Israel: Major Issues and U.S. Relations

Changes from May 18, 2021 to May 20, 2021

This page shows textual changes in the document between the two versions indicated in the dates above. Textual matter removed in the later version is indicated with ~~red strikethrough~~ and textual matter added in the later version is indicated with blue.

Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background,
May May 1820, 2021 , 2021
and U.S. Relations in Brief
Jim Zanotti
The following matters are of particular significance to U.S.-Israel relations. The following matters are of particular significance to U.S.-Israel relations.
Specialist in Middle Specialist in Middle
Eastern Affairs Eastern Affairs
Violence ~~and unrest~~ over Gaza and Jerusalem, and congressional responses to it. Violence and unrest Violence and unrest has flared in May 2021 has flared in May 2021

around Gaza and Jerusalem, and has sparked Arab-Jewish rioting in some Israeli citiesaround Gaza and Jerusalem, and has sparked Arab-Jewish rioting in some Israeli cities —partly in —partly in
connection with a controversial case about the possible eviction of several connection with a controversial case about the possible eviction of several Palestinians from their Palestinians from their

East Jerusalem homes. As a result, prospects of an Israeli government forming imminently to East Jerusalem homes. As a result, prospects of an Israeli government forming imminently to
replace Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu appear to have collapsedreplace Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu appear to have collapsed . Israel-Gaza violence has escalated to a level not seen . Israel-Gaza violence has escalated to a level not seen
since 2014 as the Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-designated terrorist organization) and other militants fire rockets into since 2014 as the Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-designated terrorist organization) and other militants fire rockets into
civilian areas of Israel, and Israel Israel, and Israel ~~retaliates inside~~seeks to strike militant targets within Gaza. Depending on how the tensions escalate or de-escalate, they could have implications Gaza. Depending on how the tensions escalate or de-escalate, they could have implications
for a number of U.S. policy considerations, including aid for Israel and the for a number of U.S. policy considerations, including aid for Israel and the ~~Palestinians~~Pales tinians, and how the Biden Administration , and how the Biden Administration
and Members of Congress might focus on Israeli-Palestinian and related regional issues. Some Members of Congress and Members of Congress might focus on Israeli-Palestinian and related regional issues. Some Members of Congress ~~who~~
~~support a cease-fire may be seeking more time to review~~are urging the President to seek an immediate cease-fire, while others express support for Israeli strikes. Joint resolutions of disapproval have been introduced in both the Senate and the House to block a proposed $735 million sale of precision a proposed $735 million sale of precision -guided munitions to Israel -guided munitions to Israel
that the Biden Administration notified to that the Biden Administration notified to ~~relevant congressional committees~~Congress on May 5 on May 5, 2021. .
Domestic issues: An end to or continuation of Netanyahu’s rule? After the collapse of its power-sharing government in After the collapse of its power-sharing government in
December 2020, Israel held another round of elections—an unprecedented fourth in two years—for its Knesset (parliament) December 2020, Israel held another round of elections—an unprecedented fourth in two years—for its Knesset (parliament)
in March 2021. Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu of the Likud party—the largest in the Knesset—in March 2021. Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu of the Likud party—the largest in the Knesset—~~has been~~was initially unable to form unable to form
a new government in the face of significant opposition to his continued rule, while a new government in the face of significant opposition to his continued rule, while ~~he faces~~facing an ongoing criminal corruption an ongoing criminal corruption
trial. Yairtrial. Yair Lapid of the Yesh Atid party has until early June to forge a coalition supported by disparate parties from across the Lapid of the Yesh Atid party has until early June to forge a coalition supported by disparate parties from across the
political spectrum. As Arab-Jewish tensions escalated amid the May violence, Naftali Bennett—whose right-of-political spectrum. As Arab-Jewish tensions escalated amid the May violence, Naftali Bennett—whose right-of-~~center~~
center Yamina party was critical to Lapid’s efforts—announced that he would not join such a coalition. If no one can form a Yamina party was critical to Lapid’s efforts—announced that he would not join such a coalition. If no one can form a
government, another round of elections would probably take place in the fall of 2021, and Netanyahu would remain as government, another round of elections would probably take place in the fall of 2021, and Netanyahu would remain as
caretaker prime minister (as he did from December 2018 to May 2020) until November 17, when the power-sharing caretaker prime minister (as he did from December 2018 to May 2020) until November 17, when the power-sharing
arrangement Netanyahu entered into last year would lead to Defense and Justice Minister Benny Gantz of the Kahol Lavan arrangement Netanyahu entered into last year would lead to Defense and Justice Minister Benny Gantz of the Kahol Lavan
party taking over in the caretaker role. party taking over in the caretaker role.
Palestinians and Arab state normalization. In hopes of preserving the viability of a negotiated two-state solution among In hopes of preserving the viability of a negotiated two-state solution among
Israelis and Palestinians, the Biden Administration has stated its intention to reengage with Palestinian leaders and people, Israelis and Palestinians, the Biden Administration has stated its intention to reengage with Palestinian leaders and people,
after the Trump Administration took several actions that generally favored Israeli positions and appeared to alienate after the Trump Administration took several actions that generally favored Israeli positions and appeared to alienate
Palestinian leadership. In April, the Biden Administration announced the resumption of some types of aid to the Palestinians. Palestinian leadership. In April, the Biden Administration announced the resumption of some types of aid to the Palestinians.
Amid some debate on issues that could affect aid to Israel and the Palestinians, the Administration has voiced opposition to Amid some debate on issues that could affect aid to Israel and the Palestinians, the Administration has voiced opposition to
unilateral steps—including annexation, settlement activity, or incitement to violence—by either side. unilateral steps—including annexation, settlement activity, or incitement to violence—by either side. ~~Additionally, the~~
~~Administration has expressed support for continuing the Arab-Israeli normalization efforts that began in 2020 under the~~
~~Trump Administration, as reflected in agreements between Israel and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Sudan, and~~
~~Morocco. In~~ To date, the Biden Administration has not reversed steps taken by the Trump Administration in apparent connection with 2020 normalization agreements between Israel and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco, and the Biden Administration has stated its support for Arab-Israeli normalization efforts that preserve a two-state solution’s viability. In connection with its deal with the UAE, Israel agreed in August 2020 to suspend plans to annex part of the West connection with its deal with the UAE, Israel agreed in August 2020 to suspend plans to annex part of the West
Bank, though announcements related to settlement activity have accelerated since then. Bank, though announcements related to settlement activity have accelerated since then.
Israeli normalization with Arab states could raise questions about the future of cooperation and rivalry among key actors in Israeli normalization with Arab states could raise questions about the future of cooperation and rivalry among key actors in
the Middle East. Arab-Israeli common cause could intensify, dwindle, or fluctuate in countering Iran and perhaps even the Middle East. Arab-Israeli common cause could intensify, dwindle, or fluctuate in countering Iran and perhaps even
Turkey and Qatar, two countries that provide some support for Sunni Islamist movements. The January 2021 shift of Israel Turkey and Qatar, two countries that provide some support for Sunni Islamist movements. The January 2021 shift of Israel
from the purview of U.S. European Command to U.S. Central Command may increase Arab-Israeli military interoperability. from the purview of U.S. European Command to U.S. Central Command may increase Arab-Israeli military interoperability.
Other factors affecting regional cooperation and rivalry might include U.S. arms sales (including a proposed sale of the F-35 Other factors affecting regional cooperation and rivalry might include U.S. arms sales (including a proposed sale of the F-35
Joint Strike Fighter and MQ-9 drone aircraft to the UAE), mutual economic benefits, and Arab public opinion. Some of these Joint Strike Fighter and MQ-9 drone aircraft to the UAE), mutual economic benefits, and Arab public opinion. Some of these
factors could determine whether Saudi Arabia drops preconditions related to Palestinian national demands on normalizing its factors could determine whether Saudi Arabia drops preconditions related to Palestinian national demands on normalizing its
relations with Israel. relations with Israel.
Iran and other regional issues. Israeli officials seek to counter Iranian regional influence and prevent Iran from acquiring Israeli officials seek to counter Iranian regional influence and prevent Iran from acquiring
nuclear weapons. Prime Minister Netanyahu strongly supported President Trump’s withdrawal of the United States from the nuclear weapons. Prime Minister Netanyahu strongly supported President Trump’s withdrawal of the United States from the
2015 international agreement that constrained Iran’s nuclear activities. Facing intensified U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its 2015 international agreement that constrained Iran’s nuclear activities. Facing intensified U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its
Congressional Research Service Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief compliance with the 2015 agreement. Netanyahu has made statements opposing the Biden Administration’s possible reentry compliance with the 2015 agreement. Netanyahu has made statements opposing the Biden Administration’s possible reentry
into the agreement. In light of recent incidents targeting Iran’s nuclear program that may have been Israeli covert actions, into the agreement. In light of recent incidents targeting Iran’s nuclear program that may have been Israeli covert actions,
observers have speculated about future Israeli actions to influence or disrupt nuclear diplomacy. Israel also has reportedly observers have speculated about future Israeli actions to influence or disrupt nuclear diplomacy. Israel also has reportedly
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~~Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

conducted a number of military operations in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon against Iran and its allies due to concerns about Iran’s conducted a number of military operations in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon against Iran and its allies due to concerns about Iran’s
efforts to establish a permanent presence in these areas and improve the accuracy of Lebanese Hezbollah’s missile arsenal. efforts to establish a permanent presence in these areas and improve the accuracy of Lebanese Hezbollah’s missile arsenal.
China: Investments in Israel and U.S. concerns. U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over Chinese U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over Chinese
investments in Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure that could increase China’s ability to gather intelligence investments in Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure that could increase China’s ability to gather intelligence
and acquire security-related technologies. While Chinese state-owned companies remain engaged in some specific and acquire security-related technologies. While Chinese state-owned companies remain engaged in some specific
infrastructure projects, including at seaports in Haifa and Ashdod, in May 2020 Israel turned down the bid of a Chinese-infrastructure projects, including at seaports in Haifa and Ashdod, in May 2020 Israel turned down the bid of a Chinese-
affiliated company to construct a major desalination plant. affiliated company to construct a major desalination plant.
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Introduction: Major Issues for U.S.-Israel Relations
Israel (seIsrael (see Figure 1) has forged close bilateral cooperation with the United States in many areas; has forged close bilateral cooperation with the United States in many areas;
issues with significant implications for U.S.-Israel relations include the following. issues with significant implications for U.S.-Israel relations include the following.
 Violence and unrest in May 2021 in and around the Gaza Strip, Jerusalem, and  Violence and unrest in May 2021 in and around the Gaza Strip, Jerusalem, and
various Israeli cities. various Israeli cities.
 Israeli domestic political issues, including questions about whether March 2021  Israeli domestic political issues, including questions about whether March 2021
election results wil lead to a new government or more elections, while Prime election results wil lead to a new government or more elections, while Prime
Minister Binyamin Netanyahu’s criminal trial continues. Minister Binyamin Netanyahu’s criminal trial continues.
 Israel’s security cooperation with the United States.  Israel’s security cooperation with the United States.
 Israeli-Palestinian issues and Israel’s normalization of relations with various  Israeli-Palestinian issues and Israel’s normalization of relations with various
Arab states. Arab states.
 Concerns about Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence, including with  Concerns about Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence, including with
Lebanon-based Hezbollah. Lebanon-based Hezbollah.
 Chinese investment in Israeli companies and infrastructure, and U.S. concerns  Chinese investment in Israeli companies and infrastructure, and U.S. concerns
about implications for U.S. national security. about implications for U.S. national security.
For background information and analysis on these and other topics, including aid, arms sales, and For background information and analysis on these and other topics, including aid, arms sales, and
missile defense cooperation, see CRS Report RL33476, missile defense cooperation, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, ,
by Jim Zanotti; and CRS Report RL33222, by Jim Zanotti; and CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp. , by Jeremy M. Sharp.

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Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief

Figure 1. Israel: Map and Basic Facts

Sources: Graphic created by CRS. Map boundaries and information generated by Hannah Graphic created by CRS. Map boundaries and information generated by Hannah ~~Fischer~~Fisch er using using
Department of State Boundaries (2017); Esri (2013); the National Geospatial-Intel igence Agency GeoNames Department of State Boundaries (2017); Esri (2013); the National Geospatial-Intel igence Agency GeoNames
Database (2015); DeLorme (2014). Fact information from CIA, Database (2015); DeLorme (2014). Fact information from CIA, The World Factbook; and Economist Intel igence ; and Economist Intel igence
Unit. Al numbers are forecasts for 2021 unless otherwise specified. Unit. Al numbers are forecasts for 2021 unless otherwise specified.
Notes: According to the U.S. executive branch: (1) The West Bank is Israeli occupied with current status According to the U.S. executive branch: (1) The West Bank is Israeli occupied with current status
subject to the 1995 Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement; permanent status to be determined through further subject to the 1995 Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement; permanent status to be determined through further
negotiation. (2) The status of the Gaza Strip isnegotiation. (2) The status of the Gaza Strip is a final status issue to be resolved through negotiations. (3) The a final status issue to be resolved through negotiations. (3) The
United States recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital in 2017 without taking a position on the specific boundaries United States recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital in 2017 without taking a position on the specific boundaries
of Israeli sovereignty. (4) Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative. Additional y, the United States of Israeli sovereignty. (4) Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative. Additional y, the United States
recognized the Golan Heights as part of Israel in 2019; however, U.N. Security Council Resolution 497, adopted recognized the Golan Heights as part of Israel in 2019; however, U.N. Security Council Resolution 497, adopted
on December 17, 1981, held that the area of the Golan Heights control ed by Israel’s military is on December 17, 1981, held that the area of the Golan Heights control ed by Israel’s military is ~~occupied~~occu pied
territory belonging to Syria. The current U.S. executive branch map of Israel is available at https://www.cia.gov/territory belonging to Syria. The current U.S. executive branch map of Israel is available at https://www.cia.gov/
the-world-factbook/countries/israel/map. the-world-factbook/countries/israel/map.
Violence and Unrest over Gaza and Jerusalem
Overview
Various factors have combined to fuel an escalation of unrest and violence in and around the Gaza Various factors have combined to fuel an escalation of unrest and violence in and around the Gaza
Strip and Jerusalem in May 2021. Since May 10, the Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.- Strip and Jerusalem in May 2021. Since May 10, the Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-
designated terrorist organization) and other militants based in the Gaza Strip have fired hundreds designated terrorist organization) and other militants based in the Gaza Strip have fired hundreds
of rockets into Israel—reportedly causing at least of rockets into Israel—reportedly causing at least 1012 deaths and many more injuries, including deaths and many more injuries, including
from major barrages against population centers in the Tel Aviv area. Hamas’s rocket attacks have from major barrages against population centers in the Tel Aviv area. Hamas’s rocket attacks have
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contributed to a major escalation as Israel’s military has retaliated with regular airstrikes and contributed to a major escalation as Israel’s military has retaliated with regular airstrikes and
some artil ery fire, reportedly kil ing some artil ery fire, reportedly kil ing ~~around 200~~at least 230 people (including people (including ~~dozens of militants and many~~
militants and civilians) and civilians) and injuring hundreds more in Gaza. injuring hundreds more in Gaza.
Hamas has cast itself as a defender of Jerusalem amid unrest that mounted there during the Hamas has cast itself as a defender of Jerusalem amid unrest that mounted there during the
Muslim holy month of Ramadan, including at the Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif Muslim holy month of Ramadan, including at the Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif
(“Mount/Haram”) holy sites—a place of frequent Jewish-Muslim contention.1 Jerusalem also has (“Mount/Haram”) holy sites—a place of frequent Jewish-Muslim contention.1 Jerusalem also has
been a focus of disil usionment among Palestinians since April because Palestinian Authority been a focus of disil usionment among Palestinians since April because Palestinian Authority
(PA) President Mahmoud Abbas had cited Israel’s unwil ingness to al ow East Jerusalem (PA) President Mahmoud Abbas had cited Israel’s unwil ingness to al ow East Jerusalem
Palestinians to vote in PA elections (scheduled for May) as grounds for their postponement.2 Palestinians to vote in PA elections (scheduled for May) as grounds for their postponement.2
Gaza and Its Challenges
The Gaza Strip—control ed by Hamas, but significantly affected by general Israeli and Egyptian access and The Gaza Strip—control ed by Hamas, but significantly affected by general Israeli and Egyptian access and
import/export restrictions—faces difficult and complicated political, economic, and humanitarian conditions.3 import/export restrictions—faces difficult and complicated political, economic, and humanitarian conditions.3
Palestinian militants in Gaza periodical y clash with Israel’s military as it patrols Gaza’s frontiers with Israel, with Palestinian militants in Gaza periodical y clash with Israel’s military as it patrols Gaza’s frontiers with Israel, with
militant actions and Israeli responses sometimes endangering civilian areas in southern Israel and Gaza, militant actions and Israeli responses sometimes endangering civilian areas in southern Israel and Gaza,
respectively. These incidents periodical y escalate toward larger conflict—with major hostilities taking place in respectively. These incidents periodical y escalate toward larger conflict—with major hostilities taking place in
2008-2009, 2012, and 2014. Hamas and Israel reportedly work through Egypt and Qatar to help manage the flow 2008-2009, 2012, and 2014. Hamas and Israel reportedly work through Egypt and Qatar to help manage the flow
of necessary resources into Gaza and prevent or manage conflict escalation. of necessary resources into Gaza and prevent or manage conflict escalation.
Mounting tension in Jerusalem was fueled by provocations—reportedly aided by social media— Mounting tension in Jerusalem was fueled by provocations—reportedly aided by social media—
tied to Israeli measures restricting Palestinian movement and worship in and around the tied to Israeli measures restricting Palestinian movement and worship in and around the
Mount/Haram and Old City, isolated attacks by Palestinians, and demonstrations by Jewish Mount/Haram and Old City, isolated attacks by Palestinians, and demonstrations by Jewish
nationalist groups.4 Unrest intensified in response to controversy nationalist groups.4 Unrest intensified in response to controversy ~~that surrounds~~over the possible the possible
eviction of several Palestinian families from their longtime residences in the Sheikh Jarrah eviction of several Palestinian families from their longtime residences in the Sheikh Jarrah
neighborhood of neighborhood of East Jerusalem, stemming from an Israeli law that al ows for Jewish recovery of property abandoned in connection with the 1948 Arab-Israeli war~~East Jerusalem, and stems from Israeli legal assertions that Jewish groups~~
~~acquired the property years ago~~.5 Israel’s Supreme Court temporarily delayed a hearing on the .5 Israel’s Supreme Court temporarily delayed a hearing on the
case amid the unrest. Palestinian leaders and some activists and international actors claim that the case amid the unrest. Palestinian leaders and some activists and international actors claim that the
case is part of a systematic Israeli disregard for Palestinian rights in East Jerusalem since the case is part of a systematic Israeli disregard for Palestinian rights in East Jerusalem since the
area’s capture and effective annexation as a result of the 1967 area’s capture and effective annexation as a result of the 1967 Arab-Israeli war.6 Critics of Israeli Arab-Israeli war.6 Critics of Israeli
actions connect this situation with concerns about Jewish settlement activity and other al egations actions connect this situation with concerns about Jewish settlement activity and other al egations
that Israel violates international law and Palestinianthat Israel violates international law and Palestinian human rights.7 human rights.7
The ongoing violence between Israel and Gaza-based militants has escalated to a level not seen The ongoing violence between Israel and Gaza-based militants has escalated to a level not seen
since 2014.8 As during the three previous major conflicts in 2008-2009, 2012, and 2014, as the since 2014.8 As during the three previous major conflicts in 2008-2009, 2012, and 2014, as the
~~rockets from Gaza mostly target Israeli civilians, Palestinian civilians are also vulnerable. Israeli~~

