Israel: Major Issues and U.S. Relations

Changes from August 10, 2020 to September 11, 2020

This page shows textual changes in the document between the two versions indicated in the dates above. Textual matter removed in the later version is indicated with ~~red strikethrough~~ and textual matter added in the later version is indicated with blue.

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief
~~August 10~~September 11, 2020 , 2020
The following matters are of particular significance to U.S.-Israel relations. The following matters are of particular significance to U.S.-Israel relations.
Jim Zanotti
Domestic political and economic challenges (including COVID-19). A second wave A second wave
Specialist in Middle Specialist in Middle
of of ~~coronavirus disease~~Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Israel, combined with other factors, has 2019 (COVID-19) in Israel, combined with other factors, has
Eastern Affairs Eastern Affairs
contributed to domestic political and economic challenges. In contributed to domestic political and economic challenges. In ~~this context, Prime~~

~~Minister Binyamin Netanyahu’s approval ratings have suffered, amid questions about~~
~~the survival of the government that took office in May 2020 based on a power-sharing~~

~~agreement between Netanyahu of the Likud party and his main political rival, Defense~~
~~Minister (and Alternate Prime Minister) Benny Gantz of the Kahol Lavan (Blue and White) party. The~~
~~government could dissolve if the Knesset (parliament) does not meet an August 25 deadline to pass a budget for~~
~~2020.~~
~~In July, popular protests against Netanyahu and government policies—connected to the domestic challenges~~
~~mentioned above~~July, popular protests against Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu and government policies swelled in connection with these domestic challenges and the ongoing criminal trial against and the ongoing criminal trial against Netanyahu on corruption chargesNetanyahu on corruption charges~~—swelled, resulting in~~
~~some violent incidents and debates about who is culpable for those incidents. Despite Netanyahu’s lower approval~~
~~ratings~~. Nevertheless, polls suggest that , polls suggest that ~~his~~Netanyahu’s Likud party would remain the largest party in the Knesset if new elections were Likud party would remain the largest party in the Knesset if new elections were
~~held.~~
~~Arguably, the most significant aspect of the Netanyahu-Gantz power-sharing deal for U.S. policy is its explicit~~
~~authorization of a cabinet and/or Knesset vote on annexing West Bank territory in coordination with the United~~
~~States, based on provisions of the Israeli-Palestinian peace plan that President Trump released in January 2020.~~
~~Annexation has not occurred to date, reportedly due partly to differences among Israeli leaders, some reservations~~
~~among U.S. officials, and the resurgence of COVID-19-related problems in Israel. For more detailed information~~
~~on the annexation issue, see CRS Report R46433,~~ ~~Israel’s Possible Annexation of West Bank Areas: Frequently~~
~~Asked Questions, by Jim Zanotti~~held. U.S.-Israel security cooperation. While Israel maintains robust military and homeland security capabilities, it also cooperates closely with the United States on national security matters. A 10-year bilateral military aid memorandum of understanding—signed in 2016—committed the United States to provide Israel $3.3 billion in Foreign Military Financing annually from FY2019 to FY2028, along with additional amounts from Defense Department accounts for missile defense. Amounts for future years remain subject to congressional appropriations. .
Israeli-Palestinian issues. President Trump has expressed interest in helping resolve the decades-old Israeli- President Trump has expressed interest in helping resolve the decades-old Israeli-
Palestinian conflict. His policies, however, have largely sided with Israeli positions, thus alienating Palestine Palestinian conflict. His policies, however, have largely sided with Israeli positions, thus alienating Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman and Palestinian Authority (PA) President Mahmoud Abbas. The Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman and Palestinian Authority (PA) President Mahmoud Abbas. The
President’s January 2020 President’s January 2020 ~~peace~~Vision for Peace plan appears to favor Israeli positions on disputed issues such as borders and plan appears to favor Israeli positions on disputed issues such as borders and
settlements, the status of Jerusalem and its holy sites, security, and Palestinian refugees. settlements, the status of Jerusalem and its holy sites, security, and Palestinian refugees. ~~The Palestinians would~~
~~face significant domestic difficulties in taking the steps that the plan prescribes for them to qualify for statehood.~~
After the plan’s release, Netanyahu announced his intention to annex areas in the West Bank that the plan anticipates coming under Israeli sovereignty, but annexation has not taken place to date. UAE and Bahrain normalization deals and possible U.S. arms sales. In August 2020, Israel and the UAE announced their willingness to fully normalize bilateral relations, after Israel agreed to suspend plans to annex parts of the West Bank. A similar Israel-Bahrain normalization announcement followed in September. The agreements could have implications for the region and U.S. policy. The deals could be interpreted as vindicating Prime Minister Netanyahu’s long-standing claim that he could normalize Israel’s relations with Arab countries before reaching a peace agreement with the Palestinians. Palestinian leaders denounced the UAE deal and withdrew their ambassador from the UAE, while UAE officials claim that they have preserved prospects for future negotiations toward a Palestinian state. The UAE deal may have increased the likelihood of U.S. sales of advanced weaponry (F-35 aircraft, drones, electronic warfare planes) to the UAE. Any sales could face congressional scrutiny related to safeguarding Israel’s Qualitative Military Edge, which is codified in U.S. law. Iran and other regional issues. Israeli officials seek to counter Iranian regional influence and prevent Iran from Israeli officials seek to counter Iranian regional influence and prevent Iran from
acquiring nuclear weapons. Prime Minister Netanyahu strongly supported President Trump’s withdrawal of the acquiring nuclear weapons. Prime Minister Netanyahu strongly supported President Trump’s withdrawal of the
United States from the 2015 international agreement that constrained Iran’s nuclear activities. Facing intensified United States from the 2015 international agreement that constrained Iran’s nuclear activities. Facing intensified
U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its compliance with the 2015 agreement. U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its compliance with the 2015 agreement. ~~U.S.-Iran tensions have led to greater~~
~~regional uncertainty.~~ Reports suggest that Israel may have been behind a July 2020 explosion that destroyed a Reports suggest that Israel may have been behind a July 2020 explosion that destroyed a
number of advanced uranium enrichment centrifuges at Iran’s Natanz nuclear facility. Israel has reportedly number of advanced uranium enrichment centrifuges at Iran’s Natanz nuclear facility. Israel has reportedly
conducted a number of military operations in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon against Iran and its allies due to concerns conducted a number of military operations in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon against Iran and its allies due to concerns
about Iran’s efforts to establish a permanent presence in these areas and to improve the accuracy and effectiveness about Iran’s efforts to establish a permanent presence in these areas and to improve the accuracy and effectiveness
of Lebanese Hezbollah’s missile arsenal. of Lebanese Hezbollah’s missile arsenal.
China: Investments in Israel and U.S. concerns. U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over
Chinese investments in Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure that could increase China’s ability Chinese investments in Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure that could increase China’s ability
to gather intelligence and acquire security-related technologies. While Chinese state-owned companies remain to gather intelligence and acquire security-related technologies. While Chinese state-owned companies remain
engaged in some specific infrastructure projects, including operations at Haifa’s seaport set to begin in 2021, in engaged in some specific infrastructure projects, including operations at Haifa’s seaport set to begin in 2021, in
May 2020 Israel turned down the bid of a Chinese-affiliated company to construct a major desalination plant. May 2020 Israel turned down the bid of a Chinese-affiliated company to construct a major desalination plant.
U.S.-Israel security cooperation. While Israel maintains robust military and homeland security capabilities, it
~~also cooperates closely with the United States on national security matters. A 10-year bilateral military aid~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~memorandum of understanding (MOU)—signed in 2016—committed the United States to provide Israel $3.3~~
~~billion in Foreign Military Financing annually from FY2019 to FY2028, along with additional amounts from~~
~~Defense Department accounts for missile defense. Amounts for future years remain subject to congressional~~
~~appropriations.~~

~~Congressional Research Service~~

link to page 15 link to page 15 link to page 15 link to page 15 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Introduction: Major Issues for U.S.-Israel Relations
Israel (seeIsrael (see Appendix A) has forged close bilateral cooperation with the United States in many has forged close bilateral cooperation with the United States in many
areas; issues with significant implications for U.S.-Israel relations include the following. areas; issues with significant implications for U.S.-Israel relations include the following.
 Israeli domestic political issues, including challenges related to the COVID-19  Israeli domestic political issues, including challenges related to the COVID-19
pandemic and associated economic concerns, pandemic and associated economic concerns, and protests against Prime Minister protests against Prime Minister
Binyamin NetanyahuBinyamin Netanyahu~~, and possible West Bank annexation.~~
.  Israel’s security cooperation with the United States.  Israeli-Palestinian issues and U.S. policy Israeli-Palestinian issues and U.S. policy~~, including the Trump Administration’s~~
~~peace plan released in January 2020~~.  Israel’s agreement to normalize relations with the United Arab Emirates in return for suspending plans to annex some areas of the West Bank, and implications of the agreement for Israeli-Palestinian issues, U.S. arms sales, and Israel’s Qualitative Military Edge. .
 Shared U.S.-Israel concerns about Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence,  Shared U.S.-Israel concerns about Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence,
including with Lebanon-based Hezbollah, Syria, and Iraq. including with Lebanon-based Hezbollah, Syria, and Iraq.
 Chinese investment in Israeli companies and infrastructure, and U.S. concerns  Chinese investment in Israeli companies and infrastructure, and U.S. concerns
about implications for U.S. national security. about implications for U.S. national security.
~~ Israel’s security cooperation with the United States.~~
For background information and analysis on these and other topics, including aid, arms sales, and For background information and analysis on these and other topics, including aid, arms sales, and
missile defense cooperation, see CRS Report RL33476, missile defense cooperation, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, ,
by Jim Zanotti; and CRS Report RL33222, by Jim Zanotti; and CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp. , by Jeremy M. Sharp.
Domestic Issues
COVID-19 and Economic Challenges
Israel is facing a host of domestic challenges, many of which are interrelated. Much of the public Israel is facing a host of domestic challenges, many of which are interrelated. Much of the public
concern seems connected to a second wave of concern seems connected to a second wave of ~~coronavirus disease~~Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases in 2019 (COVID-19) cases in
IsraelIsrael ~~this summer~~ (significantly larger than the first wave in the spring) and associated economic (significantly larger than the first wave in the spring) and associated economic
challenges (sechallenges (see Appendix A). . ~~Some sources have estimated unemployment levels during the~~
~~summer to be more than 20%.1~~ In response to the economic concerns, the Knesset enacted a $1.9 In response to the economic concerns, the Knesset enacted a $1.9
billion stimulus plan in July billion stimulus plan in July 2020 to provide cash payments to Israeli citizens.to provide cash payments to Israeli citizens.21
Many Israelis have protested against Netanyahu and the government’s policies (see below). Also, Many Israelis have protested against Netanyahu and the government’s policies (see below). Also,
Prime Minister Netanyahu’s standing has suffered Prime Minister Netanyahu’s standing has suffered somewhat in public opinion polls, amid questions about in public opinion polls, amid questions about
the survival of the government that took office in May 2020 based on a power-sharing agreement the survival of the government that took office in May 2020 based on a power-sharing agreement
between Netanyahu of the Likud party and his main political rival, Defense Minister (and between Netanyahu of the Likud party and his main political rival, Defense Minister (and
Alternate Prime Minister) Benny Gantz of the Kahol Lavan (Blue and White) party (see textbox Alternate Prime Minister) Benny Gantz of the Kahol Lavan (Blue and White) party (see textbox
below). below).
Key Aspects of Power-Sharing Agreement for Israel’s Government
Under the power-sharing agreement for Israel’s government that took office in May 2020, Netanyahu is expected Under the power-sharing agreement for Israel’s government that took office in May 2020, Netanyahu is expected
to serve as prime minister and Gantz as alternate prime minister and defense minister for the first 18 months of to serve as prime minister and Gantz as alternate prime minister and defense minister for the first 18 months of
the government’s term, at which point Gantz is set to become prime minister for the next 18 months, with the government’s term, at which point Gantz is set to become prime minister for the next 18 months, with
Netanyahu as his alternate.Netanyahu as his alternate.32

