of the State of Israel Before Expanded Bilateral Meeting,” August 27, 2021. Congressional Research Service 12 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief U.S. return U.S. return
to the JCPOA, and Biden did not seem optimistic about Iran returning to compliance with the to the JCPOA, and Biden did not seem optimistic about Iran returning to compliance with the
deal.deal.7583 Bennett also reportedly presented a strategy to Biden that involves “countering Bennett also reportedly presented a strategy to Biden that involves “countering Iran Iran
through a combination of many through a combination of many ~~small~~ smal actions across several fronts—both military and actions across several fronts—both military and
diplomatic—instead of a single dramatic strike.”diplomatic—instead of a single dramatic strike.”7684 In a September interview, Defense Minister In a September interview, Defense Minister
Gantz suggested that he would be prepared to accept a U.S. return to the JCPOA, while also Gantz suggested that he would be prepared to accept a U.S. return to the JCPOA, while also
~~calling~~cal ing for a “viable, U.S.-led plan B” to pressure Iran in case negotiations are unsuccessful, and for a “viable, U.S.-led plan B” to pressure Iran in case negotiations are unsuccessful, and
~~alluding~~ al uding to Israeli military contingency plans.to Israeli military contingency plans.77
~~Hezbollah~~
~~Lebanese Hezbollah is Iran’s closest and most powerful non-state ally in the region. Hezbollah’s~~
~~forces and Israel’s military have sporadically clashed near the Lebanese border for decades—with~~
85 In October, amid ongoing U.S.-Israel consultations on the issue and reported Israeli uncertainty about U.S. wil ingness to strike Iran militarily,86 Lieutenant General Aviv Kochavi, the Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff, said, “The operational plans against Iran’s nuclear program wil continue to evolve and improve … it is our duty to provide an effective and timely military response.”87 Hezbollah Lebanese Hezbollah is Iran’s closest and most powerful non-state al y in the region. Hezbollah’s forces and Israel’s military have sporadical y clashed near the Lebanese border for decades—with the antagonism at times contained in the border area, and at times escalating into broader the antagonism at times contained in the border area, and at times escalating into broader
conflict.conflict.7888 Speculation persists about the potential for wider conflict and its regional Speculation persists about the potential for wider conflict and its regional
implications.implications.7989 Israeli officials have sought to draw attention to Hezbollah’s buildup of mostly Israeli officials have sought to draw attention to Hezbollah’s buildup of mostly
Iran-supplied weapons—including reported upgrades to the range, precision, and power of its Iran-supplied weapons—including reported upgrades to the range, precision, and power of its
projectiles—and its projectiles—and its ~~alleged~~al eged use of Lebanese civilian use of Lebanese civilian areas as strongholds.areas as strongholds.80
90 Ongoing tension between Israel and Iran raises questions about the potential for Israel-Hezbollah Ongoing tension between Israel and Iran raises questions about the potential for Israel-Hezbollah
conflict. Various sources have referenced possible Iran-backed Hezbollah attempts to build conflict. Various sources have referenced possible Iran-backed Hezbollah attempts to build
precision-weapons factories in Lebanon.precision-weapons factories in Lebanon.8191 Following some cross-border fire between Israeli Following some cross-border fire between Israeli
forces and Hezbollah in August 2021, one report assessed that neither party desired a major forces and Hezbollah in August 2021, one report assessed that neither party desired a major
escalation, but also cited Israeli military officials saying that they would not permit unobstructed escalation, but also cited Israeli military officials saying that they would not permit unobstructed
attacks.92 83 Barak Ravid, “ Israeli PM presented Biden ~~attacks.82~~

