Contents

• Domestic Issues
Overview
• Recent Developments
• Rohingya
Political Dynamics
• International Crimes Tribunal
• Human Rights
• Rohingya
• Labor Issues/Factory Safety
• Security Situation
• International Crimes Tribunal
• Bangladesh-U.S. Relations
• U.S.-Bangladesh Bilateral Forums
• Security Cooperation
• Foreign Assistance
• U.S.-Bangladesh Trade
• U.S. Human Rights Concerns
• Political Setting
• International Crimes Tribunal
• Human Rights
• Rohingya
• Violence in Arakan (Rahkine) State
• Possible Militant Ties
• U.S. Government Response to the Rohingya Crisis
• Bangladesh Government Response to the Rohingya Crisis
• Labor Issues/Factory Safety
• Peacekeeping
Economic Development and Trade
• Environmental, Climate, and Food Security
• Regional Issues
• Islamist Extremism
• Geopolitical Context
• India
• China
• Bangladesh-U.S. Relations

Summary

Bangladesh (the former East Pakistan) is a Muslim-majority nation in South Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, dominated by low-lying riparian zonesIndia, Burma, and the Bay of Bengal. It is the world's eighth most populous country, with approximately with nearly 160 million people housedliving in a land massarea about the size of Iowa. It is aan economically poor nation, and it suffers from high levels of corruption and a faltering democratic system that has been subject to an array of pressures in recent years. These pressures include a combination of political violence, corruption, . In recent years, its democratic system has faced an array of challenges, including political violence, weak governance, poverty, demographic and environmental stressstrains, and Islamist militancy. The United States has a long-standing and supportive relationsrelationship with Bangladesh, and it views Bangladesh as a moderate voice in the Islamic world. TheIn relations with Dhaka, Bangladesh's capital, the U.S. government and, along with Members of Congress have, has focused on issues relateda range of issues, especially those relating to economic development, humanitarian concerns, labor rights, human rights, good governance, and counterterrorism among other issues as part of the United States' bilateral relationship with Bangladesh.

The Awami League (AL) and the Bangladesh NationalNationalist Party (BNP) dominate Bangladeshi politics. When in opposition, both parties have at times sought to regain control of the government through demonstrations, labor strikes, and transport blockades. Such mass protests are known as hartals in South Asia. The current AL government of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina was reelected in January 2014 with an overwhelming majority in parliament. Hasina has been in office since 2009. The BNP, led by Khaleda Zia, boycotted the 2014 election. The AL , as well as at the ballot box. Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina has been in office since 2009, and her AL party was reelected in January 2014 with an overwhelming majority in parliament—in part because the BNP, led by Khaleda Zia, boycotted the vote. The BNP has called for new elections, and in recent years, it has organized a series of blockades and strikes. The AL also has moved forward with a war crimes tribunal to prosecute atrocities from the 1971 war of independence from Pakistan. Street protests and political instability continued in 2015 as the BNP has called for new elections and a return to the system of caretaker government in the lead up to elections. committed during Bangladesh's war of independence from Pakistan in 1971. Many of the accused have been political opponents of the AL government. There is little optimism among observers that the AL and the BNP will find a compromise for their political differences. Speculation continues that, should the situation deteriorate further, the army could intervene to break the political impasse. Some analysts are concerned thatover their political differences, and some analysts are concerned that the political crisis could increase the influence of Islamist extremists could increase and further destabilize the country. These concerns are heightened by the ongoing political crisis as some observers fear this turmoil may create opportunities for Islamists by diminishing the government's ability to monitor and combat militants. Islamist militants have been vigorously pursued by Bangladesh authorities reportedly with success. Despite this, reports indicate that some groups continue to be able to regroup after successful government operations against them. There are also reports that may indicate increasing transnational linkages with terrorist groups outside of Bangladesh.

Recent Developments

Political Dynamics

International Crimes Tribunal

Human Rights

Rohingya³⁶

Labor Issues/Factory Safety⁴³

Economic Development and Trade

Figure 1. Bangladesh Gross Exports and Importance of Textiles 2013 Percentage of Total Exports by Sector

Source: The Atlas of Economic Complexity, http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tree_map/export/bgd/all/show/2013/. Notes: Data reformulated by William Mackey, CRS.

Environmental, Climate, and Food Security

Regional Issues

Islamist Extremism

Geopolitical Context

India

China

Bangladesh-U.S. Relations

Figure 2. Map of Bangladesh

Economic Support and Development Fund

Foreign Military Financing

Global Health Programs (USAID)

International Military Education and Training

International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement

Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining and Related Programs

P.L. 480 Title II

Total

Note: In September 2017, the United States pledged to spend nearly $32 million on an aid package to help displaced Rohingya. Previously, between October 2016 and early September 2017, the U.S. government provided almost $63 million in humanitarian assistance "for vulnerable communities displaced in and from Burma."³⁵