1 “1 “~~Second wave puts Israel’s prime minister under pressure,” Economist Intelligence Unit, July 27, 2020.~~
~~2 “~~Knesset approves amended version of Netanyahu’s NIS 6.5b handouts plan,” Knesset approves amended version of Netanyahu’s NIS 6.5b handouts plan,” Times of Israel, July 29, 2020. , July 29, 2020.
32 If Netanyahu and Gantz agree, after Gantz’s initial 18 months as prime minister Netanyahu will serve another six If Netanyahu and Gantz agree, after Gantz’s initial 18 months as prime minister Netanyahu will serve another six
~~months, followed by another six for Gantz. Britain Israel Communications and Research Centre,~~ ~~The New Israeli~~
~~National Unity Government, May 2020. The designation of alternate prime minister was created by Knesset legislation~~
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1 1

link to page 16 link to page link to page 16 link to page 617 link to page 5 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Observers analyzing the Netanyahu-Gantz deal have identified various perceived benefits for both sides. Observers analyzing the Netanyahu-Gantz deal have identified various perceived benefits for both sides.43 Potential Potential
benefits for Netanyahu include his continuation as prime minister and apparent ability to remain in government benefits for Netanyahu include his continuation as prime minister and apparent ability to remain in government
until he exhausts all appeals (if convicted on corruption charges), his ability to hold votes on West Bank until he exhausts all appeals (if convicted on corruption charges), his ability to hold votes on West Bank
annexation, an effective veto over appointments of key judiciary and justice sector officials, and holding sway with annexation, an effective veto over appointments of key judiciary and justice sector officials, and holding sway with
the Knesset’s right-of-center majority even during Gantz’s time as prime minister. Potential benefits for Gantz the Knesset’s right-of-center majority even during Gantz’s time as prime minister. Potential benefits for Gantz
include Netanyahu’s lack of immunity from criminal proceedings, safeguards intended to ensure that Gantz wil include Netanyahu’s lack of immunity from criminal proceedings, safeguards intended to ensure that Gantz wil
become prime minister 18 months through the government’s term (as agreed), co-ownership of the governing and become prime minister 18 months through the government’s term (as agreed), co-ownership of the governing and
legislative agenda, and effective control over half the cabinet and positions (including the defense, foreign, and legislative agenda, and effective control over half the cabinet and positions (including the defense, foreign, and
justice ministries) with significant influence on national security and rule of law in Israel. Despite the details of this justice ministries) with significant influence on national security and rule of law in Israel. Despite the details of this
political agreement, it is unclear whether either party would be able to compel its legal enforcement, as in the case political agreement, it is unclear whether either party would be able to compel its legal enforcement, as in the case
if Netanyahu were to refuse to step down as prime minister.if Netanyahu were to refuse to step down as prime minister.54
New elections would take place in the event that the government is dissolved. Under the terms of the unity New elections would take place in the event that the government is dissolved. Under the terms of the unity
agreement, Gantz would serve as caretaker prime minister before such elections in most situations if Netanyahu is agreement, Gantz would serve as caretaker prime minister before such elections in most situations if Netanyahu is
responsible for the dissolution.responsible for the dissolution.6
5 However, if the government dissolves over a failure to pass a budgetHowever, if the government dissolves over a failure to pass a budget ~~for 2020 or 2021~~, Netanyahu would , Netanyahu would
~~reportedly remain as caretaker prime minister. With a deadline to pass the 2020 budget by August 25 (subject to~~
~~a possible Knesset vote to extend the deadline to December), Gantz is insisting that the budget cover both 2020~~
~~and 2021, as the power-sharing agreement anticipated. In contrast, Netanyahu is arguing that because of the~~
~~uncertainty stemming from the pandemic, Israel’s budget should only cover 2020 and a separate budget be passed~~
~~later for 2021.7 If Israel adopts Netanyahu’s preference, Netanyahu could have the option to take Israel to~~
~~elections next June, rather than hand over the premiership to Gantz, if the Knesset does not pass a budget for~~
~~2021.~~
~~Beyond COVID-19 and its economic impact, some criticism of Netanyahu is linked to his~~
~~ongoing criminal trial on corruption charges (see Appendix B) and a Knesset Finance Committee~~
~~vote in June to grant him some personal tax relief. Testimony in Netanyahu’s trial is scheduled to~~
~~begin in January 2021.~~
~~Protests and Netanyahu’s Political Status~~
~~Starting in July, protestors criticizing Netanyahu and government policies swelled to number in~~
~~the thousands. These demonstrations have led to threats and incidents of violence and destruction~~
~~of property involving protestors and counter-protestors, as well as allegations of heavy-handed~~
~~measures by police to control crowds. Debate is ongoing between Netanyahu’s supporters and~~
~~critics about his culpability for incitement and violence. Netanyahu has questioned the protests’~~
~~authenticity by saying that they have been orchestrated by anarchists and left-of-center groups.8~~
~~Figures from the opposition, including Knesset opposition leader Yair Lapid of the Yesh Atid~~

reportedly remain as caretaker prime minister. The Knesset averted a dissolution in August 2020 by extending the budget deadline for 2020 to December. Beyond COVID-19 and its economic impact, some criticism of Netanyahu is linked to his ongoing criminal trial on corruption charges (see Appendix B) and a Knesset Finance Committee vote in June to grant him some personal tax relief. Testimony in Netanyahu’s trial is scheduled to begin in January 2021. Protests and Netanyahu’s Political Status Starting in July, protestors criticizing Netanyahu and government policies swelled to number in the thousands. Debate is ongoing between Netanyahu’s supporters and critics about each other’s culpability for various incidents of incitement and violence, as well as the culpability of protestors, counter-protestors, and police. Despite the drop in Netanyahu’s approval rating and the popular protests against him, polls suggest that if new elections were held soon, Likud would lose some seats but remain the largest party in the Knesset. Depending on a number of factors, this could put Netanyahu in position to lead a right-of-center coalition.6 The current power-sharing government took office after Knesset elections in March 2020 (see Appendix C), following two previous elections—in April and September 2019—that failed to produce a government. months, followed by another six for Gantz. Britain Israel Communications and Research Centre, The New Israeli National Unity Government, May 2020. The designation of alternate prime minister was created by Knesset legislation before the government came into office. Under Israeli law, only a cabinet member with the status of prime minister can before the government came into office. Under Israeli law, only a cabinet member with the status of prime minister can
remain in office while under indictment, so the designation would allow Netanyahu to retain this status even after a remain in office while under indictment, so the designation would allow Netanyahu to retain this status even after a
transfer of power to Gantz. The designation also is designed to allow for Gantz to take over for Netanyahu without a transfer of power to Gantz. The designation also is designed to allow for Gantz to take over for Netanyahu without a
separate Knesset vote. separate Knesset vote.
43 See, See, ~~e.g.~~for example, David Horovitz, “Gantz tries, likely fails, to lock Netanyahu into eventually handing over power,” , David Horovitz, “Gantz tries, likely fails, to lock Netanyahu into eventually handing over power,” Times of
Israel, April 21, 2020; Yossi Verter, “Netanyahu-Gantz Deal Ensures Accused Premier Will Have the Last Word,” , April 21, 2020; Yossi Verter, “Netanyahu-Gantz Deal Ensures Accused Premier Will Have the Last Word,”
haaretz.com, April 21, 2020; Chemi Shalev, “Netanyahu-Gantz Unity Deal: The Good, the Bad, the Ugly and the haaretz.com, April 21, 2020; Chemi Shalev, “Netanyahu-Gantz Unity Deal: The Good, the Bad, the Ugly and the
Ominous,” haaretz.com, April 21, 2020. Ominous,” haaretz.com, April 21, 2020.
54 Horovitz, “Gantz tries, likely fails.” Horovitz, “Gantz tries, likely fails.”
65 See footno See footnote 4.
~~7 “Netanyahu: Israel doesn’t need new elections, it needs a budget,” Times of Israel, July 27, 2020.~~
~~8 Jonathan Lis, “Netanyahu: Protesters Against Me Are Anarchists, Not Victims of Pandemic,” haaretz.com, August 5,~~
3. 6 Ben Caspit, “Coronavirus-infected Israel, on brink of anarchy,” Al-Monitor, September 8, 2020. 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

2 2

~~link to page 17~~ Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief U.S. Security Cooperation While Israel maintains robust military and homeland security capabilities, it also cooperates closely with the United States on national security matters. U.S. law requires the executive branch to take certain actions to preserve Israel’s “qualitative military edge,” or QME.7 Additionally, a 10-year bilateral military aid memorandum of understanding (MOU)—signed in 2016—commits the United States to provide Israel $3.3 billion in Foreign Military Financing and to spend $500 million annually on joint missile defense programs from FY2019 to FY2028, subject to congressional appropriations. Israeli-Palestinian Issues Under the Trump Administration8~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~party, explicitly support non-violent protests to strengthen opposition in Israel to Netanyahu’s~~
~~continued rule.9~~
~~Despite the drop in Netanyahu’s approval rating and the popular protests against him, polls~~
~~suggest that if new elections were held soon, Likud would lose some seats but remain the largest~~
~~party in the Knesset. Depending on a number of factors, this could put Netanyahu in position to~~
~~lead a right-of-center coalition.10 The current power-sharing government took office after Knesset~~
~~elections in March 2020 (see Appendix C), following two previous elections—in April and~~
~~September 2019—that failed to produce a government.~~
~~Possible West Bank Annexation~~
~~Arguably, the most significant aspect of the current government’s power-sharing agreement for~~
~~U.S. policy is that it explicitly allows the cabinet and/or Knesset to vote on annexing West Bank~~
~~territory to the extent Israel coordinates with the United States. Pursuant to the Trump~~
~~Administration’s January 2020 peace plan (described below), a U.S.-Israel joint committee has~~
~~been empowered to identify the geographical contours of West Bank areas—including Jewish~~
~~settlements and much of the Jordan Valley—that the U.S. plan anticipates could become part of~~
~~Israel. The Palestinians, Arab states, many other international actors, and some Members of~~
~~Congress oppose Israeli annexation of West Bank areas because of concerns that it could~~
~~contravene international law and existing Israeli-Palestinian agreements, and negatively affect~~
~~stability and regional cooperation.~~
~~Annexation has not occurred to date, reportedly due partly to differences among Israeli leaders,~~
~~some reservations among U.S. officials, and the resurgence of COVID-19-related problems in~~
~~Israel. Some observers question whether Netanyahu’s rhetorical support for annexation, which~~
~~helps him maintain support among right-of-center constituencies amid his legal difficulties, will~~
~~actually translate into pursuing it.11~~
~~For more detailed information on the annexation issue, see CRS Report R46433,~~ ~~Israel’s Possible~~
~~Annexation of West Bank Areas: Frequently Asked Questions, by Jim Zanotti.~~
~~Israeli-Palestinian Issues Under the Trump~~
~~Administration12~~
President Trump has expressed interest in helping resolve the decades-old Israeli-Palestinian President Trump has expressed interest in helping resolve the decades-old Israeli-Palestinian
conflict. However, his policies have largely favored Israeli positions, thus alienating Palestine conflict. However, his policies have largely favored Israeli positions, thus alienating Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman and Palestinian Authority (PA) President Mahmoud Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman and Palestinian Authority (PA) President Mahmoud
Abbas. Abbas.
Selected U.S. Actions Impacting Israeli-Palestinian Issues
December 2017 December 2017
President Trump recognizes Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, prompting the PLO/PA to President Trump recognizes Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, prompting the PLO/PA to
cut off high-level diplomatic relations with the United States cut off high-level diplomatic relations with the United States

~~9 Ibid.~~
~~10 “Israel Election Polls: Support for Netanyahu's Likud Drops, Right-wing Slate on the Rise,” haaretz.com, July 23,~~
~~2020.~~
~~11 See, e.g., Anshel Pfeffer, “Why Netanyahu Will Never Annex West Bank Settlements and the Jordan Valley,”~~
~~haaretz.com, May 7, 2020.~~
~~12 For additional background, see CRS In Focus IF11237,~~ ~~Israel and the Palestinians: Chronology of a Two-State~~
~~Solution, by Jim Zanotti.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

3

~~link to page 20 link to page 21~~ ~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