~~74 White House, “Remarks by President Biden and Prime Minister Bennett of the State of Israel Before Expanded~~
~~Bilateral Meeting,” August 27, 2021.~~
~~75 Barak Ravid, “Israeli PM presented Biden~~ with ‘death by a thousand cuts’ Iran strategy,” with ‘death by a thousand cuts’ Iran strategy,” Axios, August, August 27, 2021. 27, 2021.
7684 Ibid. Ibid.
7785 Neri Zilber, “ Neri Zilber, “ Israel Can Live with a NewIsrael Can Live with a New Iran Nuclear Deal, Defense Minister Says,”Iran Nuclear Deal, Defense Minister Says,” foreignpolicy.com, September foreignpolicy.com, September
14, 2021. 14, 2021.
~~78 CRS~~ 86 Ben Caspit, “ Israel still fears US approach to Iran,” Al-Monitor, October 8, 2021. 87 “Israeli military chief hints of covert action against Iran,” Associated Press, October 5, 2021. 88 CRS Report R44759, Report R44759, Lebanon, by Carla E. Humud;, by Carla E. Humud; ~~CRS~~ CRS In FocusIn Focus IF10703, IF10703, Lebanese Hezbollah, by Carla E. , by Carla E.
Humud. Humud.
7989 Nicholas Blanford and Assaf Nicholas Blanford and Assaf Orion, Orion, Counting the cost: Avoiding another war between Israel and Hezbollah , , Atlantic
Council, May 13, 2020. , May 13, 2020.
8090 See, See, for example, “for example, “ Hezbollah says it has doubledHezbollah says it has doubled its arsenal of guidedits arsenal of guided missiles,”missiles,” Associated Press, December 28, December 28,
2020; Ben Hubbard2020; Ben Hubbard and Ronen Bergman, “and Ronen Bergman, “ Who Warns Hezbollah Who Warns Hezbollah ~~That~~T hat Israeli Strikes Are Coming? Israel,” Israeli Strikes Are Coming? Israel,” New York
~~Times~~Tim es, April 23, 2020. , April 23, 2020.
8191 “Hezbollah says it has doubled “Hezbollah says it has doubled its arsenal of guidedits arsenal of guided missiles,”missiles,” Associated Press;; Ben Caspit, “Ben Caspit, “ Hezbollah, Israel Hezbollah, Israel
losing red lines,” losing red lines,” Al-Monitor, September 4, 2019. , September 4, 2019.
8292 Kershner et al., “ Kershner et al., “ Hezbollah Admits to Rocket Strike on Northern Israel.” Hezbollah Admits to Rocket Strike on Northern Israel.”
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China: Investments in Israel and U.S. ~~Concerns83~~Concerns93
U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over burgeoning Chinese investments in U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over burgeoning Chinese investments in
Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure.Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure.8494 Israel-China investment ties have grown Israel-China investment ties have grown
since China announced its Belt and Road Initiative in 2013,since China announced its Belt and Road Initiative in 2013,8595 with Israel as an attractive hub of with Israel as an attractive hub of
innovation for Chinese partners, and China as a huge potential export market and source of innovation for Chinese partners, and China as a huge potential export market and source of
investment for Israeli businesses.investment for Israeli businesses.86
96 Closer Israel-China economic relations have led to official U.S. expressions of concern, Closer Israel-China economic relations have led to official U.S. expressions of concern,8797
apparently focused on the possibility that China might gather apparently focused on the possibility that China might gather ~~intelligence~~intel igence or acquire technologies or acquire technologies
with the potential to threaten U.S. national security in such fields as cybersecurity, artificial with the potential to threaten U.S. national security in such fields as cybersecurity, artificial
~~intelligence, satellite~~intel igence, satel ite communications, and robotics. Previously, China-Israel defense industry communications, and robotics. Previously, China-Israel defense industry
cooperation in the 1990s and 2000s contributed to tension in the U.S.-Israel defense relationship cooperation in the 1990s and 2000s contributed to tension in the U.S.-Israel defense relationship
and to an apparent de facto U.S. veto over Israeli arms sales to China.and to an apparent de facto U.S. veto over Israeli arms sales to China.8898 Partly due to U.S. Partly due to U.S.
concerns regarding China’s involvement in Israel’s economy, Israel created an advisory panel on concerns regarding China’s involvement in Israel’s economy, Israel created an advisory panel on
foreign investment in Israel in late 2019.foreign investment in Israel in late 2019.8999 However, this panel reportedly does not have the However, this panel reportedly does not have the
authority to review investments in sectors such as high-tech that accounted for most of China’s authority to review investments in sectors such as high-tech that accounted for most of China’s
investments in Israel in the previous decade.investments in Israel in the previous decade.90100 According to a 2021 study by Israel’s Institute for According to a 2021 study by Israel’s Institute for
National Security Studies: National Security Studies:
Chinese Chinese investments,investments, ~~especially in the~~ especially in the high-techhigh-tech ~~sector, did indeed show progressive~~
~~growth both in number and scale, especially between 2014 and~~ sector, did indeed show progressive growth both in number and scale, especially between 2014 and their peak in 2018. their peak in 2018.
However, in 2019However, in 2019 and 2020 the pendulum swung again, as China slowed its penetration and 2020 the pendulum swung again, as China slowed its penetration
intointo ~~the Israeli economy [see Appendix C], just as it did elsewhere in the world.~~ the Israeli economy [see Appendix C], just as it did elsewhere in the world. The The
reasons for this were a combination of changes in domestic Chinese priorities regarding reasons for this were a combination of changes in domestic Chinese priorities regarding
thethe ~~export of capital out of the country and external causes, such as the~~ export of capital out of the country and external causes, such as the coronavirus coronavirus
pandemic and a less inviting climate for Chinese investments due to American pressure.pandemic and a less inviting climate for Chinese investments due to American pressure.91
~~Additionally,~~ 101 Additional y, U.S. officials have made notable efforts to discourage Chinese involvement in U.S. officials have made notable efforts to discourage Chinese involvement in
specific Israeli infrastructure projects. President Trump reportedly warned Prime Minister specific Israeli infrastructure projects. President Trump reportedly warned Prime Minister
Netanyahu in March 2019 that U.S. security assistance for and cooperation with Israel could be Netanyahu in March 2019 that U.S. security assistance for and cooperation with Israel could be
limited if Chinese companies Huawei and ZTE establish a 5G communications network in Israel, limited if Chinese companies Huawei and ZTE establish a 5G communications network in Israel,
in line with similar warnings that the Administration communicated to other U.S. in line with similar warnings that the Administration communicated to other U.S. ~~allies~~al ies and and
partners.partners.92102 Two Israeli analysts wrote in March 2020 that Israeli officials reportedly blocked Two Israeli analysts wrote in March 2020 that Israeli officials reportedly blocked