1 For background on Jerusalem and its holy sites, see CRS Report RL33476, 1 For background on Jerusalem and its holy sites, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by , by
Jim Zanotti. Jim Zanotti.
2 Daoud Kuttab, “ Palestinian president decides — 2 Daoud Kuttab, “ Palestinian president decides — on his ownon his own — to postpone elections,” — to postpone elections,” Al-Monitor, April 30, 2021. , April 30, 2021.
3 CRS Report RL34074, 3 CRS Report RL34074, The Palestinians: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
4 “From T ikTok to T emple Mount Clashes: 28 Days of Violence in Jerusalem ,” haaretz.com, May 10, 2021. 4 “From T ikTok to T emple Mount Clashes: 28 Days of Violence in Jerusalem ,” haaretz.com, May 10, 2021.
5 Nir Hasson, “ Jerusalem Clashes: How Palestinians Rallied Behind Sheikh Jarrah,” haaretz.com, May 8, 2021. Some 5 Nir Hasson, “ Jerusalem Clashes: How Palestinians Rallied Behind Sheikh Jarrah,” haaretz.com, May 8, 2021. Some
Israeli human rights organizations estimate that more than 1,000 Palestinians in East Jerusalem across a number of Israeli human rights organizations estimate that more than 1,000 Palestinians in East Jerusalem across a number of
cases are at risk of being evicted from their current residences. Joseph Krauss, “ Palestinians fear loss of family homes cases are at risk of being evicted from their current residences. Joseph Krauss, “ Palestinians fear loss of family homes
as evictions loom,” as evictions loom,” Associated Press, May 10, 2021. May 10, 2021.
6 Patrick Kingsley, “ Israel6 Patrick Kingsley, “ Israel'’s Supremes Supreme Court Delays Expulsion of Palestinian Families in East Jerusalem ,” Court Delays Expulsion of Palestinian Families in East Jerusalem ,” New York
Tim es, May 10, 2021. , May 10, 2021.
7 Al-Haq, Action Alert: International Community Must T ake Immediate and Concrete Measures to Halt Israel’s 7 Al-Haq, Action Alert: International Community Must T ake Immediate and Concrete Measures to Halt Israel’s
Aggression against Palestinian Jerusalemites, May 10, 2021. Aggression against Palestinian Jerusalemites, May 10, 2021.
8 See Sam Sokol, “ Israel-Gaza Conflict: How T his Escalation Compares with Previous Rounds,” haaretz.com, May 12, 8 See Sam Sokol, “ Israel-Gaza Conflict: How T his Escalation Compares with Previous Rounds,” haaretz.com, May 12,
2021. 2021.
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rockets from Gaza mostly target Israeli civilians, Palestinian civilians are also vulnerable. Israeli strikes against militants in Gaza largely focus on targets in densely populated areas that can lead strikes against militants in Gaza largely focus on targets in densely populated areas that can lead
to collateral damage,9 even if the Israel Defense Forces’ claims about taking measures to warn to collateral damage,9 even if the Israel Defense Forces’ claims about taking measures to warn
civilians of impending strikes are accurate.10 As thousands of civilians in Gaza seek to shelter civilians of impending strikes are accurate.10 As thousands of civilians in Gaza seek to shelter
away from targeted areas, the people’s plight is exacerbated by deficient infrastructure and health away from targeted areas, the people’s plight is exacerbated by deficient infrastructure and health
care facilities, the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic, and chal enges to delivering needed care facilities, the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic, and chal enges to delivering needed
~~utilities and resources.11~~
~~As the Israel-Gaza conflict has intensified, protests and/or rioting have broken~~utilities and resources.11 In connection with the fighting in Gaza, damage sustained to health care facilities, water and sewage infrastructure, and schools has further worsened the humanitarian situation.12 As the Israel-Gaza conflict intensified, protests and/or rioting broke out in several out in several
Israeli cities—Israeli cities— including Lod, including Lod, Bat Yam, Acre, Haifa, and Jaffa—involving Arab citizens of Israel and Acre, Haifa, and Jaffa—involving Arab citizens of Israel and
Jewish nationalists.Jewish nationalists.1213 Israel Israel ~~has~~ mobilized reserve security forces,mobilized reserve security forces,1314 and Jewish and Arab political and Jewish and Arab political
leaders have spoken out in an effort to quel this leaders have spoken out in an effort to quel this ~~unrest14~~unrest15—with some —with some ~~signs~~reports of abatement of abatement ~~as of~~
~~May 18.15~~during the week of May 17.16 While protests and While protests and ~~a few~~some incidents of violence have occurred in the West Bank, incidents of violence have occurred in the West Bank,
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Palestinian Authority (PA) leaders there have Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Palestinian Authority (PA) leaders there have to this to this
point refrained from the types of organized actions that triggered general Palestinian point refrained from the types of organized actions that triggered general Palestinian intifadas
(uprisings) in 1987 and 2000. (uprisings) in 1987 and 2000.
U.S. Policy ~~Implications and Assessment~~Considerations and Proposed Arms Sale
Key U.S. policy considerations include how developments related to the outbreak of violence and Key U.S. policy considerations include how developments related to the outbreak of violence and
Arab-Jewish unrest in Israel may affect U.S. aid—and its use—to Israel and the Palestinians; Arab-Jewish unrest in Israel may affect U.S. aid—and its use—to Israel and the Palestinians;
impact civilians and humanitarian needs in Gaza and elsewhere; and influence how the Biden impact civilians and humanitarian needs in Gaza and elsewhere; and influence how the Biden
Administration and Members of Congress focus on Israeli-Palestinian disputes, Iran’s support for Administration and Members of Congress focus on Israeli-Palestinian disputes, Iran’s support for
Hamas and other Palestinian militants, and other regional issues. Hamas and other Palestinian militants, and other regional issues.1617
U.S. diplomatic engagement might have some influence on developments. Before the May 10 U.S. diplomatic engagement might have some influence on developments. Before the May 10
escalation of Israel-Gaza violence, U.S. officials expressed concerns about the possible evictions escalation of Israel-Gaza violence, U.S. officials expressed concerns about the possible evictions
in Sheikh Jarrah and unrest in Jerusalem.in Sheikh Jarrah and unrest in Jerusalem.1718 The week after that, they condemned Palestinian The week after that, they condemned Palestinian
rocket attacks, supported Israel’s right to self-defense from them, bemoaned civilian casualties, rocket attacks, supported Israel’s right to self-defense from them, bemoaned civilian casualties,
and stated that Israelis and Palestinians are both entitled to safety and security.and stated that Israelis and Palestinians are both entitled to safety and security.~~18 Deputy Assistant~~
~~Secretary of State for Israel and Palestinian Affairs Hady Amr has gone to the region to pursue~~
~~de-escalation. On May 16, Secretary of State Antony Blinken cal ed for an immediate end to~~
~~violence, while U.S. officials reportedly continued to block the U.N. Security Council from~~
19 Deputy Assistant
9 Aaron Boxerman, “ ‘Screams under the rubble’: 42 said killed in Israeli airstrike in Gaza City,” 9 Aaron Boxerman, “ ‘Screams under the rubble’: 42 said killed in Israeli airstrike in Gaza City,” Times of Israel, May , May
16, 2021. 16, 2021.
10 Felicia Schwartz and Jared Malsin, “ Israel Says Strikes to Go On As Gaza Death T oll Mounts,” 10 Felicia Schwartz and Jared Malsin, “ Israel Says Strikes to Go On As Gaza Death T oll Mounts,” Wall Street Journal, ,
May 17, 2021. May 17, 2021.
11 Raja Abdulrahim, “ T housands of Civilians Flee Airstrikes in Gaza,” 11 Raja Abdulrahim, “ T housands of Civilians Flee Airstrikes in Gaza,” Wall Street Journal, May 18, 2021. , May 18, 2021.
1212 Iyad Abuheweila, et al., “ Gaza Reels From Strikes T hat Underscore Scope Of Deep-Rooted Misery,” New York Tim es, May 19, 2021. 13 Jack Khoury, “ T he Six Factors Stoking the Upheaval in Arab Israeli Society,” haaretz.com, May 12, 2021. Jack Khoury, “ T he Six Factors Stoking the Upheaval in Arab Israeli Society,” haaretz.com, May 12, 2021.
1314 Afif Abu Much, “ Police unable to stem violence in mixed Israeli cities,” Afif Abu Much, “ Police unable to stem violence in mixed Israeli cities,” Al-Monitor, May 18, 2021. , May 18, 2021.
1415 Sam Sokol, “ Violence Between Arabs and Jews Inside Israel Further Inflame Gaza Conflict ,” haaretz.com, May 12, Sam Sokol, “ Violence Between Arabs and Jews Inside Israel Further Inflame Gaza Conflict ,” haaretz.com, May 12,
2021; “Gantz orders callup of Border Patrol reserves as Arab-Jewish violence spirals,” 2021; “Gantz orders callup of Border Patrol reserves as Arab-Jewish violence spirals,” Times of Israel, May 13, 2021. , May 13, 2021.
1516 Neri Zilber, “ Israeli Officials Dispute Death T oll in Gaza Amid Onslaught Neri Zilber, “ Israeli Officials Dispute Death T oll in Gaza Amid Onslaught ,” ,” Daily Beast, May 18, 2021. , May 18, 2021.
1617 See, for example, the text of a May 12 letter to President Biden from 44 Senators at See, for example, the text of a May 12 letter to President Biden from 44 Senators at
https://www.rubio.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/ea5fb1cf-a6fa-4abc-983b-https://www.rubio.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/ea5fb1cf-a6fa-4abc-983b-
2945a4fc2667/93C0C6B98A3A9E07C0C725387D88E76A.05.12.21 -letter-to-biden-re-israel-attacks.pdf; and the text 2945a4fc2667/93C0C6B98A3A9E07C0C725387D88E76A.05.12.21 -letter-to-biden-re-israel-attacks.pdf; and the text
of a May 12 letter from 25 Representatives to Secretary of State Antony Blinken at of a May 12 letter from 25 Representatives to Secretary of State Antony Blinken at
https://twitter.com/repmarkpocan/status/1392606239406923779/photo/1https://twitter.com/repmarkpocan/status/1392606239406923779/photo/1 and and
https://twitter.com/repmarkpocan/status/1392606247061442563/photo/1https://twitter.com/repmarkpocan/status/1392606247061442563/photo/1 . .
1718 “U.S. expresses ‘serious concerns’ about violent clashes in Jerusalem,” “U.S. expresses ‘serious concerns’ about violent clashes in Jerusalem,” Reuters, May 10, 2021. , May 10, 2021.
1819 White House, Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr. Call with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel, White House, Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr. Call with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel,
~~May 12, 2021; State Department Press Briefings – May 10, 2021 and May 11, 2021.~~
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Congressional Research Service 4 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief Secretary of State for Israel and Palestinian Affairs Hady Amr is in the region to pursue de-escalation. On May 16, Secretary of State Antony Blinken cal ed for an immediate end to violence, while U.S. officials reportedly continued to block the U.N. Security Council from issuing a statement cal ing for a cease-fire, perhaps partly due to its wording.issuing a statement cal ing for a cease-fire, perhaps partly due to its wording.1920 Israeli leaders Israeli leaders
have continued strikes in an apparent effort to impose a cost on Palestinian militants that might have continued strikes in an apparent effort to impose a cost on Palestinian militants that might
deter them from initiating future violence. In a May deter them from initiating future violence. In a May 1719 phone cal with Prime Minister phone cal with Prime Minister
Netanyahu, President Biden Netanyahu, President Biden ~~expressed support for a cease-fire, encouraged the protection of~~
~~civilians and calming of intercommunal tensions, and reiterated support for Israel’s right to~~
~~defend itself from rocket fire.20~~
~~Several~~conveyed that he expected a significant de-escalation that day on the way to a cease-fire.21 On May 20, an Israeli media source reported that U.S. officials have expressed opposition to a proposed U.N. Security Council Resolution in the form it was drafted.22 Some Members of Congress have cal ed for a cease-fire Members of Congress have cal ed for a cease-fire~~,21 while some~~.23 Some others have argued that others have argued that
such such cal s should not constrain Israeli actions.24 On May 19, 138 Representatives sent a letter to President Biden urging him to take decisive action to end the violence.25 The same day, 31 Senators introduced a non-binding resolution to affirm an “unwavering commitment” to Israel and “its right to defend itself and its civilians against terror.”26 Additional y, some Members have opposed or sought further consultation from the Biden Administration about a proposed $735 mil ion commercial y licensed sale of precision-guided munitions to Israel. The Administration notified the proposed sale to Congress on May 5—five days before the major escalation of violence on May 10.27 According to Representative Gregory Meeks, Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, the weapons would likely be delivered “a year from now.”28 On May 19, nine House Members introduced a joint resolution of disapproval—referencing license document Directorate of Defense Trade Controls (DDTC) 20-084—to block the export, and Senator Bernie Sanders introduced a counterpart joint resolution in the Senate on May 20.29 May 12, 2021; State Department Press Briefings—May 10, 2021, and May 11, 2021. 20 “UN General Assembly to meet on Gaza as US blocks 3rd Security Council resolution,” Times of Israel, May 17, 2021. 21 White House, Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr. Call with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel, May 19, 2021 22 Jacob Magid, “ US hints it will oppose French Security Council resolution calling for ceasefire,” Times of Israel, May 20, 2021. 23~~cal s should not constrain Israeli actions and may be considering resolutions in support of~~
~~Israel.22 Some Members who support a cease-fire, possibly including the Chairman of the House~~
~~Committee on Foreign Affairs, are reportedly seeking more time to review a proposed $735~~
~~mil ion commercial y licensed sale of precision-guided munitions to Israel that the Biden~~
~~Administration notified to relevant congressional committees on May 5.23 Under the Arms Export~~
~~Control Act (AECA), after receiving notification of a proposed major arms sale to certain~~
~~countries (including Israel),24 Members of Congress have 15 days to introduce resolutions of~~
~~disapproval that are entitled to expedited consideration.25 For more on recent congressional views~~
~~and action related to U.S. aid and arms sales to Israel, see “The Biden Administration and 117th~~
~~Congress” section below.~~
~~Factors affecting escalation or de-escalation of the violence could include:~~
~~ whether Hamas assesses that continued conflict—despite more casualties and~~
~~damage in Gaza—could boost its domestic popularity at PA President Abbas’s~~
~~expense, further fuel Arab-Jewish unrest, and increase pressure on Israel’s~~
~~leaders;26~~
~~ the extent to which Israeli measures (including its Iron Dome anti-rocket system~~
~~and operations targeting Palestinian militants) prevent, deter, or provoke~~
~~additional violence, and protect or harm Israeli and Palestinian civilians;27~~