May 2018 May 2018
U.S. embassy opens in Jerusalem U.S. embassy opens in Jerusalem
August 2018 August 2018
Administration ends contributions to U.N. Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Administration ends contributions to U.N. Relief and Works Agency for Palestine
Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)
September 2018 September 2018
Administration reprograms FY2017 economic aid for the West Bank and Gaza to Administration reprograms FY2017 economic aid for the West Bank and Gaza to
other locations; announces closure of PLO office in Washington, DC other locations; announces closure of PLO office in Washington, DC
January 2019 January 2019
As a result of the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-253), the As a result of the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-253), the
Administration ends all bilateral U.S. aid to the Palestinians Administration ends all bilateral U.S. aid to the Palestinians
March 2019 March 2019
The U.S. consulate general in Jerusalem—previously an independent diplomatic The U.S. consulate general in Jerusalem—previously an independent diplomatic
mission to the Palestinians—is subsumed under the authority of the U.S. embassy mission to the Palestinians—is subsumed under the authority of the U.S. embassy
to Israel; President Trump recognizes Israeli sovereignty in the Golan Heights to Israel; President Trump recognizes Israeli sovereignty in the Golan Heights
June 2019 June 2019
At a meeting in Bahrain, U.S. officials rol out $50 bil ion economic framework for At a meeting in Bahrain, U.S. officials rol out $50 bil ion economic framework for
Palestinians in the region tied to the forthcoming peace plan; PLO/PA officials Palestinians in the region tied to the forthcoming peace plan; PLO/PA officials
reject the idea of economic incentives influencing their positions on core political reject the idea of economic incentives influencing their positions on core political
demands demands
November 2019 November 2019
Secretary of State Michael Pompeo says that the Administration disagrees with a Secretary of State Michael Pompeo says that the Administration disagrees with a
1978 State Department legal opinion stating that Israeli West Bank settlements 1978 State Department legal opinion stating that Israeli West Bank settlements
are inconsistent with international law are inconsistent with international law
January 2020 January 2020
President Trump releases peace plan President Trump releases peace plan
7 CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti; CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp. 8 For additional background, see CRS In Focus IF11237, Israel and the Palestinians: Chronology of a Two-State Solution, by Jim Zanotti. Congressional Research Service 3 link to page 20 link to page 21 link to page 7 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief U.S. Vision for Peace Plan On January 28, President Trump released a long-promised plan for Israel-Palestinian peace, after On January 28, President Trump released a long-promised plan for Israel-Palestinian peace, after
obtaining expressions of support from both Netanyahu and Gantz. The plan is otherwise known obtaining expressions of support from both Netanyahu and Gantz. The plan is otherwise known
as the as the Vision for Peace, described in a document entitled , described in a document entitled Peace to Prosperity..~~13 Prospects for~~
~~holding negotiations seem dim given concerted opposition from Abbas and other Palestinian~~
~~leaders to the plan, and Netanyahu’s announced intention to annex parts of the West Bank.~~
~~Key Points of the U.S. Plan~~
9 The plan suggests the following key outcomes as the basis for future Israeli-Palestinian The plan suggests the following key outcomes as the basis for future Israeli-Palestinian
negotiations:negotiations:1410
  Borders and settlements. Israel would acquire sovereignty over about 30% of Israel would acquire sovereignty over about 30% of
the West Bank (see the West Bank (see Figure D-1), including settlements and most of the Jordan , including settlements and most of the Jordan
Valley. The Palestinians could eventually acquire a limited form of sovereignty Valley. The Palestinians could eventually acquire a limited form of sovereignty
(as described below) over the remaining territory. This includes areas that the (as described below) over the remaining territory. This includes areas that the
Palestinian Authority (PA) currently administers, along with some territory Palestinian Authority (PA) currently administers, along with some territory
currently belonging to Israel (with few Jewish residents) that the Palestinians currently belonging to Israel (with few Jewish residents) that the Palestinians
would acquire via swaps to partially compensate for West Bank territory taken by would acquire via swaps to partially compensate for West Bank territory taken by
Israel. Some areas with minimal contiguity would be connected by roads, Israel. Some areas with minimal contiguity would be connected by roads,
bridges, and tunnels (seebridges, and tunnels (see Figure D-2).. ~~Neither Israeli settlers nor Palestinian~~
~~West Bank residents would be forced to move. The plan anticipates that an~~
~~agreement could transfer some largely Israeli Arab communities—including an~~
~~area called the “Arab Triangle”—to a future Palestinian state. In the days after~~
~~the plan’s release, hundreds of residents of the Triangle communities protested~~
~~the possibility that their citizenship could change, prompting senior Israeli~~

13  Jerusalem and its holy sites. Israel would have sovereignty over nearly all of Jerusalem (including the Old City and Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif), with the Palestinians able to obtain some small East Jerusalem areas on the other side of an Israeli separation barrier.11 Taken together, the plan and its accompanying White House fact sheet contain some ambiguity about worship on the Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif, though the plan says that Jordan would maintain its custodial role regarding Muslim holy sites.12 A day after the plan’s release, U.S. Ambassador to Israel David Friedman clarified that the “status quo” only allowing Muslim worship on the Mount/Haram would not change absent the agreement of all parties, while adding that the Administration hoped that an eventual accord would allow Jews to pray on the Temple Mount as part of greater openness “to religious observance everywhere.”13  Security. Israel would retain overall security control over the entire West Bank permanently, though Palestinians would potentially assume more security responsibility, over time, in territory they administer.14 9 White House, White House, Peace to Prosperity: A Vision to Improve the Lives of the Palestinian and Israeli People, January , January
2020, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Peace-to-Prosperity-0120.pdf. See also 2020, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Peace-to-Prosperity-0120.pdf. See also
White House fact sheet, President Donald J. Trump’s Vision for Peace, Prosperity, and a Brighter Future for Israel and White House fact sheet, President Donald J. Trump’s Vision for Peace, Prosperity, and a Brighter Future for Israel and
the Palestinian People, January 28, 2020. the Palestinian People, January 28, 2020.
~~14 Ibid.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

4

~~link to page 21 link to page 22 link to page 9~~ ~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~officials to state the Triangle communities would not be involved in any border~~
~~revision.15~~
~~ Jerusalem and its holy sites. Israel would have sovereignty over nearly all of~~
~~Jerusalem, with the Palestinians able to obtain some small East Jerusalem areas~~
~~on the other side of an Israeli separation barrier.16 Taken together, the plan and its~~
~~accompanying White House fact sheet say that the “status quo” on the Temple~~
~~Mount/Haram al Sharif—which prohibits non-Muslim worship there—would~~
~~continue, along with Jordan’s custodial role regarding Muslim holy sites.17~~
~~However, the plan also says, “People of every faith should be permitted to pray~~
~~on the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, in a manner that is fully respectful to their~~
~~religion, taking into account the times of each religion’s prayers and holidays, as~~
~~well as other religious factors.” A day after the plan’s release, U.S. Ambassador~~
~~to Israel David Friedman clarified that the status quo would not change absent~~
~~the agreement of all parties, while adding that the Administration hoped that an~~
~~eventual accord would allow Jews to pray on the Temple Mount as part of greater~~
~~openness “to religious observance everywhere.”18~~
~~ Security. Israel would retain overall security control over the entire West Bank~~
~~permanently, though Palestinians would potentially assume more security~~
~~responsibility, over time, in territory they administer.19~~
10 Ibid. 11 David M. Halbfinger and Isabel Kershner, “Trump’s Would-Be Palestinian Capital: Dangerous, Scattered Slums,” New York Times, February 1, 2020. For background information on and maps of Jerusalem, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. The East Jerusalem areas earmarked for the Palestinians were added to the Jerusalem municipality after Israel captured East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan in 1967. 12 See footnote 9. 13 “US envoy: We won’t impose change to status quo to let Jews pray at Temple Mount,” Times of Israel, January 29, 2020. For more information on the “status quo,” see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. Some sources remain concerned about the plan’s possible change to the “status quo.” See, for example, Ir Amim, “Ramifications of the US Middle East Plan on the Future of Jerusalem,” April 2020. 14 For background information on Palestinian self-governance, see CRS In Focus IF10644, The Palestinians: Overview and Key Issues for U.S. Policy, by Jim Zanotti. Congressional Research Service 4 link to page 21 link to page 22 link to page 9 link to page 9 link to page 7 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief   Palestinian refugees. Palestinian refugee claims would be satisfied through Palestinian refugee claims would be satisfied through
internationally funded compensation and resettlement outside of Israel (i.e., no internationally funded compensation and resettlement outside of Israel (i.e., no
“right of return” to Israel) in the West Bank, Gaza, and third-party states. “right of return” to Israel) in the West Bank, Gaza, and third-party states.
  Palestinian statehood. The Palestinians could obtain a demilitarized state within The Palestinians could obtain a demilitarized state within
the areas specified in the areas specified in Figure D-2 anand Figure D-3, with a capital in Abu Dis or with a capital in Abu Dis or
elsewhere straddling the East Jerusalem areas mentioned above and their elsewhere straddling the East Jerusalem areas mentioned above and their
outskirts.outskirts.2015 Statehood would depend on the Palestinians meeting specified criteria Statehood would depend on the Palestinians meeting specified criteria
over the next four years that present considerable domestic and practical over the next four years that present considerable domestic and practical
challenges.challenges.2116 Such criteria include disarming Hamas in Gaza, ending certain international initiatives and financial incentives for violence, and recognizing Israel as “the nation state of the Jewish people.”17 Possible West Bank Annexation After the plan’s release, Netanyahu announced his intention to annex areas in the West Bank that the plan anticipates coming under Israeli sovereignty (as discussed below). To identify these areas more precisely, a U.S.-Israel joint committee has begun deliberations to identify the geographical contours of West Bank areas—including Jewish settlements and much of the Jordan Valley—that could become part of Israel. Annexation has not occurred to date. Israel agreed in August 2020 to suspend plans for annexation as part of its agreement to normalize relations with the UAE (see “UAE and Bahrain Normalization Deal” below). Before the Israel-UAE deal, some observers questioned whether Netanyahu would go through with annexation given other domestic priorities in Israel and some reservations among U.S. officials.18 The Palestinians, Arab states, many other international actors, and some Members of Congress oppose Israeli annexation of West Bank areas because of concerns that it could contravene international law and existing Israeli-Palestinian agreements, and negatively affect stability and regional cooperation. For more detailed information on the annexation issue, see CRS Report R46433, Israel’s Possible Annexation of West Bank Areas: Frequently Asked Questions, by Jim Zanotti. Gaza and Its Challenges The Gaza Strip—controlled by the Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-designated terrorist organization)—faces difficult and complicated political, economic, and humanitarian conditions.19 Palestinian militants in Gaza regularly clash with Israel’s military as it patrols 15 See footnote 11. 16 ~~Such criteria include disarming Hamas in Gaza, ending certain~~

~~15 “Israel rejects Trump’s idea of redrawing borders, moving Arab towns to Palestine,” Times of Israel, February 2,~~
~~2020.~~
~~16 David M. Halbfinger and Isabel Kershner, “Trump’s Would-Be Palestinian Capital: Dangerous, Scattered Slums,”~~
New York Times, February 1, 2020. For background information on and maps of Jerusalem, see CRS Report RL33476,
Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. The East Jerusalem areas earmarked for the Palestinians were
~~added to the Jerusalem municipality after Israel captured East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan in 1967.~~
~~17 For more information on the “status quo,” see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim~~
~~Zanotti.~~
~~18 “US envoy: We won’t impose change to status quo to let Jews pray at Temple Mount,” Times of Israel, January 29,~~
~~2020. Some sources remain concerned about the plan’s possible change to the “status quo.” See, e.g., Ir Amim,~~
~~“Ramifications of the US Middle East Plan on the Future of Jerusalem,” April 2020.~~
~~19 For background information on Palestinian self-governance, see CRS In Focus IF10644,~~ ~~The Palestinians: Overview~~
~~and Key Issues for U.S. Policy, by Jim Zanotti.~~
~~20 See footnote 16.~~
21 White House, Remarks by President Trump and Prime Minister Netanyahu of the State of Israel in Joint Statements, White House, Remarks by President Trump and Prime Minister Netanyahu of the State of Israel in Joint Statements,
January 28, 2020. During that time, the plan and President Trump’s remarks—taken together—anticipate that Israel January 28, 2020. During that time, the plan and President Trump’s remarks—taken together—anticipate that Israel
would refrain from building or expanding Jewish settlements in West Bank areas earmarked for a future Palestinian would refrain from building or expanding Jewish settlements in West Bank areas earmarked for a future Palestinian
state, and from demolishing existing structures in those areas—subject to exceptions for safety and responses to acts of state, and from demolishing existing structures in those areas—subject to exceptions for safety and responses to acts of
terrorism. terrorism.
~~Congressional Research Service~~