83 93 For background For background on past U.S.on past U.S. concerns regardingconcerns regarding Israeli defense transactions with China, seeIsraeli defense transactions with China, see ~~CRS~~ CRS Report RL33476, Report RL33476,
Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti; CRS Report RL33222, , by Jim Zanotti; CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy , by Jeremy
M. Sharp. M. Sharp.
8494 Shira Efron et al., Shira Efron et al., Chinese Investment in Israeli Technology and Infrastructure: Security Implications for Israel and
the United States, RAND, RAND Corporation, 2020; Shira Efron, et al., Corporation, 2020; Shira Efron, et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, RAND , RAND
Corporation, 2019; Jewish Institute for National Security of America, Corporation, 2019; Jewish Institute for National Security of America, Countering Chinese ~~Engagement~~Engagem ent with Israel: A
~~Comprehensive~~Com prehensive and Cooperative U.S.-Israeli Strategy, February, February 2021. 2021.
8595 For more information on the Belt and Road Initiative, see CRS For more information on the Belt and Road Initiative, see CRS Report R45898, Report R45898, U.S.-China Relations, coordinated by , coordinated by
SusanSusan V. Lawrence. V. Lawrence.
8696 Danny Zaken, “Chinese-operated port opens in Israel despite American concerns,” Danny Zaken, “Chinese-operated port opens in Israel despite American concerns,” Al-Monitor, September 9, 2021. , September 9, 2021.
8797 Ron Kampeas, “ Ron Kampeas, “ Breaking China: A rupture looms betweenBreaking China: A rupture looms between Israel and the United States,” Israel and the United States,” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, ,
June 2, 2020. June 2, 2020.
8898 Efron et al., Efron et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, 2019, pp. 15-20. , 2019, pp. 15-20.
8999 Arie Egozi, “ Arie Egozi, “ Israelis Create Foreign Investment Overseer; China Israelis Create Foreign Investment Overseer; China ~~Targeted~~T argeted,” Breaking Defense, November 13, 2019. ,” Breaking Defense, November 13, 2019.
90100 Efron et al., Efron et al., Chinese Investment in Israeli Technology,, 2020, pp. 24-25. 2020, pp. 24-25.
91101 Doron Ella, Doron Ella, Chinese Investments in Israel: Developments and a Look to the Future, Institute for National Security , Institute for National Security
Studies,Studies, February 1, 2021. February 1, 2021.
92102 Hiddai Hiddai Segev,Segev, Doron Ella, and Assaf Orion, “Doron Ella, and Assaf Orion, “ My Way or the Huawei?My Way or the Huawei? ~~The~~ T he United States-China Race for 5G United States-China Race for 5G
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Chinese companies from working on Israeli communications infrastructure. Chinese companies from working on Israeli communications infrastructure.93103 In May 2020, In May 2020,
shortly after then-Secretary of State Michael Pompeo visited Israel and voiced concern that shortly after then-Secretary of State Michael Pompeo visited Israel and voiced concern that
Chinese access to Israeli infrastructure could complicate U.S.-Israel cooperation, Israel’s finance Chinese access to Israeli infrastructure could complicate U.S.-Israel cooperation, Israel’s finance
ministry chose a domestic contractor to construct a $1.5 ministry chose a domestic contractor to construct a $1.5 ~~billion~~bil ion desalination plant, turning down desalination plant, turning down
the bid from a subsidiary of the Hong Kong-based CK Hutchison Group.the bid from a subsidiary of the Hong Kong-based CK Hutchison Group.94
~~Additionally,~~ 104 Additional y, the U.S. Navy reportedly reconsidered its practice of the U.S. Navy reportedly reconsidered its practice of ~~periodically~~periodical y docking at the docking at the
Israeli naval base in Haifa, because a state-owned Chinese company (the Shanghai International Israeli naval base in Haifa, because a state-owned Chinese company (the Shanghai International
Port Group) secured the contract to operate a new terminal at Haifa’s seaport for 25 years.Port Group) secured the contract to operate a new terminal at Haifa’s seaport for 25 years.95105 This terminal opened in September 2021.106 Biden Administration officials have reportedly pressed Israeli counterparts to regularly check heavy machinery at the port for technology that could be employed to spy on the nearby naval base.107 ~~This~~
~~terminal opened in September 2021.96 In the conference report (H.Rept. 116-333) accompanying~~
~~the FY2020 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 116-92), Congress recommended that the~~
~~U.S. government “convey to the Government of Israel the serious security concerns with respect~~
~~to the leasing arrangements of the Port of Haifa, and urge consideration of the security~~
~~implications of such foreign investment in Israel.”~~ Other state-owned Chinese companies are Other state-owned Chinese companies are
developing a new port in Ashdod (which also hosts an Israeli naval base), and taking part in developing a new port in Ashdod (which also hosts an Israeli naval base), and taking part in
construction for Tel Aviv’s light rail system and road tunnels in Haifa.construction for Tel Aviv’s light rail system and road tunnels in Haifa.97