According to USTR, in 2016, Bangladesh was the United States' 50^th-largest trading partner in terms of total, two-way goods trade. Exports of U.S. goods to Bangladesh were worth approximately $895 million in 2016 and supported an estimated 6,000 U.S. jobs in 2015. In 2016, major U.S. exports to Bangladesh included miscellaneous grain, seeds, fruit (soybeans) ($249 million), cotton ($96 million), machinery ($83 million), food waste, animal feed ($72 million), and iron and steel ($72 million).³⁶ From Bangladesh, the United States primarily imported woven apparel ($3.8 billion), knit apparel ($1.4 billion), miscellaneous textile articles ($206 million), headgear ($174 million), and footwear ($105 million).³⁷ However, between 2015 and 2016, Bangladeshi garment exports to the United States declined slightly, from about $5.4 billion in 2015 to $5.3 billion in 2016.³⁸ U.S. goods exports to Bangladesh increased 169% from 2006 to 2016.³⁹

The United States and Bangladesh signed a Trade and Investment Cooperation Framework Agreement (TICFA) in 2013, setting up an annual meeting to identify challenges to the countries' bilateral-trade and investment relationship.⁴⁰ In 2015, U.S. foreign direct investment (FDI) in Bangladesh amounted to $589 million—an increase of 24.3% from 2014.⁴¹ American trade and investment interests also include developing natural gas reserves thought to be in the Bay of Bengal off Bangladesh's coast.⁴²

In 2013, the United States suspended Bangladesh's designation as a beneficiary country under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program over concerns about workers' rights. As a result, U.S. imports of GSP-eligible products from Bangladesh lost their duty-free status.⁴³ The United States has welcomed Bangladesh's efforts to improve labor conditions in the country, including thousands of factory inspections, but not enough has been done to reimplement GSP privileges.⁴⁴ The United States has called on Bangladesh to go further to protect workers from unfair labor practices and give workers in export processing zones the same rights as workers elsewhere.⁴⁵

The United States has expressed some concerns about human rights issues in Bangladesh. In 2017, the State Department issued its Human Rights Report, detailing numerous human rights abuses in the country. As mentioned above, the report states that

The most significant human rights problems were extrajudicial killings, arbitrary or unlawful detentions, and forced disappearances by government security forces; the killing of members of marginalized groups and others by groups espousing extremist views; early and forced marriage; gender-based violence, especially against women and children; and poor working conditions and labor rights abuses.⁴⁶

The U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom raised concerns about Bangladesh's human-rights situation, particularly for religious minorities in the country. According to the commission's 2017 annual report, there has been an uptick in violent attacks against religious minorities, as well as against secular bloggers, intellectuals, and foreigners in Bangladesh.⁴⁷

In September 2017, the State Department issued a statement, saying that the United States was "very concerned" about the influx of Rohingya into Bangladesh. Between October 2016 and September 2017, the U.S. government "provided nearly $63 million in humanitarian assistance for vulnerable communities displaced in and from Burma throughout the region."⁴⁸ More recently, on September 20, 2017, the United States pledged to spend an additional $32 million on humanitarian aid for the Rohingya.⁴⁹

Bangladesh is a parliamentary democracy with a unicameral legislature, the Jatiya Sangsad. The 300 members of parliament are directly elected for five-year terms, and an additional 50 seats—which are reserved for women—are filled by the political parties in proportion to their respective vote shares.⁵⁰ The Awami League, led by Prime Mister Sheikh Hasina, and the Bangladesh National Party, led by Khaleda Zia, are the two main political parties. The Awami League has been viewed as relatively more secular in its approach though some have recently accused the government of "pandering to Islamist zealots."⁵¹

According to the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, Bangladeshi elections face several challenges, including a "restricted space for political dialogue; [a] lack of coordination around electoral reform;" and an "absence of leaders equipped to promote peaceful electoral and political processes."⁵² The United States has been concerned about political unrest and instability in Bangladesh. Following Bangladesh's most recent election in 2014, former U.S. Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Richard Hoagland opined that "the political impasse and negative governance trends in Bangladesh don't bode well for sustainable growth" in the country.⁵³

After the election, in January 2015, the BNP called for a nationwide blockade and a series of strikes, known as hartals in South Asia. During the resulting demonstrations, over 120 people were killed.⁵⁷ Khaleda Zia's motorcade came under attack by AL activists a few months later, while she was campaigning for her party's mayoral candidate in Dhaka, the country's capital. Fifteen members of her entourage were injured.⁵⁸ In response to the postelection unrest, the State Department issued a statement, saying it was "gravely concerned" about the "unrest and violence" in Bangladesh.⁵⁹

At the moment, the Jatiya Party (Ershad) is supporting the current AL government, even though it is considered the opposition.⁶⁰ JI, the largest Islamist party in Bangladesh, historically has been allied with the BNP. Prior to the 2014 vote, the Bangladesh Election Commission banned JI from participating in the election.⁶¹ The commission, as well as the Supreme Court, ruled that the party's charter was not in accordance with the country's constitution.⁶² In early 2017, the AL and BNP were able to work together to appoint a new election commission, but the BNP remains doubtful of the commission's independence.⁶³ The next national election is due in 2019, and some observers believe that Sheikh Hasina is grooming her son, Sajeeb Ahmed Wajed, to become the AL's next leader.⁶⁴