5

~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~international initiatives and financial incentives for violence, and recognizing~~
~~Israel as “the nation state of the Jewish people.”22~~
~~Gaza and Its Challenges~~
~~The Gaza Strip—controlled by the Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-designated terrorist~~
~~organization)—faces difficult and complicated political, economic, and humanitarian~~
~~conditions.23 Palestinian militants in Gaza regularly clash with Israel’s military as it patrols~~
~~Gaza’s frontiers with Israel, and the clashes periodically escalate toward larger conflict. During~~
~~2020, Hamas and Israel have reportedly worked through Egypt and Qatar in efforts to establish a~~
~~long-term cease-fire around Gaza that could ease Israel-Egypt access restrictions for people and~~
~~goods. It is unclear how possible Israeli annexation of West Bank areas or Hamas’s ongoing~~
~~relationship with Iran might affect these efforts.~~
~~Foreign Policy Issues~~
~~Iran and the Region~~
~~Israeli officials cite Iran as a primary concern to Israeli officials, largely because of (1) antipathy~~
~~toward Israel expressed by Iran’s revolutionary regime, (2) Iran’s broad regional influence~~
~~(especially in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon),24 and (3) Iran’s nuclear and missile programs and~~
~~advanced conventional weapons capabilities. In recent years, Israel and Arab Gulf states have~~
~~cultivated closer relations with one another in efforts to counter Iran.~~
17 Israeli insistence on Palestinian recognition of Israel as the nation state of the Jewish people was reportedly introduced into an Israeli-Palestinian negotiating context by Tzipi Livni when she was Israeli foreign minister during the 2007-2008 Annapolis negotiations. “The Pursuit of Middle East Peace: A Status Report,” Ambassador Martin Indyk, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, May 8, 2014. Other specified criteria for Palestinian statehood include reforms in governance and rule of law, and anti-incitement in educational curricula. 18 See, for example, Anshel Pfeffer, “Why Netanyahu Will Never Annex West Bank Settlements and the Jordan Valley,” haaretz.com, May 7, 2020. 19 CRS In Focus IF10644, The Palestinians: Overview and Key Issues for U.S. Policy, by Jim Zanotti. Congressional Research Service 5 link to page 11 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief Gaza’s frontiers with Israel, and the clashes periodically escalate toward larger conflict. During 2020, Hamas and Israel have reportedly worked through Egypt and Qatar in efforts to establish a long-term cease-fire around Gaza that could ease Israel-Egypt access restrictions for people and goods. It is unclear how possible Israeli annexation of West Bank areas or Hamas’s ongoing relationship with Iran might affect these efforts. Foreign Policy Issues UAE and Bahrain Normalization Deals20 A joint U.S.-Israel-UAE statement on August 13, 2020, announced that Israel and the UAE have agreed to fully normalize their relations, and that Israel is suspending plans to annex parts of the West Bank.21 A similar joint U.S.-Israel-Bahrain statement on September 11 announced that Israel and Bahrain would fully normalize their relations.22 On September 15, Prime Minister Netanyahu is scheduled to sign agreements with both countries’ foreign ministers at the White House. The agreements could have implications for the region and U.S. policy, with the Israel-UAE deal particularly likely to boost bilateral trade and investment.23 Before these two deals, Egypt and Jordan had been the only Arab states with formal diplomatic relations with Israel. Israel established informal ties with a number of Arab states, including the UAE and Bahrain, in the 1990s.24 Discreet Israeli links with the UAE and Bahrain on issues including intelligence, security, and trade have become closer and more public in the past decade as Israel has worked with various Arab Gulf states aligned with the United States in efforts to counter Iran’s regional influence and military capabilities (see “Iran and the Region” below).25 Observers have speculated about the prospects for other Arab states to normalize relations with Israel.26 While Saudi Arabia has agreed with Israel to allow mutual flyover privileges for commercial airline flights, leaders there have told White House Senior Adviser Jared Kushner that the Saudis would continue to condition normalization with Israel on Israeli-Palestinian peace.27 20 For more information, see CRS Insight IN11485, Israel-UAE Normalization and Suspension of West Bank Annexation, by Jim Zanotti and Kenneth Katzman, and CRS Report RS21852, The United Arab Emirates (UAE): Issues for U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman. 21 White House, Joint Statement of the United States, the State of Israel, and the United Arab Emirates, August 13, 2020. 22 Jacob Magid, “Bahrain establishing full diplomatic relations with Israel, Trump announces,” Times of Israel, September 11, 2020. 23 Gilead Sher and Yoel Guzansky, “The United Arab Emirates and Israel Just Came Clean on Their Extra-Marital Affair,” War on the Rocks, August 28, 2020. 24 Miriam Berger, “Israel’s relations in the Middle East, explained,” washingtonpost.com, August 15, 2020; Adam Entous, “Donald Trump’s New World Order,” New Yorker, June 11, 2018; CRS Report 95-1013, Bahrain: Unrest, Security, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman. 25 Steve Hendrix, “Inside the secret-not-secret courtship between Israel and the United Arab Emirates,” washingtonpost.com, August 14, 2020; CRS Report 95-1013, Bahrain: Unrest, Security, and U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman. 26 Hussein Ibish, “After the UAE, Who Will and Won’t Be Next to Normalize with Israel?” Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington, August 24, 2020. 27 “Kushner says Saudi Arabia, Bahrain to allow all Israeli flights to use airspace,” Times of Israel, September 10, 2020. Congressional Research Service 6 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief Israeli-Palestinian Implications Israel’s deals with the UAE and Bahrain could be interpreted as vindicating Prime Minister Netanyahu’s long-standing claim that he could normalize Israel’s relations with Arab countries before reaching a peace agreement with the Palestinians. They also appear to signal a change to Arab states’ previous insistence—in the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative—that Israel address Palestinian negotiating demands as a precondition for improved ties.28 Whether Israeli plans for West Bank annexation are only temporarily postponed is unclear. Netanyahu sought in August to reassure Israeli pro-annexation constituencies that declaring Israeli sovereignty in the West Bank remains on his agenda pending U.S. approval.29 Jared Kushner said that “we do not plan to give our consent for some time.”30 Palestinian leaders denounced the Israel-UAE deal and withdrew their ambassador from the UAE, arguing that the UAE legitimized Israel’s annexation threats by bargaining over them, and thus acquiesced to a West Bank status quo that some observers label “de facto annexation.”31 UAE officials contend that by significantly delaying Israeli declarations of sovereignty over West Bank areas, they have preserved prospects for future negotiations toward a Palestinian state.32 U.S. Arms Sales to UAE and Israel’s Qualitative Military Edge Some U.S. and UAE officials have stated that the Israel-UAE deal has increased the likelihood of U.S. sales of advanced weaponry to the UAE.33 Reportedly, the Trump Administration supports a sale of F-35 stealth fighters, armed MQ-9 Reaper drones, and EA-18G Growler electronic warfare planes to the UAE.34 Some media sources state that Prime Minister Netanyahu acquiesced to the proposed sale in connection with the Israel-UAE deal.35 Netanyahu has repeatedly denied this amid domestic concerns that Israel safeguard its Qualitative Military Edge (QME), which is codified in U.S. law.36 To date, Israel is the only country in the Middle East that has purchased F-35s from the United States. 28 Annelle Sheline, “Trump’s Win Is a Loss for the Middle East,” Politico Magazine, August 14, 2020. The Arab Peace Initiative offers a comprehensive Arab peace with Israel if Israel were to withdraw fully from the territories it occupied in 1967, agree to the establishment of a Palestinian state with a capital in East Jerusalem, and provide for the “[a]chievement of a just solution to the Palestinian Refugee problem in accordance with UN General Assembly Resolution 194.” The initiative was proposed by Saudi Arabia and adopted by the 22-member Arab League (which includes the PLO) in 2002, and later accepted by the then-56-member Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the 57-member Organization of Islamic Cooperation) at its 2005 Mecca summit. The text of the initiative is available at http://www.bitterlemons.org/docs/summit.html. 29 Neri Zilber, “Normalization Deal Between Israel and the UAE Signals a Shift in the Region,” foreignpolicy.com, August 13, 2020. 30 “U.S. won’t approve Israeli annexations for ‘some time,’ Kushner says,” Reuters, August 17, 2020. 31 Walid Mahmoud and Muhammad Shehada, “Palestinians unanimously reject UAE-Israel deal,” Al Jazeera, August 14, 2020. 32 “UAE minister: We bought lot of time on annexation; Palestinians should negotiate,” Times of Israel, August 14, 2020. 33 Neri Zilber, “Peace for Warplanes?” foreignpolicy.com, August 31, 2020. 34 Mark Mazzetti et al., “Israel’s Leader Said to Assent to U.A.E. Sale,” New York Times, September 4, 2020. 35 Ibid. 36 “Intel minister: We’ll act against sale of F-35s to UAE, including in US Congress,” Times of Israel, September 5, 2020. For more information on QME, see CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp. Congressional Research Service 7 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief If the Administration seeks to sell the aircraft mentioned above to the UAE, the following points may be relevant to Israel’s stance on the proposed sale and congressional discussion of Israel’s QME:  The timing of any proposed sale, the type and quantity of aircraft, the features included in possible export versions for the UAE, and any conditions or limits on use of the aircraft.37  U.S. willingness to sell or provide additional arms to Israel.38 Iran and the Region Israeli officials cite Iran as a primary concern to Israeli officials, largely because of (1) antipathy toward Israel expressed by Iran’s revolutionary regime, (2) Iran’s broad regional influence (especially in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon),39 and (3) Iran’s nuclear and missile programs and advanced conventional weapons capabilities. Iranian Nuclear Issue and Regional Tensions
Prime Minister Netanyahu has sought to influence U.S. decisions on the international agreement Prime Minister Netanyahu has sought to influence U.S. decisions on the international agreement
on Iran’s nuclear program (known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or JCPOA). He on Iran’s nuclear program (known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or JCPOA). He
opposed the JCPOA in 2015 when it was negotiated by the Obama Administration, and welcomed opposed the JCPOA in 2015 when it was negotiated by the Obama Administration, and welcomed
President Trump’s May 2018 withdrawal of the United States from the JCPOA and President Trump’s May 2018 withdrawal of the United States from the JCPOA and
accompanying reimposition of U.S. sanctions on Iran’s core economic sectors. Facing the accompanying reimposition of U.S. sanctions on Iran’s core economic sectors. Facing the
intensified U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its compliance with the 2015 agreement. intensified U.S. sanctions, Iran has reduced its compliance with the 2015 agreement.
U.S.-Iran tensions since the U.S. withdrawal from the JCPOA have led to greater regional U.S.-Iran tensions since the U.S. withdrawal from the JCPOA have led to greater regional
uncertainty, with implications for Israel.uncertainty, with implications for Israel.2540 Some Israelis have voiced worries about how Iran’s Some Israelis have voiced worries about how Iran’s
apparent ability to penetrate Saudi air defenses and target Saudi oil facilities could transfer to apparent ability to penetrate Saudi air defenses and target Saudi oil facilities could transfer to
efforts in targeting Israel.efforts in targeting Israel.26