108 Dominance,” Institute for National Security StudiesDominance,” Institute for National Security Studies Insight No. 1193, July 15, 2019. Insight No. 1193, July 15, 2019.
~~93 Hiddai Segev~~ 103 Hiddai Segev and Assaf Orion, “and Assaf Orion, “~~The~~ T he Great Power Competition over 5G Communications: Limited Success Great Power Competition over 5G Communications: Limited Success for the for the
American Campaign against Huawei,”American Campaign against Huawei,” Institute for National Security Studies Insight No. 1268, March 3, 2020. Insight No. 1268, March 3, 2020.
94104 “Amid US “Amid US pressure,pressure, Israel taps local firm over China for $1.5b desalination plantIsrael taps local firm over China for $1.5b desalination plant ,” ,” Times of Israel, May 26, 2020. , May 26, 2020.
95105 Roie Yellinek, “ Roie Yellinek, “~~The~~ T he Israel-China-U.S. Israel-China-U.S. ~~Triangle~~T riangle and the Haifa Port Project,” and the Haifa Port Project,” Middle East Institute, November 27, , November 27,
2018. Reportedly, the Israeli government planned to limit sensitive roles at the port to Israelis with security clearances. 2018. Reportedly, the Israeli government planned to limit sensitive roles at the port to Israelis with security clearances.
Jack Detsch, “Pentagon repeats warning to Israel on Chinese port deal,” Jack Detsch, “Pentagon repeats warning to Israel on Chinese port deal,” Al-Monitor, August, August ~~7, 2019.~~
~~96 Ricky Ben-David, “Israel inaugurates Chinese-run Haifa port terminal, in likely boost for economy,” Times of Israel,~~
~~September 2, 2021.~~
97 7, 2019. 106 Galia Lavi and Assaf Orion, “ T he Launch of the Haifa Bayport T erminal: Economic and Security Considerations,” Institute for National Security Studies Insight No. 1516, September 12, 2021. 107 Arie Egozi, “ US Presses Israel on Haifa Port amid China Espionage Concerns: Sources,” Breaking Defense, October 5, 2021. 108 Efron et al., Efron et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, 2019, p. 38. 2019, p. 38.
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Appendix A. Israel: Map and Basic Facts