~~19 “UN General Assembly to meet on Gaza as US blocks 3rd Security Council resolution ,” Times of Israel, May 17,~~
~~2021.~~
~~20 White House, Readout of President Joseph R. Biden, Jr. Call with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel,~~
~~May 17, 2021~~
21 Ben Samuels, “ Dozens of Democrats Urge Immediate Israeli-Palestinian Cease-fire to Prevent Further Loss of Life,” Ben Samuels, “ Dozens of Democrats Urge Immediate Israeli-Palestinian Cease-fire to Prevent Further Loss of Life,”
haaretz.com, May 17, 2021. haaretz.com, May 17, 2021.
2224 Jacob Magid, “ T op Democrat looking to delay $735 million sale of precision missiles to Israel,” Jacob Magid, “ T op Democrat looking to delay $735 million sale of precision missiles to Israel,” Times of Israel, May May
17, 2021. 17, 2021.
~~23 Ibid.;~~ 25 T ext of letter available at https://price.house.gov/sites/price.house.gov/files/5.19.2021%20Israel%20and%20Gaza%20Ceasefire%20Letter%20 -%20FINAL%20FORMAT T ED.pdf. 26 Senator Rick Scott, VIDEO RELEASE Sen. Bernie Sanders Blocks Sen. Rick Scott Resolution to Support Israel, Condemn Hamas, May 19, 2021. 27 State Department notification to congressional committees of jurisdiction; Jacqueline AlemanyState Department notification to congressional committees of jurisdiction; Jacqueline Alemany, et al., “ Biden et al., “ Biden
administrationadministration'’s $735 million weapons sale to Israel faces scrutiny ,” s $735 million weapons sale to Israel faces scrutiny ,” Washington Post, May 18, 2021. T his source also , May 18, 2021. T his source also
cited concerns raised by Secretary Blinken and some Members of Congress about Israel’s claims that its military was cited concerns raised by Secretary Blinken and some Members of Congress about Israel’s claims that its military was
targeting Hamas in a strike that destroyed a building in Gaza housing key international media outlets. For information targeting Hamas in a strike that destroyed a building in Gaza housing key international media outlets. For information
on U.S. provision of precision-guided weapons to Israel, see CRS Report RL33222, on U.S. provision of precision-guided weapons to Israel, see CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by , by
Jeremy M. Sharp. Jeremy M. Sharp.
~~24 Government-to-government or commercially licensed arms sales must be formally~~28 As cited in Bryant Harris, “ Democratic leaders seek to quell pro-Palestinian uprising in US Congress,” The National (UAE), May 20, 2021. 29 Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Ocasio-Cortez, Pocan & T laib Lead Joint Resolution to Block Weapon Sales to Netanyahu, May 19, 2021. Senator Bernie Sanders, NEWS: Sanders Moves to Block Weapons Sale to Israel, May 20, 2021. In 1978 during the 95 th Congress, some resolutions of disapproval (including H.Con.Res. 585, Congressional Research Service 5 link to page 19 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief Arms Export Notification Period and Congressional Options30 In general, commercial y licensed arms sales must be formal y notified to Congress 30 calendar notified to Congress 30 calendar
days before the export licensedays before the export license is issuedis issued if they involve the sale of majorif they involve the sale of major defense equipment valueddefense equipment valued at $14 at $14 ~~million or~~
~~more, or~~ mil ion or more, or defense articles or servicesdefense articles or services valued at $50 valued at $50 ~~million~~ mil ion or moreor more ~~(Section s 36(b) and (c) of the~~ (Section 36(c) of the Arms Export Control Act, or AECA). In the case of AECA). In the case of
such salessuch sales ~~to NAT O~~ to NATO member member states, Japan, Australia,states, Japan, Australia, South Korea,South Korea, Israel,Israel, or Newor New ~~Zealand, Congress must be formally~~
Zealand, Congress must be formal y notified 15 calendar days before the Administration may issue the relevant export license. Congress moved Israel from the 30-day notification category to the 15-day category in Section 301 of P.L. 111-266. The AECA sets forth provisions that, in specified circumstances, permit expedited consideration for legislation to block proposed exports. Congress also could block or regulate exports through the regular legislative process, without expedited procedures. For more on recent congressional views and action related to U.S. aid and arms sales to Israel, see “The Biden Administration and 117th Congress” section below. Some reports emerged on May 20 of a proposed cease-fire possibly going into effect on May 21. Factors affecting escalation or de-escalation of the violence could include  whether Hamas assesses that continued conflict—despite more casualties and damage in Gaza—could boost its domestic popularity at PA President Abbas’s expense, further fuel Arab-Jewish unrest, and increase pressure on Israel’s leaders;31  the extent to which Israeli measures (including its Iron Dome anti-rocket system and operations targeting Palestinian militants) prevent, deter, or provoke additional violence, and protect or harm Israeli and Palestinian civilians;32~~notified 15 calendar days before the Administration is authorized to proceed with a given sale. For more information,~~
~~see CRS Report RL31675, Arm s Sales: Congressional Review Process, by Paul K. Kerr.~~
~~25 For more information, see CRS Report RL31675, Arms Sales: Congressional Review Process, by Paul K. Kerr.~~
~~26 Neri Zilber, “T he War T hat Shouldn’t Have Been,” Newlines Magazine, May 13, 2021.~~
~~27 Joel Gehrke, “ Israel's Iron Dome missile-defense system is facing a severe test ,” Washington Examiner, May 12,~~
~~2021. For more on Iron Dome, see CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp.~~
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 disruptions or perceived disruptions to the “status quo” arrangement governing  disruptions or perceived disruptions to the “status quo” arrangement governing
worship at Jerusalem’s holy sites, especial y the Mount/Haram; worship at Jerusalem’s holy sites, especial y the Mount/Haram;2833
 unsettled questions of leadership and succession within both Israel and the  unsettled questions of leadership and succession within both Israel and the
Palestinian Authority; Palestinian Authority;2934
 how international actors respond, including U.S. officials and lawmakers, and  how international actors respond, including U.S. officials and lawmakers, and
Arab states who have recently improved or sought to improve their relations with Arab states who have recently improved or sought to improve their relations with
Israel; and Israel; and
~~ diplomacy addressing various parties’ grievances and concerns, with Egyptian~~
~~officials playing a key mediating role between Israel and Hamas.30~~
~~As discussed below, the spike in Arab-Jewish tensions since May 10 appears to have ended the~~
~~previously imminent prospect of a government replacing Prime Minister Netanyahu with support~~
~~from right-of-center and Arab-led parties.31~~
~~After March 2021 Elections: Will Netanyahu’s Rule~~
~~End or Continue?~~
~~On March 23, 2021, Israel held its fourth election in the past two years (previous elections took~~
~~place in April and September 2019 and March 2020). The Likud party, led by Prime Minister~~
~~Netanyahu, won the most Knesset seats in the March 23 election (see Appendix), despite~~
~~criminal indictments against Netanyahu for corruption (see Table 1).~~

28 H.Con.Res. 586, H.Con.Res. 594, and H.Con.Res. 595) were introduced to block various proposed arms sales to Israel that were part of a package of proposed sales to Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. For more information , see CRS Report R46580, Israel’s Qualitative Military Edge and Possible U.S. Arm s Sales to the United Arab Em irates, coordinated by Jeremy M. Sharp and Jim Zanotti. In 1979 during the 96th Congress, Representative Paul Findley introduced five resolutions of disapproval to block other arms sales to Israel ( H.Con.Res. 174, H.Con.Res. 175, H.Con.Res. 176, H.Con.Res. 177, and H.Con.Res. 178). None of the 1978 or 1979 proposed resolutions came to a vote. 30 For detailed information, see CRS Report RL31675, Arms Sales: Congressional Review Process, by Paul K. Kerr. 31 Neri Zilber, “T he War T hat Shouldn’t Have Been,” Newlines Magazine, May 13, 2021. 32 Joel Gehrke, “ Israel’s Iron Dome missile-defense system is facing a severe test ,” Washington Examiner, May 12, 2021. For more on Iron Dome, see CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp. 33 “From T ikTok to T emple Mount Clashes: 28 Days of Violence in Jerusalem ,” haaretz.com, May 10, 2021. Under the “From T ikTok to T emple Mount Clashes: 28 Days of Violence in Jerusalem ,” haaretz.com, May 10, 2021. Under the
“status quo” arrangement (largely based on past practices dating from the 16th century that Israel pledges to uphold), “status quo” arrangement (largely based on past practices dating from the 16th century that Israel pledges to uphold),
Muslims can access the Mount/Haram and worship there, while Jews and other non -Muslims are permitted limited Muslims can access the Mount/Haram and worship there, while Jews and other non -Muslims are permitted limited
access but not permitted to worship. Jewish worship is permitted at the Western Wall at the base of the Mount/Haram. access but not permitted to worship. Jewish worship is permitted at the Western Wall at the base of the Mount/Haram.
2934 Neri Zilber, “ Violent Jerusalem Clashes Just the Start of Bloody Days to Come,” Neri Zilber, “ Violent Jerusalem Clashes Just the Start of Bloody Days to Come,” Daily Beast, May 10, 2021; Ghaith , May 10, 2021; Ghaith
al-Omari, “ T o Vote or Not to Vote: Implications of Postponing Palestinian Elections,” Washington Institute for Near al-Omari, “ T o Vote or Not to Vote: Implications of Postponing Palestinian Elections,” Washington Institute for Near
East Policy, PolicyWatch 3477, April 28, 2021. East Policy, PolicyWatch 3477, April 28, 2021.
30Congressional Research Service 6 link to page 24 link to page 12 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief  diplomacy addressing various parties’ grievances and concerns, with Egyptian officials playing a key mediating role between Israel and Hamas.35 As discussed below, the spike in Arab-Jewish tensions since May 10 appears to have ended the previously imminent prospect of a government replacing Prime Minister Netanyahu with support from right-of-center and Arab-led parties.36 After March 2021 Elections: Will Netanyahu’s Rule End or Continue? On March 23, 2021, Israel held its fourth election in the past two years (previous elections took place in April and September 2019 and March 2020). The Likud party, led by Prime Minister Netanyahu, won the most Knesset seats in the March 23 election (see Appendix), despite criminal indictments against Netanyahu for corruption (see Table 1). 35 Felicia Schwartz and Jared Malsin, “ Israel Says Strikes to Go On As Gaza Death T oll Mounts,” Felicia Schwartz and Jared Malsin, “ Israel Says Strikes to Go On As Gaza Death T oll Mounts,” Wall Street Journal, ,
May 17, 2021. May 17, 2021.
3136 Barak Ravid, “Israel’s ‘change bloc’ collapses, leaving Netanyahu in charge,” Barak Ravid, “Israel’s ‘change bloc’ collapses, leaving Netanyahu in charge,” Axios, May 13, 2021. , May 13, 2021.
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Table 1. Indictments Against Netanyahu and Steps of the Legal Process
Indictments
Case 1000: Netanyahu received favors from Hol ywood mogul Arnon Milchan and Australian
bil ionaire James Packer, in return for taking actions in Milchan’s favor.
The charge: Fraud and breach of trust : Fraud and breach of trust
Netanyahu’s defense: There is no legal problem in receiving gifts from friends; did not : There is no legal problem in receiving gifts from friends; did not
know that his family members requested gifts. know that his family members requested gifts.
Case 2000: Netanyahu and Yedioth Ahronoth publisher Arnon Mozes struck a deal: Favorable
coverage for Netanyahu in return for limiting the circulation of the Sheldon Adelson-owned newspaper
Israel Hayom.
The charge: Fraud and breach of trust : Fraud and breach of trust
Netanyahu’s defense: He had no intention of implementing the deal, and relations : He had no intention of implementing the deal, and relations
between politicians and the media should not be criminalized.between politicians and the media should not be criminalized.
Case 4000: As communication minister, Netanyahu took steps that benefited Shaul Elovitch who
control ed telecom company Bezeq—in return for favorable coverage in Bezeq’s Wal a News site.
The charge: Bribery, fraud and breach of trust : Bribery, fraud and breach of trust
Netanyahu’s defense: There is no evidence that he was aware of making regulations : There is no evidence that he was aware of making regulations
contingent on favorable coverage.contingent on favorable coverage.
Selected Steps in the Legal Process, and
the Time Between Them