~~22 Israeli insistence on Palestinian recognition of Israel as the nation state of the Jewish people was reportedly~~
~~introduced into an Israeli-Palestinian negotiating context by Tzipi Livni when she was Israeli foreign minister during~~
~~the 2007-2008 Annapolis negotiations. “The Pursuit of Middle East Peace: A Status Report,” Ambassador Martin~~
~~Indyk, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, May 8, 2014. Other specified criteria for Palestinian statehood~~
~~include reforms in governance and rule of law, and anti-incitement in educational curricula.~~
~~23 CRS In Focus IF10644, The Palestinians: Overview and Key Issues for U.S. Policy, by Jim Zanotti.~~
~~24 For information on this topic, see CRS Report R44017, Iran’s Foreign and Defense Policies, by Kenneth Katzman.~~
~~25 See, e.g.~~41 Reports suggest that Israel may have been behind a July 2020 explosion that destroyed a number of advanced uranium enrichment centrifuges at Iran’s Natanz nuclear facility.42 The incident has triggered speculation about whether Israel might more regularly resort to clandestine means to counter Iran’s nuclear program and related projects, as it supposedly did during the years before the JCPOA. The July explosion took place some weeks after Iran and Israel reportedly exchanged cyberattacks—with Iran supposedly targeting Israel’s drinking water supply, and Israel supposedly targeting an Iranian seaport—and in the context of a number of mysterious explosions 37 See, for example, Joseph Trevithick, “Here’s How the U.S. Could Allay Israeli Concerns over Selling F-35s to UAE,” The Drive, August 27, 2020. 38 Ibid.; Anna Ahronheim, “US sale of F-35 jets to UAE will go ahead. What can Israel get in return?” jpost.com, August 24, 2020. Former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates wrote that, in 2010, the Obama Administration addressed concerns that Israel’s leaders had about the possible effect on QME of a large U.S. sale of F-15 aircraft to Saudi Arabia by agreeing to sell Israel additional F-35 aircraft. Eli Lake (citing Duty by Robert Gates), “In Gates Book, Details of Israel’s Hard Bargaining over Saudi Arms,” Daily Beast, January 10, 2014. 39 For information on this topic, see CRS Report R44017, Iran’s Foreign and Defense Policies, by Kenneth Katzman. 40 See, for example, CRS Report R45795, , CRS Report R45795, U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman, Kathleen , by Kenneth Katzman, Kathleen
J. McInnis, and Clayton Thomas. J. McInnis, and Clayton Thomas.
2641 Uzi Even, “Iran Attack on Saudi Arabia Shows Why Israel Must Shut Down Its Nuclear Reactor,” haaretz.com, Uzi Even, “Iran Attack on Saudi Arabia Shows Why Israel Must Shut Down Its Nuclear Reactor,” haaretz.com,
October 6, 2019. October 6, 2019.
~~Congressional Research Service~~

6

~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~Reports suggest that Israel may have been behind a July 2020 explosion that destroyed a number~~
~~of advanced uranium enrichment centrifuges at Iran’s Natanz nuclear facility.27 The incident has~~
~~triggered speculation about whether Israel might more regularly resort to clandestine means to~~
~~counter Iran’s nuclear program and related projects, as it supposedly did during the years before~~
~~the JCPOA. The July explosion took place some weeks after Iran and Israel reportedly exchanged~~
~~cyberattacks—with Iran supposedly targeting Israel’s drinking water supply, and Israel~~
~~supposedly targeting an Iranian seaport—and in the context of a number of mysterious explosions~~
~~affecting Iranian infrastructure.28~~42 Farnaz Fassihi, et al., “Explosion at Iran Nuclear Site Sets Back Enrichment Program,” New York Times, July 6, 2020. Congressional Research Service 8 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief affecting Iranian infrastructure.43 One Israeli media source reported, however, that the explosion One Israeli media source reported, however, that the explosion
apparently did not slow Iran’s ability to produce low-enriched uranium that could reduce its time apparently did not slow Iran’s ability to produce low-enriched uranium that could reduce its time
to “break out” to a nuclear weapon if it chose to do so.to “break out” to a nuclear weapon if it chose to do so.2944
Hezbollah
Lebanese Hezbollah is Iran’s closest and most powerful non-state ally in the region. Hezbollah’s Lebanese Hezbollah is Iran’s closest and most powerful non-state ally in the region. Hezbollah’s
forces and Israel’s military have sporadically clashed near the Lebanese border for decades—with forces and Israel’s military have sporadically clashed near the Lebanese border for decades—with
the antagonism at times contained in the border area, and at times escalating into broader the antagonism at times contained in the border area, and at times escalating into broader
conflict.conflict.3045 Speculation persists about the potential for wider conflict and its regional Speculation persists about the potential for wider conflict and its regional
implications.implications.3146 Israeli officials have sought to draw attention to Hezbollah’s buildup of mostly Israeli officials have sought to draw attention to Hezbollah’s buildup of mostly
Iran-supplied weapons—including reported upgrades to the range, precision, and power of its Iran-supplied weapons—including reported upgrades to the range, precision, and power of its
projectiles—and its alleged use of Lebanese civilian areas as strongholds.projectiles—and its alleged use of Lebanese civilian areas as strongholds.3247
Ongoing tension between Israel and Iran raises questions about the potential for Israel-Hezbollah Ongoing tension between Israel and Iran raises questions about the potential for Israel-Hezbollah
conflict. Various sources have referenced possible Iran-backed Hezbollah initiatives to build conflict. Various sources have referenced possible Iran-backed Hezbollah initiatives to build
precision-weapons factories in Lebanon.precision-weapons factories in Lebanon.3348 In July 2020, a reported Israeli airstrike in Syria In July 2020, a reported Israeli airstrike in Syria
presumably targeting alleged arms transfers to Hezbollah in Lebanon killed a Hezbollah presumably targeting alleged arms transfers to Hezbollah in Lebanon killed a Hezbollah
operative, raising questions about a possible Hezbollah response to reinforce deterrence based on operative, raising questions about a possible Hezbollah response to reinforce deterrence based on
its leadership’s past statements.its leadership’s past statements.3449 Israel’s military thwarted a subsequent attempt to attack Israeli Israel’s military thwarted a subsequent attempt to attack Israeli
military positions in the disputed Sheb’a Farms area that Israel treats as part of the Golan Heights. military positions in the disputed Sheb’a Farms area that Israel treats as part of the Golan Heights.
Some reports assess that Hezbollah does not want escalation, partly due to significant political Some reports assess that Hezbollah does not want escalation, partly due to significant political
and economic problems in Lebanon, but do not rule out the potential for heightened conflict and economic problems in Lebanon, but do not rule out the potential for heightened conflict
owing to miscalculation between Hezbollah and Israel.owing to miscalculation between Hezbollah and Israel.35

~~27 Farnaz Fassihi, et al., “Explosion at Iran Nuclear Site Sets Back Enrichment Program,” New York Times, July 6,~~
~~2020.~~
2850 Syria and Iraq: Reported Israeli Airstrikes Against Iran-Backed Forces Israel has reportedly undertaken airstrikes in conflict-plagued Syria and Iraq based on concerns that Iran and its allies could pose threats to Israeli security from there. Iran’s westward expansion of influence into Iraq and Syria over the past two decades has provided it with more ways to supply and support Hezbollah, apparently leading Israel to broaden its regional theater of military action.51 The U.S. base at At Tanf in southern Syria reportedly serves as an impediment to Iranian 43 Amos Harel, “The Explosion at Natanz Is a Direct Hit on Iran’s Nuclear Program,” haaretz.com, July 5, 2020; Dalia Amos Harel, “The Explosion at Natanz Is a Direct Hit on Iran’s Nuclear Program,” haaretz.com, July 5, 2020; Dalia
Dassa Kaye, “Has Israel been sabotaging Iran? Here’s what we know,” washingtonpost.com, July 15, 2020. Dassa Kaye, “Has Israel been sabotaging Iran? Here’s what we know,” washingtonpost.com, July 15, 2020.
2944 Jon Gambrell, “Blasts at Natanz site batter but don’t break Iran nuclear pursuits,” Jon Gambrell, “Blasts at Natanz site batter but don’t break Iran nuclear pursuits,” Times of Israel, July 16, 2020. , July 16, 2020.
3045 CRS Report R44759, CRS Report R44759, Lebanon, by Carla E. Humud; CRS In Focus IF10703, , by Carla E. Humud; CRS In Focus IF10703, Lebanese Hezbollah, by Carla E. , by Carla E.
Humud. Humud.
3146 For possible conflict scenarios, see Nicholas Blanford and Assaf Orion, For possible conflict scenarios, see Nicholas Blanford and Assaf Orion, Counting the cost: Avoiding another war
between Israel and Hezbollah, , Atlantic Council, May 13, 2020; Hanin Ghaddar, “How Will Hezbollah Respond to , May 13, 2020; Hanin Ghaddar, “How Will Hezbollah Respond to
Israel’s Drone Attack?” Israel’s Drone Attack?” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Policywatch 3171, August 28, 2019. , Policywatch 3171, August 28, 2019.
3247 See, See, ~~e.g.~~for example, Ben Hubbard and Ronen Bergman, “Who Warns Hezbollah That Israeli Strikes Are Coming? Israel,” , Ben Hubbard and Ronen Bergman, “Who Warns Hezbollah That Israeli Strikes Are Coming? Israel,” New
York Times, April 23, 2020; Seth Jones, “War by Proxy: Iran’s Growing Footprint in the Middle East,” , April 23, 2020; Seth Jones, “War by Proxy: Iran’s Growing Footprint in the Middle East,” Center for
Strategic and International Studies, March 11, 2019; Jonathan Spyer and Nicholas Blanford, “UPDATE: Israel raises , March 11, 2019; Jonathan Spyer and Nicholas Blanford, “UPDATE: Israel raises
alarm over advances by Hizbullah and Iran,” alarm over advances by Hizbullah and Iran,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, January 11, 2018. , January 11, 2018.
3348 Ben Caspit, “Hezbollah, Israel losing red lines,” Ben Caspit, “Hezbollah, Israel losing red lines,” Al-Monitor, September 4, 2019; Katherine Bauer, et al., “Iran’s , September 4, 2019; Katherine Bauer, et al., “Iran’s
Precision Missile Project Moves to Lebanon,” Precision Missile Project Moves to Lebanon,” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, December 2018. , December 2018.
3449 Amos Harel, “Hezbollah Failed to Attack Israel, but Made One Significant Achievement,” haaretz.com, August 1, Amos Harel, “Hezbollah Failed to Attack Israel, but Made One Significant Achievement,” haaretz.com, August 1,
2020. 2020.
3550 See, See, ~~e.g.~~for example, Amos Harel, “For Hezbollah, Beirut Devastation Makes Provoking Israel Even Riskier,” , Amos Harel, “For Hezbollah, Beirut Devastation Makes Provoking Israel Even Riskier,” haaretz.com, August 6, 2020. 51 Seth J. Frantzman, “Are Israeli Drones Targeting Hezbollah Officers in Syria?” nationalinterest.org, April 17, 2020; Congressional Research Service 9 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief efforts to create a land route for weapons from Iran to Lebanon.52~~haaretz.com,~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