Sources: Graphic created by CRS. Map boundaries and information generated by Hannah FischerGraphic created by CRS. Map boundaries and information generated by Hannah Fischer using using
Department of State Boundaries (2017); Esri (2013); the National Geospatial-Department of State Boundaries (2017); Esri (2013); the National Geospatial-~~Intelligence~~ Intel igence Agency GeoNames Agency GeoNames
Database (2015); DeLormeDatabase (2015); DeLorme (2014). Fact information from CIA,(2014). Fact information from CIA, The World Factbook; and Economist ; and Economist ~~Intelligence~~Intel igence
Unit. Unit. ~~All~~ Al numbers are forecasts for 2021 unless otherwisenumbers are forecasts for 2021 unless otherwise specified. specified.
Notes: According to the U.S. executive branch According to the U.S. executive branch: (1) The West Bank is Israeli (1) The West Bank is Israeli occupied with current status occupied with current status
subject to the 1995 Israeli-Palestiniansubject to the 1995 Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement; permanent status to be determinedInterim Agreement; permanent status to be determined through further through further
negotiation. (2) The status of the Gaza Strip is a final status issue to be resolvednegotiation. (2) The status of the Gaza Strip is a final status issue to be resolved through negotiations. (3) The through negotiations. (3) The
United States recognized JerusalemUnited States recognized Jerusalem as Israel’sas Israel’s capital in 2017 without taking a position on the specific boundaries capital in 2017 without taking a position on the specific boundaries
of Israeliof Israeli sovereignty.sovereignty. (4) Boundary representation is not necessarily(4) Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative. authoritative. ~~Additionally~~Additional y, the United States , the United States
recognized the Golan Heights as part of Israel in 2019; however, U.N. Security Council Resolution 497, adopted recognized the Golan Heights as part of Israel in 2019; however, U.N. Security Council Resolution 497, adopted
on Decemberon December 17, 1981, held that the area of the Golan Heights control ed17, 1981, held that the area of the Golan Heights control ed by Israel’sby Israel’s ~~military~~ military is occupied is occupied
territoryterritory belonging to Syria.belonging to Syria. The current U.S. executive branch map of IsraelThe current U.S. executive branch map of Israel is available at https://www.cia.gov/is available at https://www.cia.gov/
the-world-factbook/countries/israel/map. the-world-factbook/countries/israel/map.
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Appendix B. Israeli Political Parties in the Knesset
and Their Leaders
RIGHT
Likud (Consolidation) – 30 Knesset seats (Opposition) (Consolidation) – 30 Knesset seats (Opposition)
Israel’sIsrael’s ~~historical repository~~ historical repository of right-of-center nationalist ideology; skeptical of of right-of-center nationalist ideology; skeptical of
territorialterritorial compromise;compromise; has also championed free-markethas also championed free-market policies.policies.
Leader: Binyamin Netanyahu
Born in 1949, Netanyahu served as primeBorn in 1949, Netanyahu served as prime ~~minister~~ minister from 2009 to June 2021, and also from 2009 to June 2021, and also
was primewas prime ~~minister from~~ minister from 1996 to 1999. Netanyahu served in an elite1996 to 1999. Netanyahu served in an elite special forces special forces
unit (Sayeret Matkal), and receivedunit (Sayeret Matkal), and received his higher education at MIT. Throughout a career his higher education at MIT. Throughout a career
in politicsin politics and diplomacy, he has been renowned both for his skepticismand diplomacy, he has been renowned both for his skepticism regarding the regarding the
exchange of land for peace with the Palestinians and his desireexchange of land for peace with the Palestinians and his desire to counter Iran’s to counter Iran’s
nuclear program nuclear program and regional influence. He is and regional influence. He is ~~generally~~general y regarded as both a regarded as both a
consummate political dealmaker consummate political dealmaker and a security-minded nationalist. and a security-minded nationalist.
Yisrael Beitenu (Israel Our Home) – 7 seats (Coalition) (Israel Our Home) – 7 seats (Coalition)
Pro-secular,Pro-secular, right-of-center nationalist party with base of support among Russian right-of-center nationalist party with base of support among Russian
speakersspeakers from the formerfrom the former Soviet Union. Soviet Union.
Leader: Avigdor Lieberman
Born in 1958, LiebermanBorn in 1958, Lieberman is Israel’sis Israel’s finance minister,finance minister, and has previously servedand has previously served as as
defense ministerdefense minister and foreign minister.and foreign minister. He is He is ~~generally~~general y viewed as an ardent nationalist viewed as an ardent nationalist
and canny politicaland canny political actor with primeactor with prime ~~ministerial~~ ministerial aspirations. Liebermanaspirations. Lieberman was born in was born in
the Soviet Union (in what is now Moldova) and immigratedthe Soviet Union (in what is now Moldova) and immigrated to Israel in 1978. He to Israel in 1978. He
worked under Netanyahu from 1988 to 1997. Disil usionedworked under Netanyahu from 1988 to 1997. Disil usioned by Netanyahu’s by Netanyahu’s
wil ingness wil ingness to considerto consider concessions to the Palestinians, Liebermanconcessions to the Palestinians, Lieberman founded Yisrael founded Yisrael
Beitenu as a platform for former Beitenu as a platform for former Soviet immigrants.Soviet immigrants. He was acquitted of corruption He was acquitted of corruption
~~allegations~~al egations in a 2013 case. in a 2013 case.
Yamina (Right) – 7 seats (Coalition) (Right) – 7 seats (Coalition)
Right-of-center mergerRight-of-center merger of three parties: New Right, Jewish Home,of three parties: New Right, Jewish Home, and National and National
Union; base of support among religiousUnion; base of support among religious ~~Zionists~~ Zionists (mostly Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews); (mostly Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews);
includes core constituencies supporting Westincludes core constituencies supporting West Bank settlementsBank settlements and annexation. and annexation.
Leader: Prime Minister Naftali Bennett (biography in text box in the main body of the report)