Sources: For “Indictments,” the content comes from For “Indictments,” the content comes from Ha’aretz graphics adapted by CRS. For “Selected Steps in graphics adapted by CRS. For “Selected Steps in
the Legal Process, and the Time Between Them,” CRS prepared the graphics and made slight content the Legal Process, and the Time Between Them,” CRS prepared the graphics and made slight content
adjustments to underlying source material from Britain Israel Communications and Research Centre. The adjustments to underlying source material from Britain Israel Communications and Research Centre. The
interval listed between Steps 4-5 is an estimate.interval listed between Steps 4-5 is an estimate.
The bloc of parties that openly support Netanyahu The bloc of parties that openly support Netanyahu isappears to be short of majority backing in the Knesset. short of majority backing in the Knesset.
Some politicians on the right of the politicalSome politicians on the right of the political spectrum—ideological y close to spectrum—ideological y close to Netanyahu—have Netanyahu—have
adopted critiques of Netanyahu previously made by many from the left and center, claiming that adopted critiques of Netanyahu previously made by many from the left and center, claiming that
he prioritizes his individual power and survival over Israeli national interests, institutions, and he prioritizes his individual power and survival over Israeli national interests, institutions, and
rule of law. Also, as discussed below, prospects for a Knesset majority forming to support a rule of law. Also, as discussed below, prospects for a Knesset majority forming to support a
coalition opposed to Netanyahu’s continued role have appeared to evaporate amid Arab-Jewish coalition opposed to Netanyahu’s continued role have appeared to evaporate amid Arab-Jewish
tensions after the May 10 escalation of violence. The possible stalemate could tensions after the May 10 escalation of violence. The possible stalemate could result in another result in another
election taking place later in 2021. A March election taking place later in 2021. A March Wall Street Journal article analyzed article analyzed some effects of some effects of
the ongoing political dysfunction: the ongoing political dysfunction:
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Israel has been without a permanent budget for 13 months now, the longest period in its Israel has been without a permanent budget for 13 months now, the longest period in its
history. Infrastructure spending and other government programs are stalled, history. Infrastructure spending and other government programs are stalled, ~~including~~includin g plans plans
for a high-speed rail link between Tel Aviv and Eilat, a port and resort on the Red Sea. The for a high-speed rail link between Tel Aviv and Eilat, a port and resort on the Red Sea. The
beginning of the school term earlier this year was delayed when the parliament neglected beginning of the school term earlier this year was delayed when the parliament neglected
to pass a special budget for schools to open. The lack of a long -term budget also has to pass a special budget for schools to open. The lack of a long -term budget also has
affected the Israeli military's midterm procurement plans.affected the Israeli military's midterm procurement plans.3237
In April, Netanyahu received the initial task from Israeli President Reuven Rivlin to try to form a In April, Netanyahu received the initial task from Israeli President Reuven Rivlin to try to form a
government, but could not do so within the al otted four weeks. Netanyahu might expect a government, but could not do so within the al otted four weeks. Netanyahu might expect a
government he leads to end or mitigate the ongoing criminal proceedings against him, while government he leads to end or mitigate the ongoing criminal proceedings against him, while
agreeing to support priorities of coalition partners who may seek West Bank annexation, less agreeing to support priorities of coalition partners who may seek West Bank annexation, less
independence for Israel’s judiciary, and continued preferential treatment for ultra-Orthodox independence for Israel’s judiciary, and continued preferential treatment for ultra-Orthodox
citizens. Some Israeli and international observers have expressed concern about the possibility of citizens. Some Israeli and international observers have expressed concern about the possibility of
far-right figures under the new Religious Zionism list gaining influence in a Netanyahu-led far-right figures under the new Religious Zionism list gaining influence in a Netanyahu-led
government. government.3338
On May 5, Rivlin gave four weeks to the Yesh Atid party’s Yair Lapid to form a government. On May 5, Rivlin gave four weeks to the Yesh Atid party’s Yair Lapid to form a government.
Lapid, in seeking to oust Netanyahu, proposed a unity government supported by parties on the Lapid, in seeking to oust Netanyahu, proposed a unity government supported by parties on the
right (Yamina, New Hope, Yisrael Beitenu), center (Kahol Lavan), and left (Labor, Meretz) of the right (Yamina, New Hope, Yisrael Beitenu), center (Kahol Lavan), and left (Labor, Meretz) of the
political spectrum, as wel as the Arab-led United Arab List (UAL or Ra’am) and/or Joint List political spectrum, as wel as the Arab-led United Arab List (UAL or Ra’am) and/or Joint List
(se(see Appendix)..3439 To secure the support of right-leaning parties, Lapid sought to have Yamina To secure the support of right-leaning parties, Lapid sought to have Yamina
leader Naftali Bennett—a staunch advocate of Israeli West Bank settlements and partial West leader Naftali Bennett—a staunch advocate of Israeli West Bank settlements and partial West
Bank annexation—serve as prime minister for the first 27 months of the government’s term, with Bank annexation—serve as prime minister for the first 27 months of the government’s term, with
Lapid rotating into the prime minister’s office after that. Lapid rotating into the prime minister’s office after that.
While prospects for such a coalition were initial y favorable, they appear to have collapsed While prospects for such a coalition were initial y favorable, they appear to have collapsed
following the escalation of violence in and around Israel and Gaza. On May 13, Bennett following the escalation of violence in and around Israel and Gaza. On May 13, Bennett
announced that he would not support this coalition, and instead would pursue discussions about a announced that he would not support this coalition, and instead would pursue discussions about a
coalition with Prime Minister Netanyahu and various centrist and right-of-center figures.coalition with Prime Minister Netanyahu and various centrist and right-of-center figures.3540 If If
Lapid cannot form a government by June 2, and no one else from the Knesset can do so in the Lapid cannot form a government by June 2, and no one else from the Knesset can do so in the
subsequent two weeks, a new election would be scheduled for a few months later. subsequent two weeks, a new election would be scheduled for a few months later.
Netanyahu and other members of the power-sharing government that formed in May 2020—or Netanyahu and other members of the power-sharing government that formed in May 2020—or
their successors, if any of them leave office—are to serve in an interim capacity until someone their successors, if any of them leave office—are to serve in an interim capacity until someone
establishes a majority-backed coalition. By its terms, the power-sharing agreement would make establishes a majority-backed coalition. By its terms, the power-sharing agreement would make
Defense and Justice Minister Benny Gantz prime minister in November 17, 2021 in the absence Defense and Justice Minister Benny Gantz prime minister in November 17, 2021 in the absence
of a new coalition agreement. Prime Minister Netanyahu has proposed an initiative to have direct of a new coalition agreement. Prime Minister Netanyahu has proposed an initiative to have direct
elections for prime minister that, if enacted by the Knesset, could boost his chances to remain in elections for prime minister that, if enacted by the Knesset, could boost his chances to remain in
power longer. power longer.3641
U.S. Security ~~Cooperation37~~Cooperation42
While Israel maintains robust military and homeland security capabilities, it also cooperates While Israel maintains robust military and homeland security capabilities, it also cooperates
closely with the United States on national security matters. U.S. law requires the executive branch closely with the United States on national security matters. U.S. law requires the executive branch
to take certain actions to preserve Israel’s “qualitative military edge,” or QME, and expedites aid to take certain actions to preserve Israel’s “qualitative military edge,” or QME, and expedites aid

3237 Felicia Schwartz, “ Israel Felicia Schwartz, “ Israel'’s Election Impasse T hreatens Covid Recovery,” s Election Impasse T hreatens Covid Recovery,” Wall Street Journal, March 25, 2021. , March 25, 2021.
3338 Joseph Krauss, “ Far-right party set to gain new influence after Israeli vote,” Joseph Krauss, “ Far-right party set to gain new influence after Israeli vote,” Associated Press, March 23, 2021. , March 23, 2021.
3439 Guillaume Lavallee, “ Israel Guillaume Lavallee, “ Israel'’s Lapid Facess Lapid Faces Daunting Path to Anti-Netanyahu Govt,” Daunting Path to Anti-Netanyahu Govt,” Agence France Presse, May 6, May 6,
2021. 2021.
3540 Gil Hoffman, “ Bennett backs down from anti-Netanyahu gov't as Arab-Jewish riots grow,” jpost.com, May 13, 2021. Gil Hoffman, “ Bennett backs down from anti-Netanyahu gov't as Arab-Jewish riots grow,” jpost.com, May 13, 2021.
3641 “Netanyahu wrongly claims directly elected PM will ‘automatically’ form coalition ,” “Netanyahu wrongly claims directly elected PM will ‘automatically’ form coalition ,” Times of Israel, April 22, 2021. , April 22, 2021.
3742 For more information, see CRS Report RL33222, For more information, see CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp. , by Jeremy M. Sharp.
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and arms sales to Israel in various ways. Additional y, a 10-year bilateral military aid and arms sales to Israel in various ways. Additional y, a 10-year bilateral military aid
memorandum of understanding (MOU)—signed in 2016—commits the United States to provide memorandum of understanding (MOU)—signed in 2016—commits the United States to provide
Israel $3.3 bil ion in Foreign Military Financing and to spend $500 mil ion annual y on joint Israel $3.3 bil ion in Foreign Military Financing and to spend $500 mil ion annual y on joint
missile defense programs from FY2019 to FY2028, subject to congressional appropriations. missile defense programs from FY2019 to FY2028, subject to congressional appropriations.
Israel was the first foreign country to purchase and operate the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter. Congress Israel was the first foreign country to purchase and operate the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter. Congress
also has authorized and encouraged bilateral cooperation in a number of specific security-related also has authorized and encouraged bilateral cooperation in a number of specific security-related
areas, including anti-tunnel defense and countering drone aircraft. In January 2021, one source areas, including anti-tunnel defense and countering drone aircraft. In January 2021, one source
reported that Israel has provided the United States with two batteries of its Iron Dome missile reported that Israel has provided the United States with two batteries of its Iron Dome missile
defense system for deployment at U.S. military bases in the region or elsewhere, with additional defense system for deployment at U.S. military bases in the region or elsewhere, with additional
batteries planned for U.S. use or possible export via U.S.-Israel coproduction. batteries planned for U.S. use or possible export via U.S.-Israel coproduction.3843
Key Foreign Policy Issues
The Palestinians and Arab State ~~Normalization39~~Normalization44
Trump Administration
During President Trump’s time in office, his Administration took a number of actions on the During President Trump’s time in office, his Administration took a number of actions on the
decades-old Israeli-Palestinian conflict that favored Israeli positions vis-à-vis the Palestinians, as decades-old Israeli-Palestinian conflict that favored Israeli positions vis-à-vis the Palestinians, as
set forth below. set forth below.
Selected Trump Administration Actions Impacting Israeli-Palestinian Issues
December 2017 December 2017
President Trump recognizes Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, prompting the Palestine President Trump recognizes Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, prompting the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO) and Palestinian Authority (PA) to cut off high-level Liberation Organization (PLO) and Palestinian Authority (PA) to cut off high-level
diplomatic relations with the United States. diplomatic relations with the United States.
May 2018 May 2018
The U.S. embassy opens in Jerusalem. The U.S. embassy opens in Jerusalem.
August 2018 August 2018
The Administration suspends U.S. contributions to the U.N. Relief and Works The Administration suspends U.S. contributions to the U.N. Relief and Works
Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).
September 2018 September 2018
The Administration reprograms FY2017 economic aid for the West Bank and The Administration reprograms FY2017 economic aid for the West Bank and
Gaza to other locations, and announces the closure of the PLO office in Gaza to other locations, and announces the closure of the PLO office in
Washington, DC. Washington, DC.
January 2019 January 2019
As a result of the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-253), the As a result of the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-253), the
Administration ends al bilateral U.S. aid to the Palestinians. Administration ends al bilateral U.S. aid to the Palestinians.
March 2019 March 2019
The U.S. consulate general in Jerusalem—previously an independent diplomatic The U.S. consulate general in Jerusalem—previously an independent diplomatic
mission to the Palestinians—is subsumed under the authority of the U.S. embassy mission to the Palestinians—is subsumed under the authority of the U.S. embassy
to Israel. President Trump recognizes Israeli sovereignty claims in the Golan to Israel. President Trump recognizes Israeli sovereignty claims in the Golan
Heights. Heights.
November 2019 November 2019
Secretary of State Michael Pompeo says that the Administration disagrees with a Secretary of State Michael Pompeo says that the Administration disagrees with a
1978 State Department legal opinion stating that Israeli settlements in the West 1978 State Department legal opinion stating that Israeli settlements in the West
Bank are inconsistent with international law. Bank are inconsistent with international law.
January 2020 January 2020
President Trump releases Israeli-Palestinian peace proposal that largely favors President Trump releases Israeli-Palestinian peace proposal that largely favors
Israeli positions and contemplates possible U.S. recognition of Israeli annexation of Israeli positions and contemplates possible U.S. recognition of Israeli annexation of
some West Bank areas. some West Bank areas.
August 2020 August 2020
Israel and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) announce the first of four cases in Israel and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) announce the first of four cases in
which the Trump Administration facilitates some normalization of Israel’s relations which the Trump Administration facilitates some normalization of Israel’s relations

3843 Yaniv Kubovich, “Israel allows U.S. to deploy Iron Dome missile defense in the Gulf,” haaretz.com, January 24, Yaniv Kubovich, “Israel allows U.S. to deploy Iron Dome missile defense in the Gulf,” haaretz.com, January 24,
2021. 2021.
3944 For additional background, see CRS In Focus IF11237, For additional background, see CRS In Focus IF11237, Israel and the Palestinians: Chronology of a Two-State
Solution, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
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with Arab states (Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco fol ow later in the year). Israel with Arab states (Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco fol ow later in the year). Israel
suspends consideration of West Bank annexation in connection with the UAE suspends consideration of West Bank annexation in connection with the UAE
deal. deal.
October 2020 October 2020
The United States and Israel sign agreements removing restrictions on three The United States and Israel sign agreements removing restrictions on three
binational foundations from funding projects in areas administered by Israel after binational foundations from funding projects in areas administered by Israel after
the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. The foundations are the Binational Industrial Research the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. The foundations are the Binational Industrial Research
and Development Foundation (BIRD), the Binational Science Foundation (BSF), and Development Foundation (BIRD), the Binational Science Foundation (BSF),
and the Binational Agricultural Research and Development Foundation (BARD) . and the Binational Agricultural Research and Development Foundation (BARD) .
November 2020 November 2020
Secretary Pompeo announces a change in U.S. product labeling regulations, Secretary Pompeo announces a change in U.S. product labeling regulations,
requiring products from Israeli settlements in the West Bank to be identified as requiring products from Israeli settlements in the West Bank to be identified as
coming from Israel. coming from Israel.
As mentioned above, in the second half of 2020 the Trump Administration’s diplomatic focus As mentioned above, in the second half of 2020 the Trump Administration’s diplomatic focus
pivoted from its January 2020 Israeli-Palestinian peace proposal to helping Israel reach pivoted from its January 2020 Israeli-Palestinian peace proposal to helping Israel reach
agreements on normalization with some Arab countries, as follows: agreements on normalization with some Arab countries, as follows:
  United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Bahrain. In September 2020, Israel signed In September 2020, Israel signed
the Abraham Accords with the UAE and Bahrain at the White House. Under the the Abraham Accords with the UAE and Bahrain at the White House. Under the
Accords, the UAE and Bahrain have established full diplomatic relations with Accords, the UAE and Bahrain have established full diplomatic relations with
Israel, and seek to boost cooperation in a number of other areas, including trade, Israel, and seek to boost cooperation in a number of other areas, including trade,
investment, and tourism. investment, and tourism.
  Sudan. Sudan signed onto the Abraham Accords in January 2021 after an Sudan signed onto the Abraham Accords in January 2021 after an
October 2020 joint statement with Israel announcing their plans to normalize October 2020 joint statement with Israel announcing their plans to normalize
relations, and after Sudan’s removal from the U.S. state sponsors of terrorism relations, and after Sudan’s removal from the U.S. state sponsors of terrorism
list.list.4045 The Sudanese transitional leadership has said that normalization remains The Sudanese transitional leadership has said that normalization remains
contingent on ratification by a yet-to-be-formed legislative council. contingent on ratification by a yet-to-be-formed legislative council.
  Morocco. Morocco agreed to sign onto the Abraham Accords in December 2020 Morocco agreed to sign onto the Abraham Accords in December 2020
at the same time President Trump announced U.S. recognition of Moroccan at the same time President Trump announced U.S. recognition of Moroccan
sovereignty claims over the disputed territory of Western Sahara.sovereignty claims over the disputed territory of Western Sahara.4146 While While
Morocco’s initial plan—perhaps pending the opening of a U.S. consulate in Morocco’s initial plan—perhaps pending the opening of a U.S. consulate in
Western Western ~~Sahara42~~Sahara47—is to restore the diplomatic liaison offices it maintained with —is to restore the diplomatic liaison offices it maintained with
Israel from 1994 to 2000, the countries’ agreement could lead to full diplomatic Israel from 1994 to 2000, the countries’ agreement could lead to full diplomatic
relations along with increased economic and tourism links.relations along with increased economic and tourism links.
In connection with its deal with the UAE, Israel agreed in August 2020 to suspend plans to annex In connection with its deal with the UAE, Israel agreed in August 2020 to suspend plans to annex
part of the West Bank, with one source stating that the UAE received a commitment from U.S. part of the West Bank, with one source stating that the UAE received a commitment from U.S.
officials that they would not approve Israeli annexation until at least January 2024. officials that they would not approve Israeli annexation until at least January 2024.4348
Before Israel’s late 2020 dealings with the UAE, Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco, Egypt and Jordan Before Israel’s late 2020 dealings with the UAE, Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco, Egypt and Jordan
had been the only Arab states with formal diplomatic relations with Israel.had been the only Arab states with formal diplomatic relations with Israel.4449 In 1981, Saudi In 1981, Saudi