7

~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~Syria and Iraq: Reported Israeli Airstrikes Against Iran-Backed Forces~~
~~Israel has reportedly undertaken airstrikes in conflict-plagued Syria and Iraq based on concerns~~
~~that Iran and its allies could pose threats to Israeli security from there. Iran’s westward expansion~~
~~of influence into Iraq and Syria over the past two decades has provided it with more ways to~~
~~supply and support Hezbollah, apparently leading Israel to broaden its regional theater of military~~
~~action.36 The U.S. base at At Tanf in southern Syria reportedly serves as an impediment to Iranian~~
~~efforts to create a land route for weapons from Iran to Lebanon.37~~ Russia, its airspace Russia, its airspace
deconfliction mechanism with Israel, and some advanced air defense systems that it has deployed deconfliction mechanism with Israel, and some advanced air defense systems that it has deployed
or transferred to Syria also influence the various actors involved.or transferred to Syria also influence the various actors involved.3853
Since 2018, Israeli and Iranian forces have repeatedly targeted one another in Syria or around the Since 2018, Israeli and Iranian forces have repeatedly targeted one another in Syria or around the
Syria-Israel border. After Iran helped Syria’s government regain control of much of the country, Syria-Israel border. After Iran helped Syria’s government regain control of much of the country,
Israeli leaders began pledging to prevent Iran from constructing and operating bases or advanced Israeli leaders began pledging to prevent Iran from constructing and operating bases or advanced
weapons manufacturing facilities in Syria.weapons manufacturing facilities in Syria.3954 In April 2020, then-Defense Minister Naftali Bennett In April 2020, then-Defense Minister Naftali Bennett
said that Israeli policy had shifted from blocking Iran’s entrenchment in Syria to forcing it out said that Israeli policy had shifted from blocking Iran’s entrenchment in Syria to forcing it out
entirely.entirely.4055
In Iraq, reports suggest that in the summer of 2019, Israel conducted airstrikes against weapons In Iraq, reports suggest that in the summer of 2019, Israel conducted airstrikes against weapons
depots or convoys that were connected with Iran-allied Shiite militias. A December 2019 media depots or convoys that were connected with Iran-allied Shiite militias. A December 2019 media
report citing U.S. officials claimed that Iran had built up a hidden arsenal of short-range ballistic report citing U.S. officials claimed that Iran had built up a hidden arsenal of short-range ballistic
missiles in Iraq that could pose a threat to U.S. regional partners, including Israel.missiles in Iraq that could pose a threat to U.S. regional partners, including Israel.4156 Perhaps Perhaps
owing to sensitivities involving U.S. forces in Iraq, then-Defense Minister Bennett suggested in owing to sensitivities involving U.S. forces in Iraq, then-Defense Minister Bennett suggested in
February 2020 that Israel would avoid further direct involvement there—leaving any efforts to February 2020 that Israel would avoid further direct involvement there—leaving any efforts to
counter Iran-backed forces in Iraq to the United States.counter Iran-backed forces in Iraq to the United States.4257
China: Investments in Israel and U.S. ~~Concerns43~~Concerns58
U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over burgeoning Chinese investments in U.S. officials have raised some concerns with Israel over burgeoning Chinese investments in
Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure.Israeli high-tech companies and civilian infrastructure.4459 Israel-China investment ties have grown Israel-China investment ties have grown
since China announced its Belt and Road Initiative in 2013,since China announced its Belt and Road Initiative in 2013,4560 with Israel as an attractive hub of with Israel as an attractive hub of

~~August 6, 2020.~~
~~36 Seth J. Frantzman, “Are Israeli Drones Targeting Hezbollah Officers In Syria?” nationalinterest.org, April 17, 2020;~~
~~Caspit, “Hezbollah, Israel losing red lines.”~~
37innovation for Chinese partners, and China as a huge potential export market and source of investment for Israeli businesses. Closer Israel-China economic relations have led to official U.S. expressions of concern,61 apparently focused on the possibility that China might gather intelligence or acquire technologies with the potential to threaten U.S. national security in such fields as cybersecurity, artificial Caspit, “Hezbollah, Israel losing red lines.” 52 Jones, “War by Proxy: Iran’s Growing Footprint in the Middle East.” Jones, “War by Proxy: Iran’s Growing Footprint in the Middle East.”
3853 Anna Ahronheim, “Russia: Syrian air defense nearly hit passenger plane after Israeli attack,” jpost.com, February 8, Anna Ahronheim, “Russia: Syrian air defense nearly hit passenger plane after Israeli attack,” jpost.com, February 8,
2020; Seth J. Frantzman, “What’s behind Russia’s criticism of Israeli airstrikes in Syria,” jpost.com, February 8, 2020. 2020; Seth J. Frantzman, “What’s behind Russia’s criticism of Israeli airstrikes in Syria,” jpost.com, February 8, 2020.
3954 See, See, ~~e.g.~~for example, Israeli Prime Minister’s Office, PM Netanyahu’s Speech at the United Nations General Assembly, , Israeli Prime Minister’s Office, PM Netanyahu’s Speech at the United Nations General Assembly,
September 27, 2018. September 27, 2018.
4055 “Defense minister: We’ve moved from blocking Iran in Syria to forcing it out,” “Defense minister: We’ve moved from blocking Iran in Syria to forcing it out,” Times of Israel, April 28, 2020. , April 28, 2020.
4156 Julian E. Barnes and Eric Schmitt, “Iran Is Secretly Moving Missiles Into Iraq, U.S. Officials Say,” Julian E. Barnes and Eric Schmitt, “Iran Is Secretly Moving Missiles Into Iraq, U.S. Officials Say,” New York Times, ,
December 5, 2019. December 5, 2019.
4257 Nati Yefet and Judah Ari Gross, “Bennett: US agreed to counter Iran in Iraq while Israel fights it in Syria,” Nati Yefet and Judah Ari Gross, “Bennett: US agreed to counter Iran in Iraq while Israel fights it in Syria,” Times of
Israel, February 10, 2020. , February 10, 2020.
4358 For background on past U.S. concerns regarding Israeli defense transactions with China, see CRS Report RL33476, For background on past U.S. concerns regarding Israeli defense transactions with China, see CRS Report RL33476,
Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti; CRS Report RL33222, , by Jim Zanotti; CRS Report RL33222, U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel, by Jeremy , by Jeremy
M. Sharp. M. Sharp.
4459 Shira Efron, et al., Shira Efron, et al., Chinese Investment in Israeli Technology and Infrastructure: Security Implications for Israel and
the United States, RAND Corporation, 2020; and Shira Efron, et al., , RAND Corporation, 2020; and Shira Efron, et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, RAND , RAND
Corporation, 2019. Corporation, 2019.
4560 For more information on the Belt and Road Initiative, see CRS Report R45898, For more information on the Belt and Road Initiative, see CRS Report R45898, U.S.-China Relations, coordinated by , coordinated by
~~Congressional Research Service~~

8

~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~innovation for Chinese partners, and China as a huge potential export market and source of~~
~~investment for Israeli businesses.~~
~~Closer Israel-China economic relations have led to official U.S. expressions of concern,46~~
~~apparently focused on the possibility that China might gather intelligence or acquire technologies~~
~~with the potential to threaten U.S. national security in such fields as cybersecurity, artificial~~
Susan V. Lawrence. 61 Ron Kampeas, “Breaking China: A rupture looms between Israel and the United States,” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, June 2, 2020. Congressional Research Service 10 Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief intelligence, satellite communications, and robotics. Previously, China-Israel defense industry intelligence, satellite communications, and robotics. Previously, China-Israel defense industry
cooperation in the 1990s and 2000s contributed to tension in the U.S.-Israel defense relationship cooperation in the 1990s and 2000s contributed to tension in the U.S.-Israel defense relationship
and to an apparent de facto U.S. veto over Israeli arms sales to China.and to an apparent de facto U.S. veto over Israeli arms sales to China.4762 In passing the FY2020 In passing the FY2020
National Defense Authorization Act (S. 1790), the Senate expressed its sense (in Section 1289) National Defense Authorization Act (S. 1790), the Senate expressed its sense (in Section 1289)
that the U.S. government should “urge the Government of Israel to consider the security that the U.S. government should “urge the Government of Israel to consider the security
implications of foreign investment in Israel.” Partly due to U.S. concerns regarding China’s implications of foreign investment in Israel.” Partly due to U.S. concerns regarding China’s
involvement in Israel’s economy, Israel created an advisory panel on foreign investment in Israel involvement in Israel’s economy, Israel created an advisory panel on foreign investment in Israel
in late 2019.in late 2019.4863 However, this panel reportedly does not have the authority to review investments However, this panel reportedly does not have the authority to review investments
in sectors such as high-tech that accounted for most of China’s investments in Israel in the in sectors such as high-tech that accounted for most of China’s investments in Israel in the
previous decade.previous decade.4964 Apparently, debate continues within Israel’s government about how to balance Apparently, debate continues within Israel’s government about how to balance
economic interests with national security concerns.economic interests with national security concerns.5065
In the past two years, U.S. officials have made notable efforts to discourage Chinese involvement In the past two years, U.S. officials have made notable efforts to discourage Chinese involvement
in specific Israeli infrastructure projects. President Trump reportedly warned Prime Minister in specific Israeli infrastructure projects. President Trump reportedly warned Prime Minister
Netanyahu in March 2019 that U.S. security assistance for and cooperation with Israel could be Netanyahu in March 2019 that U.S. security assistance for and cooperation with Israel could be
limited if Chinese companies Huawei and ZTE establish a 5G communications network in Israel, limited if Chinese companies Huawei and ZTE establish a 5G communications network in Israel,
in line with similar warnings that the Administration communicated to other U.S. allies and in line with similar warnings that the Administration communicated to other U.S. allies and
partners.partners.5166 Two Israeli analysts wrote in March 2020 that Israeli officials have reportedly blocked Two Israeli analysts wrote in March 2020 that Israeli officials have reportedly blocked
Chinese companies from working on Israeli communications infrastructure.Chinese companies from working on Israeli communications infrastructure.5267 Additionally, the Additionally, the
U.S. Navy is reportedly reconsidering its practice of periodically docking at the Israeli naval base U.S. Navy is reportedly reconsidering its practice of periodically docking at the Israeli naval base
in Haifa, because a state-owned Chinese company (the Shanghai International Port Group) has in Haifa, because a state-owned Chinese company (the Shanghai International Port Group) has
secured the contract to operate a new terminal at Haifa’s seaport for 25 years (beginning in secured the contract to operate a new terminal at Haifa’s seaport for 25 years (beginning in
2021).2021).5368 Other state-owned Chinese companies are developing a new port in Ashdod (which also Other state-owned Chinese companies are developing a new port in Ashdod (which also
hosts an Israeli naval base), and taking part in construction for Tel Aviv’s light rail system and hosts an Israeli naval base), and taking part in construction for Tel Aviv’s light rail system and
road tunnels in Haifa.road tunnels in Haifa.5469 In May 2020, shortly after Secretary of State Michael Pompeo visited In May 2020, shortly after Secretary of State Michael Pompeo visited
Israel and voiced concern that Chinese access to Israeli infrastructure could complicate U.S.-Israel and voiced concern that Chinese access to Israeli infrastructure could complicate U.S.-
Israel cooperation, Israel’s finance ministry chose a domestic contractor to construct a $1.5 Israel cooperation, Israel’s finance ministry chose a domestic contractor to construct a $1.5

~~Susan V. Lawrence.~~
~~46 Ron Kampeas, “Breaking China: A rupture looms between Israel and the United States,” Jewish Telegraphic Agency,~~
~~June 2, 2020.~~
47billion desalination plant, turning down the bid from a subsidiary of the Hong Kong-based CK Hutchison Group.70 62 Efron, et al., Efron, et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, 2019, pp. 15-20. , 2019, pp. 15-20.
4863 Arie Egozi, “Israelis Create Foreign Investment Overseer; China Targeted,” Breaking Defense, November 13, 2019. Arie Egozi, “Israelis Create Foreign Investment Overseer; China Targeted,” Breaking Defense, November 13, 2019.
4964 Efron, et al., Efron, et al., Chinese Investment in Israeli Technology,, 2020, pp. 24-25. 2020, pp. 24-25.
5065 James M. Dorsey, “Israel-China Relations: Staring Into the Abyss of US-Chinese Decoupling,” James M. Dorsey, “Israel-China Relations: Staring Into the Abyss of US-Chinese Decoupling,” The Globalist, June , June
9, 2020; Mercy A. Kuo, “US-China-Israel Relations: Pompeo’s Visit,” 9, 2020; Mercy A. Kuo, “US-China-Israel Relations: Pompeo’s Visit,” The Diplomat, May 27, 2020. , May 27, 2020.
5166 Hiddai Segev, Doron Ella, and Assaf Orion, “My Way or the Huawei? The United States-China Race for 5G Hiddai Segev, Doron Ella, and Assaf Orion, “My Way or the Huawei? The United States-China Race for 5G
Dominance,” Dominance,” Institute for National Security Studies Insight No. 1193, July 15, 2019. Insight No. 1193, July 15, 2019.
5267 Hiddai Segev and Assaf Orion, “The Great Power Competition over 5G Communications: Limited Success for the Hiddai Segev and Assaf Orion, “The Great Power Competition over 5G Communications: Limited Success for the
American Campaign against Huawei,” American Campaign against Huawei,” Institute for National Security Studies Insight No. 1268, March 3, 2020. Insight No. 1268, March 3, 2020.
5368 Roie Yellinek, “The Israel-China-U.S. Triangle and the Haifa Port Project,” Roie Yellinek, “The Israel-China-U.S. Triangle and the Haifa Port Project,” Middle East Institute, November 27, , November 27,
2018. Section 1289 of S. 1790 also contains a provision stating that the United States has an interest in continuing to 2018. Section 1289 of S. 1790 also contains a provision stating that the United States has an interest in continuing to
use the naval base in Haifa, but has “serious security concerns” with respect to the leasing arrangements at the Haifa use the naval base in Haifa, but has “serious security concerns” with respect to the leasing arrangements at the Haifa
port. Reportedly, the Israeli government plans to limit sensitive roles at the port to Israelis with security clearances. port. Reportedly, the Israeli government plans to limit sensitive roles at the port to Israelis with security clearances.
Jack Detsch, “Pentagon repeats warning to Israel on Chinese port deal,” Jack Detsch, “Pentagon repeats warning to Israel on Chinese port deal,” Al-Monitor, August 7, 2019. , August 7, 2019.
5469 Efron, et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, 2019, p. 38. 70 “Amid US pressure, Israel taps local firm over China for $1.5b desalination plant,” Times of Israel, May 26, 2020. Congressional Research Service 11 ~~Efron, et al., The Evolving Israel-China Relationship, 2019, p. 38.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