Since independence in 1971, there often have been tensions between the military and successive civilian governments. The military ruled the country—both directly and indirectly—for nearly 17 years, and there have been three coups and several mutinies.⁶⁵ Two presidents have been killed in military coups, including Sheikh Hasina's father, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, as well as Khaleda Zia's husband, Ziaur Rahman.⁶⁶ (Both men served as president of Bangladesh and were key figures in the country's struggle for independence from Pakistan in 1971.) Bangladesh returned to a parliamentary democracy in 1991 after Lieutenant General H. M. Ershad resigned. (In 1982, he seized power in a coup and served as president until 1990.)⁶⁷ Prior to the 2008 general election, the military backed a caretaker government—which represented, according to some, "a de facto coup" since it stayed in power for two years.⁶⁸ From 2007 to the end of 2008, the military supported the caretaker government's anticorruption program, which convicted 116 politicians and businessmen. The government tried to convict and exile Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia, but it eventually needed to back down, in order to ensure that both of their parties took part in the December 2008 election.⁶⁹

In 2015, some observers believed that the military was potentially planning a coup because of the AL-BNP political feud and the resulting instability.⁷⁰ However, there was no such coup. According to the opposition leader, Khaleda Zia, Sheikh Hasina has been "buying" the loyalty of the armed forces by approving military procurement deals and promotions.⁷¹ Tensions between security forces and the government over corruption and low wages led members of a paramilitary unit, known as the Bangladeshi Rifles (BDR), to mutiny in February 2009, killing 74 people, including 57 officers.⁷²

Bangladeshi Political Parties

Awami League (AL)

49.0%

79.1%

Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP)

33.2%

7.0%

11.3%

4.6%

National Socialist Party

0.6%

1.8%

Worker's Party Bangladesh

0.3%

2.1%

Source: IFES Election Guide: People's Republic of Bangladesh; NDI; CNN; Brookings Institution.

Note: Percentages are rounded to the nearest tenth.

The International Crimes Tribunal was established in 2009 to try to prosecute those who committed war crimes, such as murder and rape, during Bangladesh's 1971 war of independence from Pakistan.⁷⁶ The U.S. government has supported bringing Bangladeshi war criminals to justice, and it has encouraged the ICT to follow a "fair and transparent" judicial process.⁷⁷

Previously, Pakistan (then-West Pakistan) and Bangladesh (then-East Pakistan) were one Muslim-majority country—which came about after the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947.⁷⁸ During the separatist war between the two territories in 1971, hundreds of thousands to over 1 million people are believed to have died. Perhaps 10 million more were displaced.⁷⁹ At the time, Bangladesh's independence forces, along with India, were battling the Pakistani army, which largely was composed of troops from then-West Pakistan and their local sympathizers in Bangladesh.⁸⁰ JI's paramilitary wing, Al-Badr, collaborated with the West Pakistani military, and it reportedly targeted students and politicians, among others, who were sympathetic to Bangladesh's independence struggle.⁸¹

As part of the ICT process, a number of leaders from the JI party and the BNP have been arrested and accused of war crimes. Several have been convicted and executed.⁸² The BNP and JI have opposed the ongoing trials and view them as being part of an AL effort to further consolidate its political advantage.⁸³ According to Human Rights Watch, the trials favor the prosecution, and the defense often does not have a chance to "challenge the credibility of prosecution witnesses."⁸⁴

According to the State Department, the court has carried out five executions from 2010 through 2016. Four of those individuals were JI members; the other one was from the BNP.⁸⁵ In May 2016, the ICT executed Matiur Rahman Nizami, the Amir (or President) of JI.⁸⁶ As mentioned above, in April 2017, the ICT also handed down death sentences to two people who were convicted of committing war crimes during the 1971 war.⁸⁷

While some observers have been critical of the ICT's use of the death penalty, others have welcomed the strong stance against Islamist extremism. One commentator has observed that "Western governments have been lukewarm to hostile" to the April 2015 execution of senior JI leader Muhammad Kamaruzzaman for his role in war crimes:

[T]hough Bangladesh has addressed many concerns about its trials, judicial standards certainly don't match those of Denmark or Switzerland. Yet the chorus of criticism in Western capitals ends up serving a perverse purpose. It strengthens precisely those groups in Bangladesh who most threaten human rights, individual liberty and religious freedom. [Those concerned with human rights] ... ought to applaud Bangladesh for showing pluck to take on a thuggish Islamist movement....⁸⁸

Following Kamaruzzaman's execution, the State Department issued a statement, saying that the United States supports "bringing to justice those who committed atrocities in the 1971 Bangladesh War of independence." However, the statement also emphasized that the ICT process "must be fair and transparent."⁸⁹

Many observers view politically motivated violence—perpetrated by both opposition- and government-aligned forces—as one of the key threats to human rights in Bangladesh. The United States has expressed concern over the country's political unrest, as well as its lack of labor-rights protections.⁹⁰ According to the U.S. Department of State's 2016 Human Rights Report:

The most significant human rights problems [in Bangladesh] were extrajudicial killings, arbitrary or unlawful detentions, and forced disappearances by government security forces; the killing of members of marginalized groups and others by groups espousing extremist views; early and forced marriage; gender-based violence, especially against women and children; and poor working conditions and labor rights abuses.⁹¹

More than 500 Bangladeshis died in "2014 election-related violence" and, as mentioned above, Odhikar, the human rights group, reported that 215 people were killed and that 9,050 were injured because of inter- or intra-party clashes in 2016.⁹²

Unlawful detentions also have occurred, as have forced disappearances. In 2016, Mir Ahmed Bin Quasem and Hummam Quader Chowdhury—the sons of prominent figures in the JI and BNP, respectively—were detained and held without charge.⁹³ They did not have access to lawyers or their families. Hummam Quader Chowdhury was later released in March 2017, but, according to recent reports, Mir Ahmed Bin Quasem still has not been seen.⁹⁴ (Notably, both men's fathers were executed by the ICT.)⁹⁵ Over the course of eight days in 2016, Bangladesh's security forces rounded up nearly 15,000 people, following a series of attacks against liberal activists.⁹⁶ Many of the detainees were, according to Human Rights Watch, members of the political opposition, including JI's student wing.⁹⁷ Additionally, the AL government reportedly has filed 37,000 lawsuits against the BNP.⁹⁸

The Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) is an elite unit of Bangladesh's security forces that has been implicated in a number of human rights violations. The AL government has reportedly used accusations of terrorist activity, seen by many as unfounded, to mobilize the RAB against elements within the opposition, including JI members.⁹⁹ (The BNP also reportedly used the RAB as a "death squad" when it controlled the government.)¹⁰⁰ Amnesty International found that, of the 20 disappearance cases it investigated between 2012 and 2014, several seemed to suggest that the police or RAB were involved.¹⁰¹ In the first nine months of 2016, between 118 and 150 individuals were killed in "crossfire" incidents—which are deaths resulting from purported shootouts between suspects and security forces. The RAB, allegedly, was responsible for 34 of those deaths. Observers say that the "crossfire" incidents are likely extrajudicial killings.¹⁰² In January 2017, the Narayanganj District and Sessions Court "sentenced 26 people, including 16 RAB members, to death for their role" in the killing of a local politician. However, such convictions are rare.¹⁰³

Bangladesh has of late been clamping down on the country's media, according to observers. In 2016, two editors—who worked for leading newspapers in the country—were charged with several crimes, including criminal defamation and sedition.¹⁰⁴ Since 2013, the staff of one of those newspapers, Prothom Alo, has faced more than 100 criminal cases.¹⁰⁵

Freedom of expression has come under increasing threat from Islamist extremists in Bangladesh—as evidenced by the recent killing of Dr. Avijit Roy, a secular blogger who was Bangladeshi-American.¹⁰⁶ He was killed by an Islamist extremist group and, in the view of one analyst, Roy's murder, and others like it, "have opened a new front between the values of syncretic, secular, humanistic Bangladeshi culture against a rigid worldview incapable of allowing difference to coexist."¹⁰⁷ Although Bangladesh was founded as a secular country, some say that Islamist extremists have discredited secularism in the eyes of many Bangladeshis.¹⁰⁸ "The politics has been turned into the secular versus the Islamists," according to Abdur Rashid, who is a retired army major general and the executive director of the Institute of Conflict, Law and Development Studies in Dhaka.¹⁰⁹

Bangladesh has struggled with inter-religious tensions and violence, particularly between Islamist extremists and Hindus. Muslims account for about 89.1% of Bangladesh's population. Hindus account for 10.0%. Other religious groups, including Buddhists and Christians, account for about 0.9%.¹¹⁰ (When Bangladesh gained independence in 1971, Hindus were about 23% of the population.)¹¹¹ According to the Hindu American Foundation, 495 Hindu homes, 169 temples, and 585 shops were attacked, damaged, or looted in 2014 election-related violence.¹¹² In spring 2016, three Hindu priests were killed.¹¹³ There also have been attacks on the country's Buddhist, Christian, and Ahmadiyya communities.¹¹⁴ According to the advocacy group Hindu-Buddha-Christian-Oikya Parishad, in the first three months of 2016, there were three times as many violent incidents involving minorities than in all of 2015.¹¹⁵

Human trafficking and unequal rights for women are problems in Bangladesh, as well. While there is a lack of reliable quantitative data, "human trafficking in Bangladesh is believed to be extensive both within the country and to India, Pakistan and the Middle East."¹¹⁶ Many, including children, are reportedly trafficked into sexual exploitation or forced labor. According to the State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report for 2017, "Observers reported police took bribes and sexual favors to ignore potential trafficking crimes at brothels." The report places Bangladesh on the Tier 2 Watch List.¹¹⁷ In March 2017, Bangladesh's parliament passed a law making it legal for girls under the age of 18 to marry. Already, around 52% of Bangladeshi girls are married by the time they are 18, and 18% are married by age 15.¹¹⁸ The government, observers believe, pushed the bill to increase its popularity among religious groups.¹¹⁹