4045 CRS Insight IN11531, CRS Insight IN11531, Sudan’s Removal from the State Sponsors of Terrorism List, by Lauren Ploch Blanchard. T he , by Lauren Ploch Blanchard. T he
United States also agreed to provide around $1 billion in bridge financing to clear Sudan’s arrears with the World Bank United States also agreed to provide around $1 billion in bridge financing to clear Sudan’s arrears with the World Bank
and allow it to receive future funding. Sami Magdy, “ Sudan says it signs pact on normalizing and allow it to receive future funding. Sami Magdy, “ Sudan says it signs pact on normalizing ~~ties~~t ies with Israel,” with Israel,”
Associated Press, January 6, 2021. , January 6, 2021.
4146 CRS Insight IN11555, CRS Insight IN11555, Morocco-Israel Normalization and U.S. Policy Change on Western Sahara , by Alexis Arieff, , by Alexis Arieff,
Jim Zanotti, and Brock R. Williams. T he signing took place later that month. Jim Zanotti, and Brock R. Williams. T he signing took place later that month.
4247 Mohammed Ayesh, “ Arabic press review: Morocco-Israel deal frozen until Biden’s Western Sahara stance clear,” Mohammed Ayesh, “ Arabic press review: Morocco-Israel deal frozen until Biden’s Western Sahara stance clear,”
Middle East Eye, January 22, 2021. January 22, 2021.
4348 Jacob Magid, “ US assured UAE it won’t back Israel annexation before 2024 at earliest, T oI told,” Jacob Magid, “ US assured UAE it won’t back Israel annexation before 2024 at earliest, T oI told,” Times of Israel, ,
September 13, 2020. For information on the annexation issue, see CRS Report R46433, September 13, 2020. For information on the annexation issue, see CRS Report R46433, Israel’s Possible Annexation of
West Bank Areas: Frequently Asked Questions, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
4449 Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty in 1979, and Jordan and Israel did the same in 1994. Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty in 1979, and Jordan and Israel did the same in 1994.
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Arabia’s then-Crown Prince Fahd bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud proposed a formula—later enshrined Arabia’s then-Crown Prince Fahd bin Abd al Aziz Al Saud proposed a formula—later enshrined
in the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative (API)—under which Israel would make certain concessions, in the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative (API)—under which Israel would make certain concessions,
including on Palestinian statehood, before Arab states would normalize their relations with it. including on Palestinian statehood, before Arab states would normalize their relations with it.4550
After Israel started negotiating directly with the Palestinians in the 1990s, it established limited After Israel started negotiating directly with the Palestinians in the 1990s, it established limited
diplomatic relations with Morocco, and informal ties with a number of other Arab states, diplomatic relations with Morocco, and informal ties with a number of other Arab states,
including the UAE and Bahrain.including the UAE and Bahrain.4651 These countries downgraded their ties with Israel after the These countries downgraded their ties with Israel after the
onset of the second Palestinian onset of the second Palestinian intifada (or uprising) in 2000. However, in the past decade (or uprising) in 2000. However, in the past decade
discreet Israeli links with Arab states on issues including intel igence, security, and trade have discreet Israeli links with Arab states on issues including intel igence, security, and trade have
become closer and more public. Israel has worked with these countries to counter common become closer and more public. Israel has worked with these countries to counter common
concerns, such as Iran’s regional influence and military capabilities (see concerns, such as Iran’s regional influence and military capabilities (see “Iran and the Region”
below) and Sunni Islamist populist movements (including various Muslim Brotherhood branches below) and Sunni Islamist populist movements (including various Muslim Brotherhood branches
and affiliates). and affiliates).4752
Strategic Assessment
Assessing Arab-Israeli normalization to date involves considering its implications both for Israeli- Assessing Arab-Israeli normalization to date involves considering its implications both for Israeli-
Palestinian issues and the future of regional cooperation and rivalry. Palestinian issues and the future of regional cooperation and rivalry.
Israeli-Palestinian Issues
Israel’s deals with Arab states could be interpreted as vindicating Prime Minister Netanyahu’s Israel’s deals with Arab states could be interpreted as vindicating Prime Minister Netanyahu’s
long-standing claim that he could normalize Israel’s relations with Arab countries before reaching long-standing claim that he could normalize Israel’s relations with Arab countries before reaching
a peace agreement with the Palestinians. They also signal some change to Arab states’ previous a peace agreement with the Palestinians. They also signal some change to Arab states’ previous
insistence—in the 2002 API—that Israel address Palestinian negotiating demands as a insistence—in the 2002 API—that Israel address Palestinian negotiating demands as a
precondition for improved ties.precondition for improved ties.4853 However, official statements from Saudi Arabian officials However, official statements from Saudi Arabian officials
continue to condition Saudi normalization with Israel on the API’s provisions.continue to condition Saudi normalization with Israel on the API’s provisions.4954 In late 2020, In late 2020,
Saudi Arabia granted Israel flyover rights within its airspace to facilitate direct Israeli airline Saudi Arabia granted Israel flyover rights within its airspace to facilitate direct Israeli airline
travel to the UAE and Bahrain. travel to the UAE and Bahrain.5055
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Palestinian Authority (PA) officials denounced Arab Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Palestinian Authority (PA) officials denounced Arab
states’ normalization of relations with Israel as an abandonment of the Palestinian national cause. states’ normalization of relations with Israel as an abandonment of the Palestinian national cause.
They expressed particular concern over the UAE deal, perhaps partly because the UAE has They expressed particular concern over the UAE deal, perhaps partly because the UAE has
provided sanctuary and political support for Mohammad Dahlan, a former top PA figure provided sanctuary and political support for Mohammad Dahlan, a former top PA figure

4550 T he Arab Peace Initiative offers a comprehensive Arab peace with Israel if Israel were to withdraw fully from the T he Arab Peace Initiative offers a comprehensive Arab peace with Israel if Israel were to withdraw fully from the
territories it occupied in 1967, agree to the establishment of a Palestinian state with a capital in East Jerusalem, and territories it occupied in 1967, agree to the establishment of a Palestinian state with a capital in East Jerusalem, and
provide for the “ [a]chievement of a just solution to the Palestinian Refugee problem in accordance with UN General provide for the “ [a]chievement of a just solution to the Palestinian Refugee problem in accordance with UN General
Assembly Resolution 194.” T he initiative was proposed by Saudi Arabia and adopted by the 22-member League of Assembly Resolution 194.” T he initiative was proposed by Saudi Arabia and adopted by the 22-member League of
Arab States in 2002, and later accepted by the then-56-member Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the 57 -Arab States in 2002, and later accepted by the then-56-member Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the 57 -
member Organization of Islamic Cooperation) at its 2005 Mecca summit. T he text of the initiative is available at member Organization of Islamic Cooperation) at its 2005 Mecca summit. T he text of the initiative is available at
http://www.bitterlemons.org/docs/summit.html. http://www.bitterlemons.org/docs/summit.html.
4651 Miriam Berger, “ Israel’s relations in the Middle East, explained,” washingtonpost.com, August 15, 2020; Adam Miriam Berger, “ Israel’s relations in the Middle East, explained,” washingtonpost.com, August 15, 2020; Adam
Entous, “Donald T rump’s New World Order,” Entous, “Donald T rump’s New World Order,” New Yorker, June 11, 2018; CRS Report 95-1013, June 11, 2018; CRS Report 95-1013, Bahrain: Unrest,
Security, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman. , by Kenneth Katzman.
4752 Steve Hendrix, “ Inside the secret-not-secret courtship between Israel and the United Arab Emirates,” Steve Hendrix, “ Inside the secret-not-secret courtship between Israel and the United Arab Emirates,”
washingtonpost.com, August 14, 2020; CRS Report 95-1013, washingtonpost.com, August 14, 2020; CRS Report 95-1013, Bahrain: Unrest, Security, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth , by Kenneth
Katzman. Katzman.
4853 Annelle Sheline, “ T rump’s Win Is a Loss for the Middle East ,” Annelle Sheline, “ T rump’s Win Is a Loss for the Middle East ,” Politico Magazine, August 14, 2020. , August 14, 2020.
4954 HRH Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud, First Plenary Session, International Institute for Strategic Studies Manama HRH Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud, First Plenary Session, International Institute for Strategic Studies Manama
Dialogue, December 5, 2020. Dialogue, December 5, 2020.
5055 Yoel Guzansky, “ Saudi Arabia and Normalization with Israel,” Institute for National Security Studies, Insight No. Yoel Guzansky, “ Saudi Arabia and Normalization with Israel,” Institute for National Security Studies, Insight No.
1396, October 29, 2020. 1396, October 29, 2020.
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vehemently opposed by PLO Chairman and PA President Mahmoud Abbas. Dahlan may have vehemently opposed by PLO Chairman and PA President Mahmoud Abbas. Dahlan may have
aspirations to succeed Abbas. aspirations to succeed Abbas.5156
PLO/PA officials claimed that the UAE legitimized Israel’s annexation threats by bargaining over PLO/PA officials claimed that the UAE legitimized Israel’s annexation threats by bargaining over
them, and thus acquiesced to a West Bank status quo that some observers label “de facto them, and thus acquiesced to a West Bank status quo that some observers label “de facto
annexation.”annexation.”5257 UAE officials countered that by significantly delaying Israeli declarations of UAE officials countered that by significantly delaying Israeli declarations of
sovereignty over West Bank areas, they preserved prospects for future negotiations toward a sovereignty over West Bank areas, they preserved prospects for future negotiations toward a
Palestinian state.Palestinian state.5358 Since announcing the suspension of annexation plans, Prime Minister Since announcing the suspension of annexation plans, Prime Minister
Netanyahu has appealed to domestic pro-settler constituencies with a number of announcements Netanyahu has appealed to domestic pro-settler constituencies with a number of announcements
related to settlement construction and expansion in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. related to settlement construction and expansion in the West Bank and East Jerusalem.
Questions surround the impact that Arab states with open relations with Israel might have on Questions surround the impact that Arab states with open relations with Israel might have on
Israeli-Palestinian diplomacy. Wil these states influence Israeli positions regarding the Israeli-Palestinian diplomacy. Wil these states influence Israeli positions regarding the
Palestinians, due to their closer access to Israeli leaders and Israeli interests in maintaining and Palestinians, due to their closer access to Israeli leaders and Israeli interests in maintaining and
improving ties with these countries? Or wil these states have less leverage with Israel and improving ties with these countries? Or wil these states have less leverage with Israel and
possibly even support efforts to have Palestinians compromise their traditional demands? possibly even support efforts to have Palestinians compromise their traditional demands?
Future of Regional Cooperation and Rivalry
Israeli normalization with Arab states could raise questions about the future of cooperation and Israeli normalization with Arab states could raise questions about the future of cooperation and
rivalry among key actors in the Middle East. Depending on global and regional geopolitical rivalry among key actors in the Middle East. Depending on global and regional geopolitical
trends, common cause could intensify, dwindle, or fluctuate between Israel and some Arab states trends, common cause could intensify, dwindle, or fluctuate between Israel and some Arab states
to counter Iran and perhaps even Turkey and Qatar, two countries that provide some support for to counter Iran and perhaps even Turkey and Qatar, two countries that provide some support for
Sunni Islamist movements. In January 2021, President Trump ordered U.S. Central Command Sunni Islamist movements. In January 2021, President Trump ordered U.S. Central Command
(CENTCOM), which commands U.S. military forces in most countries in the Middle East, to add (CENTCOM), which commands U.S. military forces in most countries in the Middle East, to add
Israel to its area of responsibility, partly to encourage military interoperability as a means of Israel to its area of responsibility, partly to encourage military interoperability as a means of
reinforcing closer ties between Israel and many Arab states.reinforcing closer ties between Israel and many Arab states.5459 Israel had previously been under the Israel had previously been under the
purview of U.S. European Command. While closer cooperation may result between Israel and purview of U.S. European Command. While closer cooperation may result between Israel and
some Arab governments, some others that have not normalized relations with Israel might some Arab governments, some others that have not normalized relations with Israel might
encounter political chal enges in joining CENTCOM deliberations involving Israel. encounter political chal enges in joining CENTCOM deliberations involving Israel.
Other factors influencing regional cooperation and rivalry might include the following: Other factors influencing regional cooperation and rivalry might include the following:
  Arms sales. Shortly after the UAE’s normalization deal with Israel, the Trump Shortly after the UAE’s normalization deal with Israel, the Trump
Administration notified Congress of a proposed sale to the UAE of F-35 Joint Administration notified Congress of a proposed sale to the UAE of F-35 Joint
Strike Fighters, armed MQ-9 Reaper drones, and munitions.Strike Fighters, armed MQ-9 Reaper drones, and munitions.5560 While noting the While noting the
U.S. legal requirement to maintain Israel’s QME, Israeli officials stated that they U.S. legal requirement to maintain Israel’s QME, Israeli officials stated that they
would not oppose the sale. The United States and UAE reportedly signed a letter would not oppose the sale. The United States and UAE reportedly signed a letter
of offer and acceptance for the sale in the final hours of the Trump of offer and acceptance for the sale in the final hours of the Trump
Administration. Administration.5661 Implementing the deal and delivering the items is expected to Implementing the deal and delivering the items is expected to
take years. The outcome of this transaction and others that might follow to Arab take years. The outcome of this transaction and others that might follow to Arab

5156 See, for example, Neri Zilber, “T he T alented Mr. Dahlan,” See, for example, Neri Zilber, “T he T alented Mr. Dahlan,” Newlines Magazine, November 11, 2020. , November 11, 2020.
5257 Walid Mahmoud and Muhammad Shehada, “ Palestinians unanimously reject UAE-Israel deal,” Walid Mahmoud and Muhammad Shehada, “ Palestinians unanimously reject UAE-Israel deal,” Al Jazeera, August , August
14, 2020. 14, 2020.
5358 “UAE minister: We bought lot of time on annexation; Palestinians should negotiate,” “UAE minister: We bought lot of time on annexation; Palestinians should negotiate,” Times of Israel, August 14, , August 14,
2020. 2020.
5459 Jared Szuba, “T rump orders US Central Command to include Israel amid strategic shift,” Jared Szuba, “T rump orders US Central Command to include Israel amid strategic shift,” Al-Monitor, January 15, , January 15,
2021. 2021.
5560 Defense Security Cooperation Agency T ransmittals 21-01, 21-03, and 21-05, November 10, 2020. Defense Security Cooperation Agency T ransmittals 21-01, 21-03, and 21-05, November 10, 2020.
5661 Valerie Insinna, “ Just hours before Biden’s inauguration, the UAE and US come to a deal on F-35 sales,” Valerie Insinna, “ Just hours before Biden’s inauguration, the UAE and US come to a deal on F-35 sales,” Defense
News, January 20, 2021. , January 20, 2021.
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states in connection with normalization could depend on issues including QME states in connection with normalization could depend on issues including QME
considerations, human rights concerns (such as those involved in Yemen’s considerations, human rights concerns (such as those involved in Yemen’s
ongoing conflict), and prospects for regional arms races involving suppliers such ongoing conflict), and prospects for regional arms races involving suppliers such
as Russia and China.as Russia and China.5762
  Mutual economic benefits. Wider access to markets, technology sharing, and Wider access to markets, technology sharing, and
road or rail infrastructure linking the Gulf with the Mediterranean are some of the road or rail infrastructure linking the Gulf with the Mediterranean are some of the
potential economic benefits of expanded Israel-Arab relations. potential economic benefits of expanded Israel-Arab relations.5863 Gulf states may Gulf states may
feel urgency to attract investment that could help them diversify their fossil-fuel feel urgency to attract investment that could help them diversify their fossil-fuel
export-centered economies, and many regional countries may anticipate the need export-centered economies, and many regional countries may anticipate the need
to boost their appeal as trade and investment partners in light of new to boost their appeal as trade and investment partners in light of new
opportunities amid increased global competition (including between the United opportunities amid increased global competition (including between the United
States and China) for markets, resources, and infrastructure projects. States and China) for markets, resources, and infrastructure projects.
Additional y, UAE sovereign wealth fund Mubadala signed a memorandum of Additional y, UAE sovereign wealth fund Mubadala signed a memorandum of
understanding in April 2021 to purchase a stake in Israel’s Tamar offshore natural understanding in April 2021 to purchase a stake in Israel’s Tamar offshore natural
gas field. Section 1279 of the U.S.-Israel Security Assistance Authorization Act gas field. Section 1279 of the U.S.-Israel Security Assistance Authorization Act
of 2020 (Title XII, Subtitle H of the FY2021 National Defense Authorization Act, of 2020 (Title XII, Subtitle H of the FY2021 National Defense Authorization Act,
P.L. 116-283) authorized the establishment of a program to support Arab-Israeli P.L. 116-283) authorized the establishment of a program to support Arab-Israeli
cooperation on innovation and advanced technologies. cooperation on innovation and advanced technologies.
  Arab public opinion. Arab state leaders considering entering into or maintaining Arab state leaders considering entering into or maintaining
normalization with Israel might gauge whether expected benefits from normalization with Israel might gauge whether expected benefits from
normalization would outweigh concerns about popular criticism or unrest they normalization would outweigh concerns about popular criticism or unrest they
might face for possibly undermining the Palestinian cause. might face for possibly undermining the Palestinian cause.5964 Public opinion polls Public opinion polls
from the past decade suggest relatively unchanging and widespread Arab from the past decade suggest relatively unchanging and widespread Arab
opposition to diplomatic recognition of Israel.opposition to diplomatic recognition of Israel.6065 Normalization efforts to date Normalization efforts to date
have not triggered significant unrest, but outside insight is limited into public have not triggered significant unrest, but outside insight is limited into public
opinion, its drivers, and how popular reactions are shaped by the nature of opinion, its drivers, and how popular reactions are shaped by the nature of
authoritarian Arab regimes. It is unclear whether Gulf populations with no direct authoritarian Arab regimes. It is unclear whether Gulf populations with no direct
history of armed conflict with Israel might be more wil ing to accept pragmatic history of armed conflict with Israel might be more wil ing to accept pragmatic
cooperation with Israel than those in Egypt, Jordan, and other countries who have cooperation with Israel than those in Egypt, Jordan, and other countries who have
fought Israel in the past. fought Israel in the past.
The above factors could influence future Saudi decisions on normalization with Israel. Some key The above factors could influence future Saudi decisions on normalization with Israel. Some key
Saudi figures—possibly including Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman—may be wil ing to Saudi figures—possibly including Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman—may be wil ing to
drop or ease preconditions for Saudi-Israel normalization that relate to the Israeli-Palestinian drop or ease preconditions for Saudi-Israel normalization that relate to the Israeli-Palestinian
peace process. Specific incentives to do so could include heightened regional cooperation on Iran, peace process. Specific incentives to do so could include heightened regional cooperation on Iran,