New Hope (Tikva Hadasha) – 6 seats (Coalition) (Tikva Hadasha) – 6 seats (Coalition)
New Hope is a party formedNew Hope is a party formed in 2020 as an alternative to Primein 2020 as an alternative to Prime ~~Minister~~ Minister Netanyahu Netanyahu
and Likud for mainstreamand Likud for mainstream right-wing voters. right-wing voters.
Leader: Gideon Sa’ar
Born in 1966, Sa’ar servesBorn in 1966, Sa’ar serves as justice minister.as justice minister. He served as cabinet secretary in the He served as cabinet secretary in the
1990s (for Prime1990s (for Prime Minister Netanyahu) and early 2000s (for PrimeMinister Netanyahu) and early 2000s (for Prime Minister Ariel Minister Ariel
Sharon). He became an influential and popular memberSharon). He became an influential and popular member of Likud, first elected to the of Likud, first elected to the
Knesset in 2003. He served Knesset in 2003. He served as education ministeras education minister from 2009 to 2013 and interior from 2009 to 2013 and interior
minister minister ~~from~~ from 2013 to 2014. After leaving the Knesset in 2014, he returned in 2019 2013 to 2014. After leaving the Knesset in 2014, he returned in 2019
but left Likud to form New Hope a year later. but left Likud to form New Hope a year later.
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Religious Zionism (HaTzionut HaDatit) – 6 seats (Opposition) (HaTzionut HaDatit) – 6 seats (Opposition)
Grouping of right-of-center parties including ReligiousGrouping of right-of-center parties including Religious Zionism/NationalZionism/National Union-Union-
Tkuma, Otzma Yehudit, and Noam that formed forTkuma, Otzma Yehudit, and Noam that formed for the March 2021elections. the March 2021elections.
Leader: Bezalel Smotrich
Born in 1980, Smotrich has headed the underlying party that leads Religious Zionism Born in 1980, Smotrich has headed the underlying party that leads Religious Zionism
since 2019. A trained lawyer,since 2019. A trained lawyer, he has engaged in regular activism to promotehe has engaged in regular activism to promote Jewish Jewish
nationalist and religiouslynationalist and religiously ~~conservative~~ conservative causes. causes.