9

~~Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief~~

~~billion desalination plant, turning down the bid from a subsidiary of the Hong Kong-based CK~~
~~Hutchison Group.55~~
~~U.S. Security Cooperation~~
~~While Israel maintains robust military and homeland security capabilities, it also cooperates~~
~~closely with the United States on national security matters. U.S. law requires the executive branch~~
~~to take certain actions to preserve Israel’s “qualitative military edge,” or QME.56 Additionally, a~~
~~10-year bilateral military aid memorandum of understanding (MOU)—signed in 2016—commits~~
~~the United States to provide Israel $3.3 billion in Foreign Military Financing and to spend $500~~
~~million annually on joint missile defense programs from FY2019 to FY2028, subject to~~
~~congressional appropriations. The United States and Israel do not have a mutual defense treaty or~~
~~agreement that provides formal U.S. security guarantees,57 though some discussions about the~~
~~possibility of a treaty have apparently taken place since September 2019.58~~

~~55 “Amid US pressure, Israel taps local firm over China for $1.5b desalination plant,” Times of Israel, May 26, 2020.~~
~~56 CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti; CRS Report RL33222,~~ ~~U.S. Foreign~~
~~Aid to Israel, by Jeremy M. Sharp.~~
~~57 The United States and Israel do, however, have a Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement (TIAS 2675, dated July 23,~~
~~1952) in effect regarding the provision of U.S. military equipment to Israel, and have entered into a range of stand-~~
~~alone agreements, memoranda of understanding, and other arrangements varying in their formality.~~
~~58 Raphael Ahren, “After Pompeo meet, Netanyahu says Israel has ‘full right’ to annex Jordan Valley,” Times of Israel,~~
~~December 5, 2019; “Trump says he talked Mutual Defense Pact with Netanyahu, will pick up after vote,”~~ ~~Times of~~
~~Israel, September 14, 2019.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

10

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Appendix A. Map and Basic Facts
Figure A-1. Israel: Map and Basic Facts

Sources: Graphic created by CRS. Map boundaries and information generated by Hannah Fischer using Graphic created by CRS. Map boundaries and information generated by Hannah Fischer using
Department of State Boundaries (2011); Esri (2013); the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency GeoNames Department of State Boundaries (2011); Esri (2013); the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency GeoNames
Database (2015); DeLorme (2014). Fact information from CIA, Database (2015); DeLorme (2014). Fact information from CIA, The World Factbook; Economist Intelligence Unit; ; Economist Intelligence Unit;
IMF World Economic Outlook Database. All numbers are estimates as of 2020 unless specified. Numbers for IMF World Economic Outlook Database. All numbers are estimates as of 2020 unless specified. Numbers for
2021 are projections. 2021 are projections.
Notes: According to the U.S. executive branch: (1) The West Bank is Israeli occupied with current status According to the U.S. executive branch: (1) The West Bank is Israeli occupied with current status
subject to the 1995 Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement; permanent status to be determined through further subject to the 1995 Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement; permanent status to be determined through further
negotiation. (2) The status of the Gaza Strip is a final status issue to be resolved through negotiations. (3) The negotiation. (2) The status of the Gaza Strip is a final status issue to be resolved through negotiations. (3) The
United States recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital in 2017 without taking a position on the specific boundaries United States recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital in 2017 without taking a position on the specific boundaries
of Israeli sovereignty. (4) Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative. Additionally, the United States of Israeli sovereignty. (4) Boundary representation is not necessarily authoritative. Additionally, the United States
recognized the Golan Heights as part of Israel in 2019; however, U.N. Security Council Resolution 497, adopted recognized the Golan Heights as part of Israel in 2019; however, U.N. Security Council Resolution 497, adopted
on December 17, 1981, held that the area of the Golan Heights control ed by Israel’s military is occupied on December 17, 1981, held that the area of the Golan Heights control ed by Israel’s military is occupied
territory belonging to Syria. The current U.S. executive branch map of Israel is available at https://www.cia.gov/territory belonging to Syria. The current U.S. executive branch map of Israel is available at https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/maps/IS-map.gif. library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/maps/IS-map.gif.

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1112

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Appendix B. Indictments Against Netanyahu and
Steps of the Legal Process
Indictments
Case 1000: Netanyahu received favors from Hollywood mogul Arnon Milchan and Australian
billionaire James Packer, in return for taking actions in Milchan’s favor.
The charge: Fraud and breach of trust : Fraud and breach of trust
Netanyahu’s defense: There is no legal problem in receiving gifts from friends; did not : There is no legal problem in receiving gifts from friends; did not
know that his family members requested gifts. know that his family members requested gifts.
Case 2000: Netanyahu and Yedioth Ahronoth publisher Arnon Mozes struck a deal: Favorable
coverage for Netanyahu in return for limiting the circulation of the Sheldon Adelson-owned newspaper
Israel Hayom.
The charge: Fraud and breach of trust : Fraud and breach of trust
Netanyahu’s defense: He had no intention of implementing the deal, and relations : He had no intention of implementing the deal, and relations
between politicians and the media should not be criminalized.between politicians and the media should not be criminalized.
Case 4000: As communication minister, Netanyahu took steps that benefited Shaul Elovitch who
controlled telecom company Bezeq—in return for favorable coverage in Bezeq’s Walla News site
The charge: Bribery, fraud and breach of trust : Bribery, fraud and breach of trust
Netanyahu’s defense: There is no evidence that he was aware of making regulations : There is no evidence that he was aware of making regulations
contingent on favorable coverage.contingent on favorable coverage.
Selected Steps in the Legal Process, and
the Time Between Them

Sources: For “Indictments,” the content comes from For “Indictments,” the content comes from Ha’aretz graphics adapted by CRS. For “Selected Steps in graphics adapted by CRS. For “Selected Steps in
the Legal Process, and the Time Between Them,” CRS prepared the graphic and made slight content adjustments the Legal Process, and the Time Between Them,” CRS prepared the graphic and made slight content adjustments
to underlying source material fromto underlying source material from Britain Israel Communications and Research Centre. The interval listed Britain Israel Communications and Research Centre. The interval listed
between Steps 4-5 is an estimate. between Steps 4-5 is an estimate.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1213

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Appendix C. Israeli Political Parties in the Knesset
and Their Leaders
RIGHT
Likud (Consolidation) – 36 Knesset seats (Coalition) (Consolidation) – 36 Knesset seats (Coalition)
Israel’s historical repository of right-of-center nationalist ideology; skeptical of Israel’s historical repository of right-of-center nationalist ideology; skeptical of
territorial compromise; has also championed free-market policies. territorial compromise; has also championed free-market policies.
Leader: Binyamin Netanyahu
Born in 1949, Netanyahu has served as prime minister since 2009 and also was prime Born in 1949, Netanyahu has served as prime minister since 2009 and also was prime
minister from 1996 to 1999. Netanyahu served in an elite special forces unit (Sayeret minister from 1996 to 1999. Netanyahu served in an elite special forces unit (Sayeret
Matkal), and received his higher education at MIT. Throughout a career in politics and Matkal), and received his higher education at MIT. Throughout a career in politics and
diplomacy, he has been renowned both for his skepticism regarding the exchange of diplomacy, he has been renowned both for his skepticism regarding the exchange of
land for peace with the Palestinians and his desire to counter Iran’s nuclear program land for peace with the Palestinians and his desire to counter Iran’s nuclear program
and regional influence. He is generally regarded as both a consummate political and regional influence. He is generally regarded as both a consummate political
dealmaker and a security-minded nationalist. However, he has negotiated with the dealmaker and a security-minded nationalist. However, he has negotiated with the
Palestinians, and many observers discern cautiousness in Netanyahu’s decisions Palestinians, and many observers discern cautiousness in Netanyahu’s decisions
regarding the nature and scale of military operations. His rhetorical support for more regarding the nature and scale of military operations. His rhetorical support for more
assertive populist and nationalistic measures (including diminishing judicial powers and assertive populist and nationalistic measures (including diminishing judicial powers and
annexing West Bank territory) has increased after criminal allegations surfaced annexing West Bank territory) has increased after criminal allegations surfaced
against him for corruption, and after President Trump took office.against him for corruption, and after President Trump took office.
Yisrael Beitenu (Israel Our Home) – 7 seats (Opposition) (Israel Our Home) – 7 seats (Opposition)
Pro-secular, right-of-center nationalist party with base of support among Russian Pro-secular, right-of-center nationalist party with base of support among Russian
speakers from the former Soviet Union. speakers from the former Soviet Union.
Leader: Avigdor Lieberman
Born in 1958, Lieberman served as Israel’s defense minister until his resignation in Born in 1958, Lieberman served as Israel’s defense minister until his resignation in
November 2018. He served as Israel’s foreign minister for most of the period from November 2018. He served as Israel’s foreign minister for most of the period from
2009 to May 2015 and is generally viewed as an ardent nationalist and canny political 2009 to May 2015 and is generally viewed as an ardent nationalist and canny political
actor with prime ministerial aspirations. Lieberman was born in the Soviet Union (in actor with prime ministerial aspirations. Lieberman was born in the Soviet Union (in
what is now Moldova) and immigrated to Israel in 1978. He worked under Netanyahu what is now Moldova) and immigrated to Israel in 1978. He worked under Netanyahu
from 1988 to 1997. Disil usioned by Netanyahu’s wil ingness to consider concessions from 1988 to 1997. Disil usioned by Netanyahu’s wil ingness to consider concessions
to the Palestinians, Lieberman founded Yisrael Beitenu as a platform for former to the Palestinians, Lieberman founded Yisrael Beitenu as a platform for former
Soviet immigrants. He was acquitted of corruption allegations in a 2013 case. Soviet immigrants. He was acquitted of corruption allegations in a 2013 case.
Yamina (Right) – 5 seats (Opposition) (Right) – 5 seats (Opposition)
Right-of-center merger of three parties: New Right, Jewish Home, and National Right-of-center merger of three parties: New Right, Jewish Home, and National
Union; base of support among religious Zionists (mostly Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews); Union; base of support among religious Zionists (mostly Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews);
includes core constituencies supporting West Bank settlements and annexation. includes core constituencies supporting West Bank settlements and annexation.
Leader: Naftali Bennett
Born in 1972, Bennett served previously as defense, education, and economy Born in 1972, Bennett served previously as defense, education, and economy
minister. He served in various special forces units (including as a reservist during the minister. He served in various special forces units (including as a reservist during the
2006 Hezbol ah conflict in Lebanon). Bennett was a successful software entrepreneur 2006 Hezbol ah conflict in Lebanon). Bennett was a successful software entrepreneur
and has lived in America. He served as Netanyahu’s chief of staff from 2006 to 2008 and has lived in America. He served as Netanyahu’s chief of staff from 2006 to 2008
while Netanyahu was opposition leader. He led the Yesha Council (the umbrella while Netanyahu was opposition leader. He led the Yesha Council (the umbrella
organization for Israeli West Bank settlers) from 2010 to 2012. organization for Israeli West Bank settlers) from 2010 to 2012.