5762 CRS Report R46580, CRS Report R46580, Israel’s Qualitative Military Edge and Possible U.S. Arms Sales to the United Arab Emirates, ,
coordinated by Jeremy M. Sharp and Jim Zanotti. coordinated by Jeremy M. Sharp and Jim Zanotti.
5863 T he Israel-UAE treaty signed in September 2020 says, “ Recognizing also their shared goal to advance regional T he Israel-UAE treaty signed in September 2020 says, “ Recognizing also their shared goal to advance regional
economic development and the flow of goods and services, the Parties shall endeavor to economic development and the flow of goods and services, the Parties shall endeavor to ~~promote~~promo te collaborations on collaborations on
strategic regional infrastructure projects and shall explore the establishment of a mult ilateral working group for the strategic regional infrastructure projects and shall explore the establishment of a mult ilateral working group for the
‘T racks for Regional Peace’ project.” T he Israeli foreign ministry released a proposal for this project, a rail line from ‘T racks for Regional Peace’ project.” T he Israeli foreign ministry released a proposal for this project, a rail line from
Israel to Saudi Arabia and the UAE via the West Bank and Jordan, in August 2019. A major part of its appeal would be Israel to Saudi Arabia and the UAE via the West Bank and Jordan, in August 2019. A major part of its appeal would be
allowing the participant countries to bypass the two major allowing the participant countries to bypass the two major ~~chokepo ints~~chokepoints of the Strait of Hormuz (Persian Gulf) and Bab of the Strait of Hormuz (Persian Gulf) and Bab
al-Mandab (Red Sea). See Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, T racks for regional peaceal-Mandab (Red Sea). See Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, T racks for regional peace - —regional landregional land bridge and hub bridge and hub
initiative, August 5, 2019. initiative, August 5, 2019.
5964 See, for example, Jared Malsin and Amira al-Fekki, “Egypt’s ‘Cold Peace’ a Harbinger for Region,” See, for example, Jared Malsin and Amira al-Fekki, “Egypt’s ‘Cold Peace’ a Harbinger for Region,” Wall Street
Journal, December 17, 2020. , December 17, 2020.
6065 Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, The 2019-2020 Arab Opinion Index: Main Results in Brief, Figure 88, , Figure 88,
available at https://www.dohainstitute.org/en/Lists/ACRPS-PDFDocumentLibrary/Arab-Opinion-Index-2019-2020-available at https://www.dohainstitute.org/en/Lists/ACRPS-PDFDocumentLibrary/Arab-Opinion-Index-2019-2020-
Inbreef-English-Version.pdf. Inbreef-English-Version.pdf.
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U.S. offers of advanced arms, prospects to boost Saudi economic diversification, and greater U.S. offers of advanced arms, prospects to boost Saudi economic diversification, and greater
Saudi influence over Muslim holy sites in Jerusalem. Saudi influence over Muslim holy sites in Jerusalem.6166
The Biden Administration and 117th Congress
The Biden Administration has said that it seeks to help Israel normalize its relations with Arab The Biden Administration has said that it seeks to help Israel normalize its relations with Arab
states in ways that preserve the viability of a negotiated two-state solution to the Israeli-states in ways that preserve the viability of a negotiated two-state solution to the Israeli-
Palestinian conflictPalestinian conflict, and it has not reversed steps that the Trump Administration took in apparent connection with Israel’s 2020 agreements with the UAE, Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco. In the ~~. In the~~ 117th Congress, companion bil s encouraging Israel-Arab state 117th Congress, companion bil s encouraging Israel-Arab state
~~normalization~~ normalization have been introduced in the Senate in March 2021 (S. 1061) and House in Aprilhave been introduced in the Senate in March 2021 (S. 1061) and House in April
(H.R. 2748). While the Administration briefly paused the UAE(H.R. 2748). While the Administration briefly paused the UAE arms sales described above, it arms sales described above, it
announced in Aprilannounced in April that the sales would proceed.that the sales would proceed.6267 In the same month, the Administration In the same month, the Administration
announced a resumption of economic, humanitarian, and non-lethal security assistance to the announced a resumption of economic, humanitarian, and non-lethal security assistance to the
Palestinians at a level somewhat Palestinians at a level somewhat lower than previously provided, perhaps partly owing to some lower than previously provided, perhaps partly owing to some
legal constraints on U.S. economic aid that are linked to PLO/PA welfare payments that arguably legal constraints on U.S. economic aid that are linked to PLO/PA welfare payments that arguably
incentivize acts of terror.incentivize acts of terror.6368 As part of the FY2021 Consolidated Appropriations Act enacted in As part of the FY2021 Consolidated Appropriations Act enacted in
December 2020, the Nita M. Lowey Middle East Partnership for Peace Act of 2020 (Title VIII of December 2020, the Nita M. Lowey Middle East Partnership for Peace Act of 2020 (Title VIII of
P.L. 116-260) authorized the future establishment of a fund to support Israeli-Palestinian dialogue P.L. 116-260) authorized the future establishment of a fund to support Israeli-Palestinian dialogue
and reconciliation programs, and and reconciliation programs, and an initiativean initiative to promote Israeli-Palestinian economic to promote Israeli-Palestinian economic
cooperation. cooperation.
It is uncertain how the Biden Administration’s resumption of U.S. aid for Palestinians and its It is uncertain how the Biden Administration’s resumption of U.S. aid for Palestinians and its
other policies might affect Israeli-Palestinian issues broadly. Reports suggest that the other policies might affect Israeli-Palestinian issues broadly. Reports suggest that the
Administration may not urgently press Israelis and Palestinians to resume direct negotiations.Administration may not urgently press Israelis and Palestinians to resume direct negotiations.6469 It It
is also unclear whether the Administration wil reverse Trump-era actions affecting U.S.-is also unclear whether the Administration wil reverse Trump-era actions affecting U.S.-
Palestinian diplomacy and the status of Israeli settlements in the West Bank. Palestinian diplomacy and the status of Israeli settlements in the West Bank.
International public debate has taken place over al eged Israeli human rights violations against International public debate has taken place over al eged Israeli human rights violations against
Palestinians. International Criminal Court Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda announced in March that Palestinians. International Criminal Court Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda announced in March that
she was opening an investigation into possible crimes in the West Bank and Gaza.she was opening an investigation into possible crimes in the West Bank and Gaza.6570 Additional y, Additional y,
in April a bil was introduced in the House (H.R. 2590) that would not reduce or condition the in April a bil was introduced in the House (H.R. 2590) that would not reduce or condition the
amount of U.S. aid provided to Israel, but could place limits on its use in relation to some of those amount of U.S. aid provided to Israel, but could place limits on its use in relation to some of those
human rights al egations.human rights al egations.6671 Later in April, 330 Representatives wrote a letter to the Later in April, 330 Representatives wrote a letter to the ~~Chair and~~
~~Ranking Member~~chair and ranking member of the House Appropriations Committee arguing against reducing funding or of the House Appropriations Committee arguing against reducing funding or

6166 Guzansky, “Saudi Arabia and Normalization with Israel.” Guzansky, “Saudi Arabia and Normalization with Israel.”
6267 Jacob Magid, “ Biden aide on UAE F-35 sale: Only Israel was meant to have those jets in region,” Jacob Magid, “ Biden aide on UAE F-35 sale: Only Israel was meant to have those jets in region,” Times of Israel, ,
November 1, 2020. For background on various issues at play, see CRS Report R46580, November 1, 2020. For background on various issues at play, see CRS Report R46580, Israel’s Qualitative Military
Edge and Possible U.S. Arm s Sales to the United Arab Em irates, coordinated by Jeremy M. Sharp and Jim Zanotti. , coordinated by Jeremy M. Sharp and Jim Zanotti.
6368 CRS In Focus IF10644, CRS In Focus IF10644, The Palestinians: Overview and Key Issues for U.S. Policy, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
6469 Jacob Magid, “ Biden hopes to deprioritize Israel-Palestinian conflict but might not be able to,” Jacob Magid, “ Biden hopes to deprioritize Israel-Palestinian conflict but might not be able to,” Times of Israel, ,
December 11, 2020. December 11, 2020.
6570 CRS Report RL34074, CRS Report RL34074, The Palestinians: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
6671 “Human Rights Watch accuses Israel of apartheid over treatment of Palestinians,” “Human Rights Watch accuses Israel of apartheid over treatment of Palestinians,” Associated Press, April 27, 2021 , April 27, 2021
(underlying Human Rights Watch report available at https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/27/threshold-crossed/israeli-(underlying Human Rights Watch report available at https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/27/threshold-crossed/israeli-
authorities-and-crimes-apartheid-and-persecution, with the State Department’s 2020 Country Report on Human Rights authorities-and-crimes-apartheid-and-persecution, with the State Department’s 2020 Country Report on Human Rights
Practices: Israel, West Bank and Gaza available at https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-Practices: Israel, West Bank and Gaza available at https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-
rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/). rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/).
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adding conditions on security assistance to Israel, adding conditions on security assistance to Israel,6772 citing a similar argument that President Biden citing a similar argument that President Biden
made during the 2020 presidential race. made during the 2020 presidential race.6873 As discussed above (see “U.S. Policy Considerations and Proposed Arms Sale”), amid May 2021 Israel-Gaza violence some Members have opposed or sought further consultation from the Biden Administration about a proposed $735 mil ion commercial y licensed sale of precision-guided munitions to Israel.74 On May 19, nine House Members introduced a joint resolution of disapproval to block the export, and Senator Bernie Sanders introduced a counterpart joint resolution in the Senate on May 20.75
Iran and the Region
Israeli officials cite Iran as one of their primary concerns, largely because of (1) antipathy toward Israeli officials cite Iran as one of their primary concerns, largely because of (1) antipathy toward
Israel expressed by Iran’s revolutionary regime, (2) Iran’s broad regional influence (especial y in Israel expressed by Iran’s revolutionary regime, (2) Iran’s broad regional influence (especial y in
Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon),Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon),6976 and (3) Iran’s nuclear and missile programs and advanced and (3) Iran’s nuclear and missile programs and advanced
conventional weapons capabilities. Israeli observers who anticipate the possibility of a future war conventional weapons capabilities. Israeli observers who anticipate the possibility of a future war
similar or greater in magnitude to Israel’s 2006 war against Lebanese Hezbollah refer to the similar or greater in magnitude to Israel’s 2006 war against Lebanese Hezbollah refer to the
smal -scale militarysmal -scale military skirmishes or covert actions since then involving Israel, Iran, or their al ies as skirmishes or covert actions since then involving Israel, Iran, or their al ies as
the “the campaign between wars.” the “the campaign between wars.”7077
Iranian Nuclear Issue and Regional Tensions
Prime Minister Netanyahu has sought to influence U.S. decisions on the international agreement Prime Minister Netanyahu has sought to influence U.S. decisions on the international agreement
on Iran’s nuclear program (known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or JCPOA). He on Iran’s nuclear program (known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or JCPOA). He
opposed the JCPOA in 2015 when it was negotiated by the Obama Administration, and welcomed opposed the JCPOA in 2015 when it was negotiated by the Obama Administration, and welcomed
President Trump’s May 2018 withdrawal of the United States from the JCPOA and President Trump’s May 2018 withdrawal of the United States from the JCPOA and
accompanying reimposition of U.S. sanctions on Iran’s core economic sectors. Facing the accompanying reimposition of U.S. sanctions on Iran’s core economic sectors. Facing the
intensified U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its compliance with the 2015 agreement. intensified U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its compliance with the 2015 agreement.
U.S.-Iran tensions since the U.S. withdrawal from the JCPOA have led to greater regional U.S.-Iran tensions since the U.S. withdrawal from the JCPOA have led to greater regional
uncertainty, with implications for Israel.uncertainty, with implications for Israel.7178 Some Israelis have voiced worries about how Iran’s Some Israelis have voiced worries about how Iran’s
demonstrated ability in 2019 to penetrate Saudi air defenses and target Saudi oil facilities could demonstrated ability in 2019 to penetrate Saudi air defenses and target Saudi oil facilities could
transfer to efforts in targeting Israel.transfer to efforts in targeting Israel.7279 In January 2021, one source claimed there was evidence In January 2021, one source claimed there was evidence
that Iran has transferred advanced drones (loitering munitions) capable of targeting Israel or Arab that Iran has transferred advanced drones (loitering munitions) capable of targeting Israel or Arab
Gulf states to the Iran-supported Houthi movement in Yemen.Gulf states to the Iran-supported Houthi movement in Yemen.7380 Additional y, reported low-level 72 T ext of letter available at https://teddeutch.house.gov/uploadedfiles/2021.04.21_mou_letter_delauro_granger_signed.pdf. 73 Omri Nahmias, “ Biden: Israeli threats of annexation choke off hope of peace,” jpost.com, May 20, 2020. 74 State Department notification to congressional committees of jurisdiction; Jacqueline Alemany et al., “ Biden administration’s $735 million weapons sale to Israel faces scrutin y,” Washington Post, May 18, 2021; Bryant Harris, “Democratic leaders seek to quell pro-Palestinian uprising in US Congress,” The National (UAE), May 20, 2021. 75 See footnote 29. 76 ~~Additional y, reported low-level~~
~~Israel-Iran conflict in various settings—cyberspace, international waters, and the territory of other~~
~~regional countries—has further exacerbated regional tensions.74~~
~~As the Biden Administration engages in international diplomacy to consider possibly reentering~~
~~the JCPOA, Israel—with Prime Minister Netanyahu and other key figures opposing such a U.S.~~
~~reentry—is one of several regional U.S. partners voicing interest in having its views taken into~~
~~account.75 Some observers speculate that Israeli covert or military operations might influence or~~