Child labor is a problem in Bangladesh, as well. In December 2016, the Overseas Development Institute (ODI), a U.K.-based think tank, conducted a survey, examining the prevalence of child labor in eight slum settlements in Dhaka. The results suggested that child labor was "endemic" in the area, affecting 45% of 14-year-old children. (Child labor—as defined by ILO—is work that "deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development.") Another survey—conducted in 2013 by the government—reported that about 3.5 million children aged 5 to 17 were working, including 1.7 million as child laborers.¹²⁰

In Burma, the Rohingya, a Muslim minority group, have faced persecution at the hands of the majority Buddhist population.¹²² Burma views the Rohingya as illegal immigrants from Bangladesh, and tensions between Burma's Rohingya and Buddhist communities remain high, especially in Arakan (Rakhine) State.¹²³ Since August 2017, an estimated half a million Rohingya have crossed the border into Bangladesh, fleeing from the latest outbreak of violence in Rakhine.¹²⁴ In September 2017, the United Nations high commissioner for human rights condemned Burma, saying that the government was "carrying out 'a textbook example of ethnic cleansing' against the Rohingya."¹²⁵ On September 20, 2017, the United States pledged to spend nearly $32 million on an aid package to help displaced Rohingya—in addition to the nearly $63 million that the U.S. government already has provided in humanitarian assistance "for vulnerable communities displaced in and from Burma" since October 2016.¹²⁶

The latest outbreak of violence began in August 2017 when Rohingya insurgents—called the Arakan Rohingya Solidarity Army (ARSA)—carried out attacks against Burmese police and military outposts.¹²⁷ Afterward, the Burmese security forces launched "'clearance operations' to root out the insurgents." However, the security forces allegedly have been targeting civilians and burning Rohingya villages. As a result, hundreds of thousands of Rohingya have been displaced and have crossed the border into Bangladesh.¹²⁸

Previously, in October 2016, Rohingya militants attacked Border Guard Police bases in Burma and killed nine officers.¹²⁹ In response, Burma's security forces conducted a campaign in Rakhine State. It was, observers say, a "disproportionate" response, affecting a large portion of the population. Human rights groups released a series of reports, documenting alleged abuses, including extrajudicial killings and mass rapes "associated with [Burmese] military operations."¹³⁰ To escape the security forces' crackdown, about 74,000 Rohingya fled to Bangladesh where they were not granted refugee status.¹³¹

According to Refugees International, before the most recent influx of an estimated 480,000 Rohingya into Bangladesh, there were three categories of displaced Rohingya in the country: (1) 33,000 government-recognized refugees; (2) 200,000-500,000 Rohingya living in Bangladesh as Undocumented Myanmar Nationals (UMN); and (3) 74,000 Rohingya—also considered UMN—who fled Burma between October 2016 and February 2017. (Under Bangladeshi law, the UMN are illegal foreigners residing in the country.)¹³² Since the UMN are technically stateless—and in turn lack access to state protections and services—they are vulnerable to exploitation and human trafficking.¹³³

In 2015, the plight of the Rohingya and some Bangladeshis similarly gained international attention when many of them took to the sea to escape persecution and to find a better life. According to some accounts, armed groups of Buddhists in Burma forced Rohingya to get on migrant boats and leave the country. It is estimated that 25,000 Southeast Asian migrants—including those from Burma and Bangladesh—"took to the seas" during the first three months of 2015.¹³⁴

There is much uncertainty related to ARSA and the extent to which it has outside support. ARSA has denied that it has ties to international terrorist groups and portrays itself as an ethno-nationalist group seeking to defend its own people.¹³⁵ Despite this, some observers view ARSA as a militant group with possible links to international terrorists.¹³⁶ Others emphasize that the recent attacks against the Rohingya have created a situation that may present opportunities for recruitment of Rohingya by international terrorist organizations, such as the Islamic State (IS), even if ARSA itself has no ties to such groups.¹³⁷

An International Crisis Group (ICG) report from December 2016 described the emergence of a Muslim insurgent group called the Harakah al-Yaqin (HaY), now known as the ARSA. ICG described HaY as led by a committee of Rohingya emigres in Saudi Arabia and as a group without a terrorist agenda. The ICG report warned that a disproportionate response by Burma "could create conditions for further radicalizing sections of the Rohingya population."¹³⁸ Unconfirmed Indian media reports point to ties between elements within the Rohingya community and Pakistan's ISI, as well as with Pakistan- and Bangladesh-based terrorist groups.¹³⁹ Even if ARSA has no links with terrorist groups, the presence of so many dispossessed and abused Rohingya in Bangladesh would appear to make it a fertile ground for recruitment for terrorist groups.¹⁴⁰ It is Bangladesh's policy not to allow ARSA to establish a base in Bangladesh, and the country's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Mohammed Shahriar Alam, has stated that the Rohingya present a security issue as well as a humanitarian issue and that Bangladesh would take prompt action if ARSA tries to enter the country.¹⁴¹