LEFT
Labor (Avoda) – 7 seats (Coalition) (Avoda) – 7 seats (Coalition)
Labor is Israel’sLabor is Israel’s historical repositoryhistorical repository of social democratic,of social democratic, left-of-center, pro-secular left-of-center, pro-secular
Zionist ideology; associated with efforts to end Israel’sZionist ideology; associated with efforts to end Israel’s ~~responsibility for~~ responsibility for Palestinians Palestinians
in the West Bank and Gaza. in the West Bank and Gaza.
Leader: Merav Michaeli
Born in 1966, Michaeli is transportation minister.Born in 1966, Michaeli is transportation minister. She became Labor’s leaderShe became Labor’s leader in 2020 in 2020
and was first elected to the Knesset in 2013. Beforeand was first elected to the Knesset in 2013. Before entering national politics, she entering national politics, she
founded and headed an organization that supports victimsfounded and headed an organization that supports victims of sexual assault, and was a of sexual assault, and was a
regular national media presence and university lecturer.regular national media presence and university lecturer.
Meretz (Vigor) – 6 seats (Coalition) (Vigor) – 6 seats (Coalition)
Meretz is a pro-secular ZionistMeretz is a pro-secular Zionist party that supports initiativesparty that supports initiatives for social justice and for social justice and
peace with the Palestinians. peace with the Palestinians.
Leader: Nitzan Horowitz
Born in 1965, Horowitz is health minister.Born in 1965, Horowitz is health minister. He became Meretz’sHe became Meretz’s leader in 2019 and leader in 2019 and
was first elected to the Knessetwas first elected to the Knesset in 2009. He had a long careerin 2009. He had a long career as a prominent as a prominent
journalist before entering politics. journalist before entering politics.

CENTER
Yesh Atid (There Is a Future)(There Is a Future) – 17 seats (Coalition) – 17 seats (Coalition)
Yesh Atid is a centrist party in existence since 2012 that has championed Yesh Atid is a centrist party in existence since 2012 that has championed
socioeconomicsocioeconomic issues such as cost of living and has taken a pro-secular stance. issues such as cost of living and has taken a pro-secular stance.
Leader: Yair Lapid
Born in 1963, Lapid is foreign ministerBorn in 1963, Lapid is foreign minister and alternate primeand alternate prime minister.minister. Under the Under the
government’sgovernment’s power-sharing agreement,power-sharing agreement, he is set to become primehe is set to become prime ~~minister~~ minister in in
August 2023. He came to politics after a career August 2023. He came to politics after a career as a journalist,as a journalist, ~~television~~ television presenter, presenter,
and author. He founded the Yesh Atid party in 2012, and from and author. He founded the Yesh Atid party in 2012, and from 2013 to 2014 he 2013 to 2014 he
served as finance minister. served as finance minister.
Kahol Lavan (Blue and White) – 8 seats (Coalition) (Blue and White) – 8 seats (Coalition)
Centrist party formed in 2018 as an alternative to Prime MinisterCentrist party formed in 2018 as an alternative to Prime Minister Netanyahu, Netanyahu,
ostensibly seekingostensibly seeking to preserveto preserve long-standing Israelilong-standing Israeli institutions such as the judiciary, institutions such as the judiciary,
articulate a visionarticulate a vision of Israeliof Israeli nationalism that is morenationalism that is more inclusive of Druze and Arab inclusive of Druze and Arab
citizens, and have greatercitizens, and have greater sensitivity to international opinion on Israeli-Palestinian sensitivity to international opinion on Israeli-Palestinian
issues.issues.

Leader: Benny Gantz
Born in 1959, Gantz is Israel’sBorn in 1959, Gantz is Israel’s defense minister.defense minister. He served as Chief of General Staff He served as Chief of General Staff
of the Israel Defenseof the Israel Defense ~~Forces~~ Forces from 2011 to 2015.from 2011 to 2015.
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ULTRA-ORTHODOX
Shas (Sephardic Torah Guardians) – 9 seats (Opposition) (Sephardic Torah Guardians) – 9 seats (Opposition)
Mizrahi HarediMizrahi Haredi (“ultra-Orthodox”) party; favors welfare(“ultra-Orthodox”) party; favors welfare and education funds in and education funds in
support of Haredi lifestyle;support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes compromiseopposes compromise with Palestinians on control over with Palestinians on control over
Jerusalem. Jerusalem.
Leader: Aryeh Deri
Born in 1959, DeriBorn in 1959, Deri led Shas from 1983 to 1999 before being convicted for bribery, led Shas from 1983 to 1999 before being convicted for bribery,
fraud, and breach of trust in 1999 for actions taken while serving as interiorfraud, and breach of trust in 1999 for actions taken while serving as interior minister. minister.
He returned as the party’s leader in 2013. In AprilHe returned as the party’s leader in 2013. In April 2021, he 2021, he ~~allowed~~al owed a party col eague a party col eague
to take his Knesset seat. to take his Knesset seat.