~~67 T ext of letter available at~~
~~https://teddeutch.house.gov/uploadedfiles/2021.04.21_mou_letter_delauro_granger_signed.pdf .~~
~~68 Omri Nahmias, “ Biden: Israeli threats of annexation choke off hope of peace,” jpost.com, May 20, 2020.~~
69 For information on this topic, see CRS Report R44017, For information on this topic, see CRS Report R44017, Iran’s Foreign and Defense Policies, by Kenneth Katzman. , by Kenneth Katzman.
7077 See, for example, Efraim Inbar, “Iran and Israel: T he See, for example, Efraim Inbar, “Iran and Israel: T he ~~Inevitable~~Inevit able War?” Jerusalem Institute for Strategy and Security, War?” Jerusalem Institute for Strategy and Security,
January 6, 2021. January 6, 2021.
7178 See, for example, CRS Report R45795, See, for example, CRS Report R45795, U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman, , by Kenneth Katzman,
Kathleen J. McInnis, and Clayton T homas. Kathleen J. McInnis, and Clayton T homas.
7279 Uzi Even, “Iran Attack on Saudi Arabia Shows Why Israel Must Shut Down Its Nuclear Reactor,” haaretz.com, Uzi Even, “Iran Attack on Saudi Arabia Shows Why Israel Must Shut Down Its Nuclear Reactor,” haaretz.com,
October 6, 2019. October 6, 2019.
73 80 T om O’Connor, “Exclusive: Iran Positions ‘Suicide Drones’ in Yemen as Red Sea T ensions Rise,” T om O’Connor, “Exclusive: Iran Positions ‘Suicide Drones’ in Yemen as Red Sea T ensions Rise,” Newsweek,
January 13, 2021. January 13, 2021.
~~74 “Fighting in the Shadows: Israel and Iran,” Soufan Center, March 30, 2021; Dalia Dassa Kaye, “ Has Israel been~~
~~sabotaging Iran? Here’s what we know,” washingtonpost.com, July 15, 2020.~~
~~75 See also Yaniv Kubovich and Judy Maltz, “Israel’s Chief of Staff: Return to Iran Deal Is ‘Wrong,’ Military Action~~
~~‘Should Be on the T able,’” haaretz.com, January 27, 2021.~~
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~~disrupt diplomacy on the nuclear issue.76~~Congressional Research Service 16 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief Israel-Iran conflict in various settings—cyberspace, international waters, and the territory of other regional countries—has further exacerbated regional tensions.81 As the Biden Administration engages in international diplomacy to consider possibly reentering the JCPOA, Israel—with Prime Minister Netanyahu and other key figures opposing such a U.S. reentry—is one of several regional U.S. partners voicing interest in having its views taken into account.82 Some observers speculate that Israeli covert or military operations might influence or disrupt diplomacy on the nuclear issue.83 An April 2021 explosion and power outage—widely An April 2021 explosion and power outage—widely
attributed to Israel—that reportedly disabled thousands of centrifuges at Iran’s Natanz uranium attributed to Israel—that reportedly disabled thousands of centrifuges at Iran’s Natanz uranium
enrichment facility led Iran to begin enriching uranium to 60 percent purity, closer to weapons-enrichment facility led Iran to begin enriching uranium to 60 percent purity, closer to weapons-
grade levels. grade levels.7784
Hezbollah
Lebanese Hezbollah is Iran’s closest and most powerful non-state al y in the region. Hezbollah’s Lebanese Hezbollah is Iran’s closest and most powerful non-state al y in the region. Hezbollah’s
forces and Israel’s military have sporadical y clashed near the Lebanese border for decades—with forces and Israel’s military have sporadical y clashed near the Lebanese border for decades—with
the antagonism at times contained in the border area, and at times escalating into broader the antagonism at times contained in the border area, and at times escalating into broader
conflict.conflict.7885 Speculation persists about the potential for wider conflict and its regional Speculation persists about the potential for wider conflict and its regional
implications.implications.7986 Israeli officials have sought to draw attention to Hezbollah’s buildup of mostly Israeli officials have sought to draw attention to Hezbollah’s buildup of mostly
Iran-supplied weapons—including reported upgrades to the range, precision, and power of its Iran-supplied weapons—including reported upgrades to the range, precision, and power of its
projectiles—and its al eged use of Lebanese civilian areas as strongholds. projectiles—and its al eged use of Lebanese civilian areas as strongholds.8087
Ongoing tension between Israel and Iran raises questions about the potential for Israel-Hezbollah Ongoing tension between Israel and Iran raises questions about the potential for Israel-Hezbollah
conflict. Various sources have referenced possible Iran-backed Hezbollah attempts to build conflict. Various sources have referenced possible Iran-backed Hezbollah attempts to build
precision-weapons factories in Lebanon.precision-weapons factories in Lebanon.8188 Some reports assess that Hezbollah does not want Some reports assess that Hezbollah does not want
escalation, partly due to significant political and economic problems in Lebanon, but do not rule escalation, partly due to significant political and economic problems in Lebanon, but do not rule
out the potential for heightened conflict owing to miscalculation between Hezbollah and Israel. out the potential for heightened conflict owing to miscalculation between Hezbollah and Israel.82
~~China: Investments in Israel and U.S. Concerns83~~
~~U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over burgeoning Chinese investments in~~
~~Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure.84 Israel-China investment ties have grown~~
~~since China announced its Belt and Road Initiative in 2013,85 with Israel as an attractive hub of~~

7689 81 “Fighting in the Shadows: Israel and Iran,” Soufan Center, March 30, 2021; Dalia Dassa Kaye, “ Has Israel been sabotaging Iran? Here’s what we know,” washingtonpost.com, July 15, 2020. 82 See also Yaniv Kubovich and Judy Maltz, “Israel’s Chief of Staff: Return to Iran Deal Is ‘Wrong,’ Military Action ‘Should Be on the T able,’” haaretz.com, January 27, 2021. 83 Daniel C. Kurtzer, Aaron David Miller, and Steven N. Simon, “ Israel and Iran Are Pulling the United States T oward Daniel C. Kurtzer, Aaron David Miller, and Steven N. Simon, “ Israel and Iran Are Pulling the United States T oward
ConflictConflict ,” foreignaffairs.com, April 26, 2021; Efraim Inbar and Eran Lerman, “ T he ramifications of a US return to the ,” foreignaffairs.com, April 26, 2021; Efraim Inbar and Eran Lerman, “ T he ramifications of a US return to the
2015 Iran deal2015 Iran deal - —opinion,” jpost.com, April 28, 2021. opinion,” jpost.com, April 28, 2021.
7784 “Iran Begins 60 Percent Uranium Enrichment After Natanz Attack, Top Negotiator Says,” haaretz.com (with content “Iran Begins 60 Percent Uranium Enrichment After Natanz Attack, Top Negotiator Says,” haaretz.com (with content
from from Associated Press and and Reuters), April 13, 2021. ), April 13, 2021.
7885 CRS Report R44759, CRS Report R44759, Lebanon, by Carla E. Humud; CRS In Focus IF10703, , by Carla E. Humud; CRS In Focus IF10703, Lebanese Hezbollah, by Carla E. , by Carla E.
Humud. Humud.
79 86 For possible conflict scenarios, see Nicholas Blanford and Assaf Orion, For possible conflict scenarios, see Nicholas Blanford and Assaf Orion, Counting the cost: Avoiding another war
between Israel and Hezbollah, , Atlantic Council, May 13, 2020; Hanin Ghaddar, “ How Will Hezbollah Respond to , May 13, 2020; Hanin Ghaddar, “ How Will Hezbollah Respond to
Israel’s Drone Attack?” Israel’s Drone Attack?” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Policywatch 3171, August 28, 2019. , Policywatch 3171, August 28, 2019.
8087 See, for example, “ Hezbollah says it has doubled its arsenal of guided missiles,” See, for example, “ Hezbollah says it has doubled its arsenal of guided missiles,” Associated Press, December 28, December 28,
2020; Ben Hubbard and Ronen Bergman, “ Who Warns Hezbollah T hat Israeli Strikes Are Coming? Israel,” 2020; Ben Hubbard and Ronen Bergman, “ Who Warns Hezbollah T hat Israeli Strikes Are Coming? Israel,” New York
Tim es, April 23, 2020. , April 23, 2020.
81 88 “Hezbollah says it has doubled its arsenal of guided missiles,” “Hezbollah says it has doubled its arsenal of guided missiles,” Associated Press; Ben Caspit, “ Hezbollah, Israel ; Ben Caspit, “ Hezbollah, Israel
losing red lines,” losing red lines,” Al-Monitor, September 4, 2019. , September 4, 2019.
8289 See, for example, Amos Harel, “ For Hezbollah, Beirut Devastation Makes Provoking Israel Even Riskier,” See, for example, Amos Harel, “ For Hezbollah, Beirut Devastation Makes Provoking Israel Even Riskier,”
haaretz.com, August 6, 2020. haaretz.com, August 6, 2020.
~~83 For background on past U.S. concerns regarding Israeli defense transactions with China, see CRS Report RL33476,~~
Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti; CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy
~~M. Sharp.~~
~~84 Shira Efron et al.,~~ ~~Chinese Investment in Israeli Technology and Infrastructure: Security Implications for Israel and~~
~~the United States, RAND Corporation, 2020; Shira Efron, et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, RAND~~
~~Corporation, 2019; Jewish Institute for National Security of America,~~ ~~Countering Chinese Engagem ent with Israel: A~~
~~Com prehensive and Cooperative U.S.-Israeli Strategy, February 2021.~~
~~85 For more information on the Belt and Road Initiative, see CRS Report R45898, U.S.-China Relations, coordinated by~~
~~Susan V. Lawrence.~~
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Congressional Research Service 17 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief China: Investments in Israel and U.S. Concerns90 U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over burgeoning Chinese investments in Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure.91 Israel-China investment ties have grown since China announced its Belt and Road Initiative in 2013,92 with Israel as an attractive hub of
innovation for Chinese partners, and China as a huge potential export market and source of innovation for Chinese partners, and China as a huge potential export market and source of
investment for Israeli businesses. investment for Israeli businesses.
Closer Israel-China economic relations have led to official U.S. expressions of concern, Closer Israel-China economic relations have led to official U.S. expressions of concern,8693
apparently focused on the possibility that China might gather intel igence or acquire technologies apparently focused on the possibility that China might gather intel igence or acquire technologies
with the potential to threaten U.S. national security in such fields as cybersecurity, artificial with the potential to threaten U.S. national security in such fields as cybersecurity, artificial
intel igence, satel ite communications, and robotics. Previously, China-Israel defense industry intel igence, satel ite communications, and robotics. Previously, China-Israel defense industry
cooperation in the 1990s and 2000s contributed to tension in the U.S.-Israel defense relationship cooperation in the 1990s and 2000s contributed to tension in the U.S.-Israel defense relationship
and to an apparent de facto U.S. veto over Israeli arms sales to China.and to an apparent de facto U.S. veto over Israeli arms sales to China.8794 Partly due to U.S. Partly due to U.S.
concerns regarding China’s involvement in Israel’s economy, Israel created an advisory panel on concerns regarding China’s involvement in Israel’s economy, Israel created an advisory panel on
foreign investment in Israel in late 2019.foreign investment in Israel in late 2019.8895 However, this panel reportedly does not have the However, this panel reportedly does not have the
authority to review investments in sectors such as high-tech that accounted for most of China’s authority to review investments in sectors such as high-tech that accounted for most of China’s
investments in Israel in the previous decade.investments in Israel in the previous decade.8996 Apparently, debate continues within Israel’s Apparently, debate continues within Israel’s
government about how to balance economic interests with national security concerns. government about how to balance economic interests with national security concerns.9097
In the past two years, U.S. officials have made notable efforts to discourage Chinese involvement In the past two years, U.S. officials have made notable efforts to discourage Chinese involvement
in specific Israeli infrastructure projects. President Trump reportedly warned Prime Minister in specific Israeli infrastructure projects. President Trump reportedly warned Prime Minister
Netanyahu in March 2019 that U.S. security assistance for and cooperation with Israel could be Netanyahu in March 2019 that U.S. security assistance for and cooperation with Israel could be
limited if Chinese companies Huawei and ZTE establish a 5G communications network in Israel, limited if Chinese companies Huawei and ZTE establish a 5G communications network in Israel,
in line with similar warnings that the Administration communicated to other U.S. al ies and in line with similar warnings that the Administration communicated to other U.S. al ies and
partners.partners.9198 Two Israeli analysts wrote in March 2020 that Israeli officials reportedly blocked Two Israeli analysts wrote in March 2020 that Israeli officials reportedly blocked
Chinese companies from working on Israeli communications infrastructure.Chinese companies from working on Israeli communications infrastructure.9299 In May 2020, In May 2020,
shortly after then-Secretary of State Michael Pompeo visited Israel and voiced concern that shortly after then-Secretary of State Michael Pompeo visited Israel and voiced concern that
Chinese access to Israeli infrastructure could complicate U.S.-Israel cooperation, Israel’s finance Chinese access to Israeli infrastructure could complicate U.S.-Israel cooperation, Israel’s finance
~~ministry chose a domestic contractor to construct a $1.5 bil ion desalination plant, turning down~~
~~the bid from a subsidiary of the Hong Kong-based CK Hutchison Group.93~~
~~Additional y, the U.S. Navy reportedly reconsidered its practice of periodical y docking at the~~
~~Israeli naval base in Haifa, because a state-owned Chinese company (the Shanghai International~~
~~Port Group) secured the contract to operate a new terminal at Haifa’s seaport for 25 years~~
~~(beginning in 2021).94 In the conference report (H.Rept. 116-333) accompanying the FY2020~~
~~National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 116-92), Congress recommended that the U.S.~~
~~government “convey to the Government of Israel the serious security concerns with respect to the~~
~~leasing arrangements of the Port of Haifa, and urge consideration of the security implications of~~
~~such foreign investment in Israel.” Other state-owned Chinese companies are developing a new~~

86 90 For background on past U.S. concerns regarding Israeli defense transactions with China, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti; CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp. 91 Shira Efron et al., Chinese Investment in Israeli Technology and Infrastructure: Security Implications for Israel and the United States, RAND Corporation, 2020; Shira Efron, et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, RAND Corporation, 2019; Jewish Institute for National Securit y of America, Countering Chinese Engagem ent with Israel: A Com prehensive and Cooperative U.S.-Israeli Strategy, February 2021. 92 For more information on the Belt and Road Initiative, see CRS Report R45898, U.S.-China Relations, coordinated by Susan V. Lawrence. 93 Ron Kampeas, “ Breaking China: A rupture looms between Israel and the United States,” Ron Kampeas, “ Breaking China: A rupture looms between Israel and the United States,” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, ,
June 2, 2020. June 2, 2020.
8794 Efron et al., Efron et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, 2019, pp. 15-20. , 2019, pp. 15-20.
8895 Arie Egozi, “ Israelis Create Foreign Investment Overseer; China T argeted,” Breaking Defense, November 13, 2019. Arie Egozi, “ Israelis Create Foreign Investment Overseer; China T argeted,” Breaking Defense, November 13, 2019.
8996 Efron et al., Efron et al., Chinese Investment in Israeli Technology,, 2020, pp. 24-25. 2020, pp. 24-25.
9097 James M. Dorsey, “ Israel-China Relations: Staring into the Abyss of US-Chinese Decoupling,” James M. Dorsey, “ Israel-China Relations: Staring into the Abyss of US-Chinese Decoupling,” The Globalist, June , June
9, 2020; Mercy A. Kuo, “ US-China-Israel Relations: Pompeo’s Visit ,” 9, 2020; Mercy A. Kuo, “ US-China-Israel Relations: Pompeo’s Visit ,” The Diplomat, May 27, 2020. , May 27, 2020.
9198 Hiddai Segev, Doron Ella, and Assaf Orion, “ My Way or the Huawei? T he United States-China Race for 5G Hiddai Segev, Doron Ella, and Assaf Orion, “ My Way or the Huawei? T he United States-China Race for 5G
Dominance,” Dominance,” Institute for National Security Studies Insight No. 1193, July 15, 2019. Insight No. 1193, July 15, 2019.
92 99 Hiddai Segev and Assaf Orion, “ T he Great Power Competition over 5G Communications: Limited Success for the Hiddai Segev and Assaf Orion, “ T he Great Power Competition over 5G Communications: Limited Success for the
American Campaign against Huawei,” American Campaign against Huawei,” Institute for National Security Studies Insight No. 1268, March 3, 2020. Insight No. 1268, March 3, 2020.
93Congressional Research Service 18 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief ministry chose a domestic contractor to construct a $1.5 bil ion desalination plant, turning down the bid from a subsidiary of the Hong Kong-based CK Hutchison Group.100 Additional y, the U.S. Navy reportedly reconsidered its practice of periodical y docking at the Israeli naval base in Haifa, because a state-owned Chinese company (the Shanghai International Port Group) secured the contract to operate a new terminal at Haifa’s seaport for 25 years (beginning in 2021).101 In the conference report (H.Rept. 116-333) accompanying the FY2020 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 116-92), Congress recommended that the U.S. government “convey to the Government of Israel the serious security concerns with respect to the leasing arrangements of the Port of Haifa, and urge consideration of the security implications of such foreign investment in Israel.” Other state-owned Chinese companies are developing a new port in Ashdod (which also hosts an Israeli naval base), and taking part in construction for Tel Aviv’s light rail system and road tunnels in Haifa.102 100 “Amid US pressure, Israel taps local firm over China for $1.5b desalination plant ,” “Amid US pressure, Israel taps local firm over China for $1.5b desalination plant ,” Times of Israel, May 26, 2020. , May 26, 2020.
94101 Roie Yellinek, “ T he Israel-China-U.S. T riangle and the Haifa Port Project,” Roie Yellinek, “ T he Israel-China-U.S. T riangle and the Haifa Port Project,” Middle East Institute, November 27, , November 27,
2018. Reportedly, the Israeli government plans to limit sensitive roles at the port to Israelis with security clearances. 2018. Reportedly, the Israeli government plans to limit sensitive roles at the port to Israelis with security clearances.
Jack Detsch, “Pentagon repeats warning to Israel on Chinese port deal,” Jack Detsch, “Pentagon repeats warning to Israel on Chinese port deal,” Al-Monitor, August 7, 2019. , August 7, 2019.
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~~port in Ashdod (which also hosts an Israeli naval base), and taking part in construction for Tel~~
~~Aviv’s light rail system and road tunnels in Haifa.95~~