The United States has called on Burma to protect its Rohingya population. In July 2017, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Nikki Haley called on Burma to allow a human rights fact-finding mission into the country. "The international community," she said in a statement, "cannot overlook what is happening in" the country.¹⁴² In September 2017, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Southeast Asia Patrick Murphy called on the Burmese government to implement the suggestions proposed by the Rakhine Commission. Previously established by the Burmese government, the commission was tasked with "finding conflict-prevention measures, ensuring humanitarian assistance, rights and reconciliation … and promoting long-term development plans in the restive state."¹⁴³ Some analysts have criticized the U.S. government for not doing enough to protect the Rohingya.¹⁴⁴

Legislation introduced in Congress would condemn the human rights abuses in Rakhine state, call on Burma's leaders to end persecution of the Rohingya, and possibly impose foreign assistance sanctions. The Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 2018 (S. 1780) stipulates that Economic Support Funds to Burma may not go to any "individual or organization [that] has committed a gross violation of human rights, including against Rohingya and other minority groups." The bill further specifies that "None of the funds appropriated ... under the headings "International Military Education and Training" and "Foreign Military Financing Program" may be made available for assistance for Burma."¹⁴⁵ H.Res. 528 and S.Res. 250 would condemn "horrific acts of violence against Burma's Rohingya population" and call upon Aung San Suu Kyi "to play an active role in ending this humanitarian tragedy."¹⁴⁶ Representative Edward Royce, chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, issued a letter to Suu Kyi. "Your government and the military," it read, "have a responsibility to protect all of the people of Myanmar [Burma], regardless of their ethnic background or religious beliefs."¹⁴⁷

The government of Bangladesh has opened its borders, admitting an estimated half a million Rohingya since August 25, 2017.¹⁴⁸ Bangladesh's capacity to accommodate the latest influx of Rohingya is limited. It already had an estimated 400,000 Rohingya living in the country, and many Rohingya are living in the open—outside of official camps in the border area with Burma. However, Bangladesh is establishing a new camp for the Rohingya, in addition to two existing official camps. The new camp is planned to have 14,000 shelters, each of which reportedly will be able to accommodate six families.¹⁴⁹ Bangladesh has also considered a plan to relocate Rohingya to Thengar Char Island in the Bay of Bengal. However, the island is considered "uninhabitable" and is "prone to flooding."¹⁵⁰ Respiratory infections, diarrhea, dysentery, and other ailments are reportedly spreading among the Rohingya in Bangladesh, and there is a great need for clean drinking water, food, and sanitation. Foreign Secretary M. Shahidul Haque has stated that Bangladesh considers the Rohingya to be "forcibly displaced Myanmar nationals" and not migrants, or illegals or refugees.¹⁵¹ Bangladesh has called on Burma to repatriate the displaced Rohingya and on international organizations to assist Bangladesh in caring for the Rohingya until they can return to Burma.

Bangladesh has reportedly started biometric registration of Rohingya at camps near Cox's Bazar. Bangladesh's government previously worked with NGOs on immunization campaigns, and in 2014, it came up with a strategy that "led to expanded access and protection services" for Rohingya migrants who are not recognized as refugees.¹⁵² In September 2017, the U.S. State Department issued a statement, saying that the United States "applaud the government of Bangladesh's generosity in responding to this humanitarian crisis and appreciate their continued efforts to ensure assistance reaches the affected population."¹⁵³ However, in the past, some international human rights groups such as Human Rights Watch criticized Bangladesh, saying its government forced back Rohingya fleeing from Burma and placed restrictions on international aid organizations operating in the country.¹⁵⁴

An estimated 8 million to 10 million Bangladeshis fled to India in 1971 in the wake of atrocities committed by the West Pakistan army and local sympathizers in East Pakistan during Bangladesh's struggle for independence. Hundreds of thousands of Bengalis died during this conflict. This experience informs many Bangladeshis' sympathetic perspective on the plight of the Rohingya.

Workers' rights and safety in Bangladesh have been the focus of much international attention, particularly in the apparel-production industry. In June 2013, the United States suspended Bangladesh's designation as a beneficiary country under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program over concerns about workers' rights in the country. As a result, U.S. imports of GSP-eligible products from Bangladesh lost their duty-free status.¹⁵⁶ So far, the United States has not reinstated Bangladesh's GSP benefits.