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1314

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

LEFT
Labor (Avoda) – 3 seats (Coalition) (Avoda) – 3 seats (Coalition)
Labor is Israel’s historical repository of social democratic, left-of-center, pro-secular Labor is Israel’s historical repository of social democratic, left-of-center, pro-secular
Zionist ideology; associated with efforts to end Israel’s responsibility for Palestinians Zionist ideology; associated with efforts to end Israel’s responsibility for Palestinians
in the West Bank and Gaza. in the West Bank and Gaza.
Leader: Amir Peretz
Born in 1952, Peretz is Israel’s economy minister. He became Labor’s leader for the Born in 1952, Peretz is Israel’s economy minister. He became Labor’s leader for the
second time in July 2019, after serving as party leader from 2005 to 2007. He was second time in July 2019, after serving as party leader from 2005 to 2007. He was

first elected to the Knesset in 1988 and has served as defense minister (during the first elected to the Knesset in 1988 and has served as defense minister (during the
2006 Hezbol ah conflict) and environment minister. Peretz was a farmer in southern 2006 Hezbol ah conflict) and environment minister. Peretz was a farmer in southern
Israel and served as mayor of Sderot before joining the Knesset. Israel and served as mayor of Sderot before joining the Knesset.

Meretz (Vigor) – 3 seats (Opposition) (Vigor) – 3 seats (Opposition)
Meretz is a pro-secular Zionist party that supports initiatives for social justice and Meretz is a pro-secular Zionist party that supports initiatives for social justice and
peace with the Palestinians, and former Prime Minister Ehud Barak’s Israel peace with the Palestinians, and former Prime Minister Ehud Barak’s Israel
Democratic Party. Democratic Party.
Leader: Nitzan Horowitz
Born in 1965, Horowitz became Meretz’s leader in June 2019 and was first elected to Born in 1965, Horowitz became Meretz’s leader in June 2019 and was first elected to
the Knesset in 2009. He had a long career as a prominent journalist before entering the Knesset in 2009. He had a long career as a prominent journalist before entering
politics. politics.
CENTER
Kahol Lavan (Blue and White) – 15 seats (Coalition) (Blue and White) – 15 seats (Coalition)
Centrist party largely formed as an alternative to Prime Minister Netanyahu, Centrist party largely formed as an alternative to Prime Minister Netanyahu,
ostensibly seeking to preserve long-standing Israeli institutions such as the judiciary, ostensibly seeking to preserve long-standing Israeli institutions such as the judiciary,
articulate a vision of Israeli nationalism that is more inclusive of Druze and Arab articulate a vision of Israeli nationalism that is more inclusive of Druze and Arab
citizens, and have greater sensitivity to international opinion on Israeli-Palestinian citizens, and have greater sensitivity to international opinion on Israeli-Palestinian
issues. issues.

Leader: Benny Gantz
Born in 1959, Gantz is Israel’s defense minister and alternate prime minister, and is Born in 1959, Gantz is Israel’s defense minister and alternate prime minister, and is
scheduled to become prime minister by November 2021 under the unity agreement scheduled to become prime minister by November 2021 under the unity agreement
with Netanyahu. He served as Chief of General Staff of the Israel Defense Forces with Netanyahu. He served as Chief of General Staff of the Israel Defense Forces
from 2011 to 2015. He established Hosen L’Yisrael (Israel Resilience Party) in from 2011 to 2015. He established Hosen L’Yisrael (Israel Resilience Party) in
December 2018. Hosen L’Yisrael merged with the Yesh Atid and Telem parties for December 2018. Hosen L’Yisrael merged with the Yesh Atid and Telem parties for
the April 2019, September 2019, and March 2020 elections under the Kahol Lavan the April 2019, September 2019, and March 2020 elections under the Kahol Lavan
name. When the party split in March 2020 after Gantz agreed to pursue a unity name. When the party split in March 2020 after Gantz agreed to pursue a unity
government with Netanyahu, Hosen L’Yisrael kept the Kahol Lavan name. He has government with Netanyahu, Hosen L’Yisrael kept the Kahol Lavan name. He has
sought to draw contrasts with Netanyahu less through policy specifics than by sought to draw contrasts with Netanyahu less through policy specifics than by
presenting himself as a figure who is less polarizing and less populist. presenting himself as a figure who is less polarizing and less populist.
Yesh Atid-Telem – 16 seats (Opposition) – 16 seats (Opposition)
Yesh Atid (There Is a Future) is a centrist party in existence since 2012 that has Yesh Atid (There Is a Future) is a centrist party in existence since 2012 that has
championed socioeconomic issues such as cost of living and has taken a pro-secular championed socioeconomic issues such as cost of living and has taken a pro-secular
stance. Telem (Hebrew acronym for National Statesman-like Movement) formed in stance. Telem (Hebrew acronym for National Statesman-like Movement) formed in
January 2019 by former Defense Minister Moshe Ya’alon as a center-right, pro-January 2019 by former Defense Minister Moshe Ya’alon as a center-right, pro-
nationalist alternative to Netanyahu. The parties merged with Hosen L’Yisrael in early nationalist alternative to Netanyahu. The parties merged with Hosen L’Yisrael in early
2019, then split from it in March 2020. 2019, then split from it in March 2020.
Leader: Yair Lapid
Born in 1963, Lapid is the leader of the opposition in the Knesset. He came to Born in 1963, Lapid is the leader of the opposition in the Knesset. He came to
politics after a career as a journalist, television presenter, and author. He founded the politics after a career as a journalist, television presenter, and author. He founded the
Yesh Atid party in 2012, and from 2013 to 2014 he served as finance minister. Yesh Atid party in 2012, and from 2013 to 2014 he served as finance minister.

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1415

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Derech Eretz (Way of the Land) – 2 seats (Coalition) (Way of the Land) – 2 seats (Coalition)
Center-right faction formed from the split of Kahol Lavan in March 2020. Center-right faction formed from the split of Kahol Lavan in March 2020.
Leaders: Zvi Hauser and Yoaz Hendel
Born in 1968, Hauser was Netanyahu’s cabinet secretary from 2009 to 2013 and later Born in 1968, Hauser was Netanyahu’s cabinet secretary from 2009 to 2013 and later
led a coalition promoting recognition of Israeli sovereignty over the Golan Heights. led a coalition promoting recognition of Israeli sovereignty over the Golan Heights.
Born in 1975, Hendel is Israel’s communications minister. He has been an academic, Born in 1975, Hendel is Israel’s communications minister. He has been an academic,
journalist, and author covering national security issues. Both men joined Telem in journalist, and author covering national security issues. Both men joined Telem in
early 2019 but formed Derech Eretz when Telem refused to join a unity government early 2019 but formed Derech Eretz when Telem refused to join a unity government
in March 2020. in March 2020.

ULTRA-ORTHODOX
Shas (Sephardic Torah Guardians) – 9 seats (Coalition) (Sephardic Torah Guardians) – 9 seats (Coalition)
Mizrahi Haredi (“ultra-Orthodox”) party; favors welfare and education funds in Mizrahi Haredi (“ultra-Orthodox”) party; favors welfare and education funds in
support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes compromise with Palestinians on control over support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes compromise with Palestinians on control over
Jerusalem. Jerusalem.
Leader: Aryeh Deri
Born in 1959, Deri is Israel’s interior minister and minister for Negev and Galilee Born in 1959, Deri is Israel’s interior minister and minister for Negev and Galilee
development. He led Shas from 1983 to 1999 before being convicted for bribery, development. He led Shas from 1983 to 1999 before being convicted for bribery,
fraud, and breach of trust in 1999 for actions taken while serving as interior minister. fraud, and breach of trust in 1999 for actions taken while serving as interior minister.
He returned as the party’s leader in 2013. He returned as the party’s leader in 2013.

United Torah Judaism – 7 seats (Coalition) – 7 seats (Coalition)
Ashkenazi Haredi coalition (Agudat Yisrael and Degel Ha’torah); favors welfare and Ashkenazi Haredi coalition (Agudat Yisrael and Degel Ha’torah); favors welfare and
education funds in support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes territorial compromise with education funds in support of Haredi lifestyle; opposes territorial compromise with
Palestinians and conscription of Haredim; generally seeks greater application of Jewish Palestinians and conscription of Haredim; generally seeks greater application of Jewish
law. law.
Leader: Yaakov Litzman
Born in 1948, Litzman is Israel’s construction and housing minister. He was born in Born in 1948, Litzman is Israel’s construction and housing minister. He was born in
Germany and raised in the United States before immigrating to Israel in 1965. Germany and raised in the United States before immigrating to Israel in 1965.
Educated in yeshivas (traditional Jewish schools), he later served as principal of a Educated in yeshivas (traditional Jewish schools), he later served as principal of a
Hasidic girls’ school in Jerusalem. He was first elected to the Knesset in 1999 and has Hasidic girls’ school in Jerusalem. He was first elected to the Knesset in 1999 and has
previously served as a member of the Knesset’s finance committee. previously served as a member of the Knesset’s finance committee.
ARAB
Joint List – 15 seats (Opposition) – 15 seats (Opposition)
Electoral slate featuring four Arab parties that combine socialist, Islamist, and Arab Electoral slate featuring four Arab parties that combine socialist, Islamist, and Arab
nationalist political strains: Hadashnationalist political strains: Hadash (Democratic Front for Peace and Equality), Ta’al (Democratic Front for Peace and Equality), Ta’al
(Arab Movement for Renewal), Ra’am(Arab Movement for Renewal), Ra’am (United Arab List), Balad(United Arab List), Balad (National Democratic (National Democratic
Assembly). Assembly).
Leader: Ayman Odeh
Born in 1975, Odeh is the leader of Hadash, an Arab Israeli socialist party, and of the Born in 1975, Odeh is the leader of Hadash, an Arab Israeli socialist party, and of the
Joint List. An attorney, he served on the Haifa city council before becoming Hadash’s Joint List. An attorney, he served on the Haifa city council before becoming Hadash’s
national leader in 2006. He supports a more democratic, egalitarian, and peace- national leader in 2006. He supports a more democratic, egalitarian, and peace-
seeking society, and has sought protection for unrecognized Bedouin vil ages and seeking society, and has sought protection for unrecognized Bedouin vil ages and
advocated for drafting young Arab Israelis for military or civilian national service. advocated for drafting young Arab Israelis for military or civilian national service.

Sources: Various open sources. Various open sources.
Note: Knesset seat numbers based on results from the March 2, 2020, election. The Gesher (Bridge) party has a Knesset seat numbers based on results from the March 2, 2020, election. The Gesher (Bridge) party has a
single member of the Knesset, Orly Levi-Abekasis, who is part of the coalition. Rafi Peretz split from the Yamina single member of the Knesset, Orly Levi-Abekasis, who is part of the coalition. Rafi Peretz split from the Yamina
party to join the coalition.party to join the coalition.

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1516

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Appendix D. Maps Related to U.S. Plan
Figure D-1. Conceptual Map of Israel

Source: White House, White House, Peace to Prosperity: A Vision to Improve the Lives of the Palestinian and Israeli People, January , January
2020. 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1617

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Figure D-2. Conceptual Map of Future Palestinian State

Source: White House, White House, Peace to Prosperity: A Vision to Improve the Lives of the Palestinian and Israeli People, January , January
2020. 2020.

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1718

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Figure D-3. Unofficial Map with Green Line

Notes: Green lines on map represent 1949-1967 Israel-Jordan armistice line (for West Bank) and 1950-1967 Green lines on map represent 1949-1967 Israel-Jordan armistice line (for West Bank) and 1950-1967
Israel-Egypt armistice line (for Gaza). All borders are approximate. Israel-Egypt armistice line (for Gaza). All borders are approximate.

~~Author Information~~

~~Jim Zanotti~~

~~Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs~~

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

1819

Israel: Background and U.S. Relations in Brief

Author Information Jim Zanotti Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material. copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
R44245 R44245 · VERSION 7179 · UPDATED
1920