United Torah Judaism – 7 seats (Opposition) – 7 seats (Opposition)
Ashkenazi Haredi coalition (Agudat YisraelAshkenazi Haredi coalition (Agudat Yisrael and Degeland Degel Ha’torah); favors welfareHa’torah); favors welfare and and
education funds in support of Haredi lifestyle;education funds in support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes territorialopposes territorial ~~compromise~~ compromise with with
Palestinians and conscription of Haredim; Palestinians and conscription of Haredim; ~~generally seeks~~ general y seeks greater application of Jewish greater application of Jewish
law. law.
Leader: Yaakov Litzman
Born in 1948, Litzman was born in GermanyBorn in 1948, Litzman was born in Germany and raised in the United States before and raised in the United States before
immigratingimmigrating to Israelto Israel in 1965. Educated in yeshivas (traditional Jewish schools), he in 1965. Educated in yeshivas (traditional Jewish schools), he
later served as principal of a Hasidic girls’later served as principal of a Hasidic girls’ school in Jerusalem.school in Jerusalem. In April 2021, he In April 2021, he
~~allowed~~alowed a party a party ~~col eague~~coleague to take his Knesset seat. to take his Knesset seat.
ARAB
Joint List – 6 seats (Opposition) – 6 seats (Opposition)
Electoral slate featuring three Arab parties that combine socialistElectoral slate featuring three Arab parties that combine socialist and Arab nationalist and Arab nationalist
political strains:political strains: HadashHadash (Democratic(Democratic Front for Peace and Equality), Ta’al (Arab Front for Peace and Equality), Ta’al (Arab
Movement for Renewal), and BaladMovement for Renewal), and Balad (National Democratic(National Democratic Assembly). Assembly).
Leader: Ayman Odeh
Born in 1975, Odeh is the leader of Hadash, an Arab Israeli socialistBorn in 1975, Odeh is the leader of Hadash, an Arab Israeli socialist party, and of the party, and of the
Joint List.Joint List. An attorney, he served on the Haifa city council before becoming Hadash’s An attorney, he served on the Haifa city council before becoming Hadash’s
national leader in 2006. national leader in 2006.

United Arab List (UAL or Ra’am)(UAL or Ra’am) – 4 seats (Coalition) – 4 seats (Coalition)
IslamistIslamist Arab party that embodiesArab party that embodies conservative socialconservative social values while seekingvalues while seeking state state
support to improvesupport to improve Arabs’ socioeconomicArabs’ socioeconomic position within Israel. position within Israel.
Leader: Mansour Abbas
Born in 1974, Abbas has led the UAL since 2007 and is a qualified dentist. Born in 1974, Abbas has led the UAL since 2007 and is a qualified dentist.

Sources: Various open sources. Various open sources.
Note: Knesset seat numbers based on results from the March 23, 2021, election.Knesset seat numbers based on results from the March 23, 2021, election.
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Appendix C. Chinese Investments in Israeli
Technology Companies: 2011-2020

Source: Institute for National Security StudiesInstitute for National Security Studies. Notes
~~Note~~: Publicly available information on these types of investments Publicly available information on these types of investments may be limited.may be limited. An outlierAn outlier transaction transaction
included in this figure is the 2016 purchase by China-based Alpha Frontier of the Israel-based mobileincluded in this figure is the 2016 purchase by China-based Alpha Frontier of the Israel-based mobile gaming gaming
company Playtika for $4.4 bil ion.company Playtika for $4.4 bil ion.
Author Information

Jim Zanotti Jim Zanotti

Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs

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Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
R44245 R44245 · VERSION 9799 · UPDATED
2021