Bangladesh is an important part of the global textile-supply chain, and its garment industry employs approximately four million workers.¹⁵⁷ Yet successive factory disasters have led to additional global and U.S. scrutiny of Bangladesh's labor rights regime, especially following the Rana Plaza garment factory collapse which killed over 1,000 workers in April 2013.¹⁵⁸ The Rana Plaza factory provided clothing to several European and American brands, reportedly including Children's Place, Benetton, Cato Fashions, and Mango.¹⁵⁹ As of April 2017, many victims' families still had not been compensated, even though a $30 million fund was established to do just that following the disaster.¹⁶⁰ (Reportedly, several international brands and retailers paid less than expected into the fund.)¹⁶¹ In 2015, Bangladesh police charged the owner of the Rana Plaza factory and 41 others with murder, and in August 2017, he was sentenced to three years in jail.¹⁶²

Many Bangladeshi factories reportedly are substandard and unsafe. Following the Rana Plaza collapse, inspections were conducted as part of the Accord for Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh—an initiative involving over 180 brands and retailers, reportedly including H&M.¹⁶³ The inspectors discovered safety hazards in all of the 1,106 garment factories that were examined and requested that Bangladeshi authorities immediately evacuate 17 factories.¹⁶⁴ In 2013, the International Labour Organization (ILO) started an initiative—the Improving Fire and General Building Safety in Bangladesh project—to train building inspectors and improve the capabilities of Bangladesh's Fire Service and Civil Defence (FSCD) force.¹⁶⁵ (The U.S. Department of Labor funded the project.)¹⁶⁶ A 2016 fire broke out at a packaging factory in Tongi, north of Dhaka, killing 23 people.¹⁶⁷

Bangladesh's economy relies heavily on foreign remittances, and the government has tried to protect its citizens working abroad. A bilateral treaty with Saudi Arabia, for instance, stipulates that Saudi Arabian employers must pay for Bangladeshi female workers' travel expenses and that domestic workers must be employed by a third party, not by a private household.¹⁶⁹ However, according to the U.S. State Department's 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report, Bangladesh's government has allowed the Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies to set high recruitment fees, thereby making many laborers "indebted and vulnerable to trafficking."¹⁷⁰

Despite labor rights abuses, the garment industry has provided many Bangladeshi women with opportunities that have given them some independence. Many women in Bangladesh work in the garment sector—which accounted for over 80% of the country's exports in 2016.¹⁷¹ According to an ILO study, about 41% of Bangladeshi women are employed—a much higher rate than in India (25.8%) and Pakistan (22%).¹⁷² It reportedly has become "more culturally acceptable for women to enter the labour force in general" in Bangladesh, and currently about 80% of the country's garment employees are women.¹⁷³ That has "served as a repellant against early marriage and in turn reductions in fertility."¹⁷⁴

Bangladesh is today consistently one of the largest contributors of troops, police, and experts to United Nations international peacekeeping efforts. Bangladesh began peacekeeping operations in 1988. As of July 2017, more than 6,900 of the country's troops and police were serving in 13 U.N. peacekeeping operations.¹⁷⁵ Many of Bangladesh's troops have served as U.N. peacekeepers in Africa, including in the Central African Republic and in the Democratic Republic of Congo.¹⁷⁶ In September 2017, three U.N. soldiers from Bangladesh were killed in Mali.¹⁷⁷

Through the Global Peace Operations Initiative (GPOI), which is United States' primary security assistance program for strengthening international capacity and capability to train, sustain, deploy, and effectively conduct peacekeeping operations around the world, the United States is helping Bangladesh to open a new multipurpose training facility at the Bangladesh Institute for Peace Support Operation Training (BIPSOT).¹⁷⁸ In his remarks while visiting the BIPSOT in 2011, then-U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon observed that approximately 1 in 10 United Nations peacekeepers were from Bangladesh before noting their sacrifice for the global good.¹⁷⁹

Although it remains one of the world's poorest nations, Bangladesh has experienced significant GDP growth over the past decade, expanding at about 6% per year since 1996.¹⁸⁰ The Economist Intelligence Unit projects that Bangladesh's real GDP will grow by about 6.4% in 2017/2018 through 2020/21.¹⁸¹ However, more will likely need to be done to accommodate the number of Bangladeshis entering the workforce. About 2.1 million youths enter the job market every year, according to one senior World Bank official, and it is seen as vital that the country creates more jobs for them.¹⁸² Nearly half of Bangladeshis work in the agriculture sector.¹⁸³

Manufacturing—particularly of ready-made garments—is a key component of Bangladesh's economy. Bangladesh is the second-largest exporter of ready-made garments in the world after China.¹⁸⁴ In 2016, garment exports exceeded $25 billion, accounting for more than 80% of the country's total exports.¹⁸⁵

Bangladesh's economy is one of the world's most dependent on foreign remittances. About $15 billion in remittances came from Bangladeshis working overseas in 2015 constituting the country's largest source of foreign-exchange earnings.¹⁸⁶ However, during the 2016-2017 fiscal year, remittances fell by 14.5% from the previous fiscal year—a drop from about $15 billion to $12.8 billion. According to analysts, the reported drop is in part the result of expatriate workers sending their remittances through informal channels, such as mobile banking and the hundi, which is an illicit fund-transferring system.¹⁸⁷ Many of the new migrant workers went to Saudi Arabia.¹⁸⁸ Estimates of the number of Bangladeshis working abroad vary. By one estimate Bangladesh will send an estimated 1 million workers abroad in 2017.¹⁸⁹