95102 Efron et al., Efron et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, 2019, p. 38. 2019, p. 38.
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Appendix. Israeli Political Parties in the Knesset
and Their Leaders
RIGHT
Likud (Consolidation) – 30 Knesset seats (Consolidation) – 30 Knesset seats
Israel’s historical repository of right-of-center nationalist ideology; skeptical of Israel’s historical repository of right-of-center nationalist ideology; skeptical of
territorial compromise; has also championed free-market policies. territorial compromise; has also championed free-market policies.
Leader: Binyamin Netanyahu
Born in 1949, Netanyahu has served as prime minister since 2009 and also was prime Born in 1949, Netanyahu has served as prime minister since 2009 and also was prime
minister from 1996 to 1999. Netanyahu served in an elite special forces unit (Sayeret minister from 1996 to 1999. Netanyahu served in an elite special forces unit (Sayeret
Matkal), and received his higher education at MIT. Throughout a career in politics and Matkal), and received his higher education at MIT. Throughout a career in politics and
diplomacy, he has been renowned both for his skepticism regarding the exchange of diplomacy, he has been renowned both for his skepticism regarding the exchange of
land for peace with the Palestinians and his desire to counter Iran’s nuclear program land for peace with the Palestinians and his desire to counter Iran’s nuclear program
and regional influence. He is general y regarded as both a consummate political and regional influence. He is general y regarded as both a consummate political
dealmaker and a security-minded nationalist. However, he has negotiated with the dealmaker and a security-minded nationalist. However, he has negotiated with the
Palestinians, and many observers discern cautiousness in Netanyahu’s decisions Palestinians, and many observers discern cautiousness in Netanyahu’s decisions
regarding the nature and scale of military operations. His rhetorical support for more regarding the nature and scale of military operations. His rhetorical support for more
assertive populist and nationalistic measures (including diminishing judicial powers and assertive populist and nationalistic measures (including diminishing judicial powers and
annexing West Bank territory) has increased after criminal al egations surfaced annexing West Bank territory) has increased after criminal al egations surfaced
against him for corruption.against him for corruption.
Yisrael Beitenu (Israel Our Home) – 7 seats (Israel Our Home) – 7 seats
Pro-secular, right-of-center nationalist party with base of support among Russian Pro-secular, right-of-center nationalist party with base of support among Russian
speakers from the former Soviet Union. speakers from the former Soviet Union.
Leader: Avigdor Lieberman
Born in 1958, Lieberman served as Israel’s defense minister until his resignation in Born in 1958, Lieberman served as Israel’s defense minister until his resignation in
November 2018. He served as Israel’s foreign minister for most of the period from November 2018. He served as Israel’s foreign minister for most of the period from
2009 to May 2015 and is general y viewed as an ardent nationalist and canny political 2009 to May 2015 and is general y viewed as an ardent nationalist and canny political
actor with prime ministerial aspirations. Lieberman was born in the Soviet Union (in actor with prime ministerial aspirations. Lieberman was born in the Soviet Union (in
what is now Moldova) and immigrated to Israel in 1978. He worked under Netanyahu what is now Moldova) and immigrated to Israel in 1978. He worked under Netanyahu
from 1988 to 1997. Disil usioned by Netanyahu’s wil ingness to consider concessions from 1988 to 1997. Disil usioned by Netanyahu’s wil ingness to consider concessions
to the Palestinians, Lieberman founded Yisrael Beitenu as a platform for former to the Palestinians, Lieberman founded Yisrael Beitenu as a platform for former
Soviet immigrants. He was acquitted of corruption al egations in a 2013 case. Soviet immigrants. He was acquitted of corruption al egations in a 2013 case.
Yamina (Right) – 7 seats (Right) – 7 seats
Right-of-center merger of three parties: New Right, Jewish Home, and National Right-of-center merger of three parties: New Right, Jewish Home, and National
Union; base of support among religious Zionists (mostly Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews); Union; base of support among religious Zionists (mostly Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews);
includes core constituencies supporting West Bank settlements and annexation. includes core constituencies supporting West Bank settlements and annexation.
Leader: Naftali Bennett
Born in 1972, Bennett served previously as defense, education, and economy Born in 1972, Bennett served previously as defense, education, and economy
minister. He served in various special forces units (including as a reservist during the minister. He served in various special forces units (including as a reservist during the
2006 Hezbol ah conflict in Lebanon). Bennett was a successful software entrepreneur 2006 Hezbol ah conflict in Lebanon). Bennett was a successful software entrepreneur
and has lived in America. He served as Netanyahu’s chief of staff from 2006 to 2008 and has lived in America. He served as Netanyahu’s chief of staff from 2006 to 2008
while Netanyahu was opposition leader. He led the Yesha Council (the umbrel a while Netanyahu was opposition leader. He led the Yesha Council (the umbrel a
organization for Israeli West Bank settlers) fromorganization for Israeli West Bank settlers) from 2010 to 2012. ~~2010 to 2012.~~

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New Hope (Tikva Hadasha) – 6 seats (Tikva Hadasha) – 6 seats
New Hope is a party formed in 2020 as an alternative to Prime Minister Netanyahu New Hope is a party formed in 2020 as an alternative to Prime Minister Netanyahu
and Likud for mainstream right-wing voters. and Likud for mainstream right-wing voters.
Leader: Gideon Sa’ar
Born in 1966, Sa’ar served as cabinet secretary in the 1990s (for Prime Minister Born in 1966, Sa’ar served as cabinet secretary in the 1990s (for Prime Minister
Netanyahu) and early 2000s (for Prime Minister Ariel Sharon). He became an Netanyahu) and early 2000s (for Prime Minister Ariel Sharon). He became an
influential and popular member of Likud, first elected to the Knesset in 2003. He influential and popular member of Likud, first elected to the Knesset in 2003. He
served as education minister from 2009 to 2013 and interior minister from 2013 to served as education minister from 2009 to 2013 and interior minister from 2013 to
2014. After leaving the Knesset in 2014, he returned in 2019 but left Likud to form 2014. After leaving the Knesset in 2014, he returned in 2019 but left Likud to form
New Hope a year later. New Hope a year later.
Congressional Research Service 20 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief Religious Zionism (HaTzionut HaDatit) – 6 seats (HaTzionut HaDatit) – 6 seats
Grouping of right-of-center parties including Religious Zionism/National Union-Grouping of right-of-center parties including Religious Zionism/National Union-
Tkuma, Otzma Yehudit, and Noam that formed for the March 2021elections. Tkuma, Otzma Yehudit, and Noam that formed for the March 2021elections.
Leader: Bezalel Smotrich
Born in 1980, Smotrich has headed the underlying party that leads Religious Zionism Born in 1980, Smotrich has headed the underlying party that leads Religious Zionism
since 2019. A trained lawyer, he has engaged in regular activism to promote Jewish since 2019. A trained lawyer, he has engaged in regular activism to promote Jewish
nationalist and religiously conservative causes. nationalist and religiously conservative causes.

LEFT
Labor (Avoda) – 7 seats (Avoda) – 7 seats
Labor is Israel’s historical repository of social democratic, left-of-center, pro-secular Labor is Israel’s historical repository of social democratic, left-of-center, pro-secular
Zionist ideology; associated with efforts to end Israel’s responsibility for Palestinians Zionist ideology; associated with efforts to end Israel’s responsibility for Palestinians
in the West Bank and Gaza. in the West Bank and Gaza.
Leader: Merav Michaeli
Born in 1966, Michaeli became Labor’s leader in 2020 and was first elected to the Born in 1966, Michaeli became Labor’s leader in 2020 and was first elected to the

Knesset in 2013. Before entering national politics, she founded and headed an Knesset in 2013. Before entering national politics, she founded and headed an
organization that supports victims of sexual assault, and was a regular national media organization that supports victims of sexual assault, and was a regular national media
presence and university lecturer. presence and university lecturer.
Meretz (Vigor) – 6 seats (Vigor) – 6 seats
Meretz is a pro-secular Zionist party that supports initiatives for social justice and Meretz is a pro-secular Zionist party that supports initiatives for social justice and
peace with the Palestinians. peace with the Palestinians.
Leader: Nitzan Horowitz
Born in 1965, Horowitz became Meretz’s leader in 2019 and was first elected to the Born in 1965, Horowitz became Meretz’s leader in 2019 and was first elected to the
Knesset in 2009. He had a long career as a prominent journalist before entering Knesset in 2009. He had a long career as a prominent journalist before entering
politics. politics.

~~Congressional Research Service~~

20

~~Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

CENTER
Yesh Atid (There Is a Future)(There Is a Future) – 17 seats – 17 seats
Yesh Atid is a centrist party in existence since 2012 that has championed Yesh Atid is a centrist party in existence since 2012 that has championed
socioeconomic issues such as cost of living and has taken a pro-secular stance. socioeconomic issues such as cost of living and has taken a pro-secular stance.
Leader: Yair Lapid
Born in 1963, Lapid came to politics after a career as a journalist, television Born in 1963, Lapid came to politics after a career as a journalist, television
presenter, and author. He founded the Yesh Atid party in 2012, and from 2013 to presenter, and author. He founded the Yesh Atid party in 2012, and from 2013 to
2014 he served as finance minister. 2014 he served as finance minister.
Kahol Lavan (Blue and White) – 8 seats (Blue and White) – 8 seats
Centrist party formed in 2018 as an alternative to Prime Minister Netanyahu, Centrist party formed in 2018 as an alternative to Prime Minister Netanyahu,
ostensibly seeking to preserve long-standing Israeli institutions such as the judiciary, ostensibly seeking to preserve long-standing Israeli institutions such as the judiciary,
articulate a vision of Israeli nationalism that is more inclusive of Druze and Arab articulate a vision of Israeli nationalism that is more inclusive of Druze and Arab
citizens, and have greater sensitivity to international opinion on Israeli-Palestinian citizens, and have greater sensitivity to international opinion on Israeli-Palestinian
issues. issues.

Leader: Benny Gantz
Born in 1959, Gantz is Israel’s defense minister, justice minister, and alternate prime Born in 1959, Gantz is Israel’s defense minister, justice minister, and alternate prime
minister, and could become prime minister by November 2021 under a power-minister, and could become prime minister by November 2021 under a power-
sharing agreement with Netanyahu. He served as Chief of General Staff of the Israel sharing agreement with Netanyahu. He served as Chief of General Staff of the Israel
Defense Forces from 2011 to 2015.Defense Forces from 2011 to 2015.
Congressional Research Service 21 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief ULTRA-ORTHODOX
Shas (Sephardic Torah Guardians) – 9 seats (Sephardic Torah Guardians) – 9 seats
Mizrahi Haredi (“ultra-Orthodox”) party; favors welfare and education funds in Mizrahi Haredi (“ultra-Orthodox”) party; favors welfare and education funds in
support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes compromise with Palestinians on control over support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes compromise with Palestinians on control over
Jerusalem. Jerusalem.
Leader: Aryeh Deri
Born in 1959, Deri is Israel’s interior minister and minister for Negev and Galilee Born in 1959, Deri is Israel’s interior minister and minister for Negev and Galilee
development. He led Shas from 1983 to 1999 before being convicted for bribery, development. He led Shas from 1983 to 1999 before being convicted for bribery,
fraud, and breach of trust in 1999 for actions taken while serving as interior minister. fraud, and breach of trust in 1999 for actions taken while serving as interior minister.
He returned as the party’s leader in 2013. In April 2021, he al owed a party col eague He returned as the party’s leader in 2013. In April 2021, he al owed a party col eague
to take his Knesset seat. to take his Knesset seat.

United Torah Judaism – 7 seats – 7 seats
Ashkenazi Haredi coalition (Agudat Yisrael and Degel Ha’torah); favors welfare and Ashkenazi Haredi coalition (Agudat Yisrael and Degel Ha’torah); favors welfare and
education funds in support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes territorial compromise with education funds in support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes territorial compromise with
Palestinians and conscription of Haredim; general y seeks greater application of Jewish Palestinians and conscription of Haredim; general y seeks greater application of Jewish
law. law.
Leader: Yaakov Litzman
Born in 1948, Litzman is Israel’s construction and housing minister. He was born in Born in 1948, Litzman is Israel’s construction and housing minister. He was born in
Germany and raised in the United States before immigrating to Israel in 1965. Germany and raised in the United States before immigrating to Israel in 1965.
Educated in yeshivas (traditional Jewish schools), he later served as principal of a Educated in yeshivas (traditional Jewish schools), he later served as principal of a
Hasidic girls’ school in Jerusalem. In April 2021, he alowed a party coleague to take Hasidic girls’ school in Jerusalem. In April 2021, he alowed a party coleague to take
his Knesset seat. his Knesset seat.

~~Congressional Research Service~~

21

~~Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

ARAB
Joint List – 6 seats – 6 seats
Electoral slate featuring three Arab parties that combine socialist and Arab nationalist Electoral slate featuring three Arab parties that combine socialist and Arab nationalist
political strains: Hadashpolitical strains: Hadash (Democratic Front for Peace and Equality), Ta’al (Arab (Democratic Front for Peace and Equality), Ta’al (Arab
Movement for Renewal), BaladMovement for Renewal), Balad (National Democratic Assembly). (National Democratic Assembly).
Leader: Ayman Odeh
Born in 1975, Odeh is the leader of Hadash, an Arab Israeli socialist party, and of the Born in 1975, Odeh is the leader of Hadash, an Arab Israeli socialist party, and of the
Joint List. An attorney, he served on the Haifa city council before becoming Hadash’s Joint List. An attorney, he served on the Haifa city council before becoming Hadash’s
national leader in 2006. national leader in 2006.

United Arab List (UAL or Ra’am)(UAL or Ra’am) – 4 seats – 4 seats
Islamist Arab party that embodies conservative social values while seeking state Islamist Arab party that embodies conservative social values while seeking state
support to improve Arabs’ socioeconomic position within Israel. support to improve Arabs’ socioeconomic position within Israel.
Leader: Mansour Abbas
Born in 1974, Abbas has led the UAL since 2007 and is a qualified dentist. Born in 1974, Abbas has led the UAL since 2007 and is a qualified dentist.

Sources: Various open sources. Various open sources.
Note: Knesset seat numbers based on results from the March 23, 2021, election. Knesset seat numbers based on results from the March 23, 2021, election.

Congressional Research Service 22 Israel: May 2021 Violence, Other Background, and U.S. Relations in Brief
Author Information

Jim Zanotti Jim Zanotti

Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs

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