Bangladesh's Energy Regulatory Commission (BERC) reportedly announced that gas prices would be raised by an average of 22.7% in 2017.¹⁹⁰ The decision was met with protests, but it was necessary, according to one BERC official, because gas was sold at half its actual cost and the subsidies were unsustainable.¹⁹¹ The hike was supposed to take place in two phases, but the second price increase has been held up by the courts.¹⁹² Bangladesh relies on liquefied natural gas (LNG) to cover 53% of its energy needs, and the country's gas reserves will last for another 10 to 12 years, according to some analysts. At present, Bangladesh "is developing an import terminal"—the Moheshkhali Floating LNG project—with the International Finance Corporation and Excelerate Energy, a U.S.-based company.¹⁹³

Recently, the IMF reported that the banking sector faces "underlying risks," partially because of large loans that were made to borrowers who have few incentives to repay. In June 2017, the government set aside $250 million to recapitalize the country's state-owned banks.¹⁹⁴ However, according to some observers, the country's regulators have not been effective at tackling the sector's underlying problems, such as poor risk management and few penalties being levied on defaulters.¹⁹⁵ Partially as a result, state-owned banks have a "high level" of nonperforming loans—in other words, loans that are in default or are close to being in default—and operating profits at Bangladesh's six state-owned commercial banks fell by 37% in 2016.¹⁹⁶

According to the World Bank's 2017 Doing Business Index, Bangladesh ranked 176^th out of 190 countries. Major problems include difficulties for businesses in Bangladesh to get access to electricity and to get contracts enforced.¹⁹⁷ (About 60 million people—or about 40% of Bangladesh's population—do not have access to electricity.)¹⁹⁸ The country also has a poor infrastructure-transportation network, and according to Transparency International's 2016 Corruption Perceptions Index, Bangladesh ranked 145^th out of 176 countries.¹⁹⁹ In May 2017, the cabinet approved legislation that would make it easier for businesses to get licenses, register land, and link with utilities. Known as the One-Stop Service Act, parliament must approve the legislation before it can take effect.²⁰⁰

In 2016, the U.N. Conference on Trade and Development reported that Bangladesh received $2.3 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) in 2016—a record amount—but some observers say that the country could attract more FDI if it improved its infrastructure, streamlined its bureaucracies, and tackled corruption.²⁰¹

Source: UN Comtrade Database (Accessed August 2017), Foreign Trade Online. Adapted by CRS.

Demographic pressures and environmental problems—including those linked to climate change—increasingly are challenges for Bangladesh, and they may result in thousands, perhaps millions, of people being displaced in future years. If that does happen, many of these people likely will move to crowded cities or to neighboring countries, such as India, leading to further strains on social services and, perhaps, regional instability.

The 2015 Climate Change Vulnerability Index reported that Bangladesh's economy is the most vulnerable in the world to climate change.²⁰² About 80% of the country's land mass is on a floodplain and is less than 5 meters (some 16 feet) above sea level.²⁰³ It has been projected that seas near Bangladesh could rise by as much as 13 feet by 2100—which is four times the projected global average.²⁰⁴ According to an Institute of Medicine study released in January 2017, between 2011 and 2050, about 9.6 million people in Bangladesh may be displaced because of climate change.²⁰⁵ Some scientists suggest that rising sea levels—along with additional factors, such as land settling because of groundwater extraction—will lead to 17% of Bangladesh's land being inundated and will potentially displace up to 18 million people by 2050.²⁰⁶ Many of the displaced may move to the country's cities, including Dhaka.²⁰⁷ In recent years, 50,000 to 200,000 people have been displaced annually due to riverbank erosion.²⁰⁸ Moreover, some analysts believe cyclones likely will become more intense.²⁰⁹ One cyclone—Cyclone Mora—forced the evacuation of 350,000 people in 2017.²¹⁰

Bangladesh's population is projected to increase from about 160 million people to around 200 million in 2050. Population increases may lead to further internal displacement, cross-border migration, and potentially rising tensions between the country and its neighbors, including India.²¹¹ Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries on earth with around 1,120 people per square kilometer.²¹²

Bangladesh's government has invested more than $10 billion to address the potential effects of climate change, and much of that funding has gone toward strengthening river embankments, implementing early warning systems, improving government capacities, and building emergency cyclone shelters.²¹³ To date, 2,500 such shelters have been built.²¹⁴ Bangladesh's government also has discussed the possibility of imposing a carbon tax on fossil fuels.²¹⁵

According to EIU's 2016 Global Food Security Index, Bangladesh ranks second-to-last in food security among the 23 countries of the Asia and Pacific region. (Laos is the lowest-ranked country). Of the 113 countries ranked in the Index, Bangladesh ranked 95^th. Bangladesh's total score, though, did improve from 2015.²¹⁶ One USDA Foreign Agriculture Service member is reported to have said that "the food safety environment in Bangladesh was ... among the worst he has observed globally."²¹⁷ Indeed, Bangladesh has the "highest prevalence of underweight children in South Asia," and more than half of the population does not have access to clean water and sanitation.²¹⁸

Bangladesh is the world's fourth-largest rice producer, but much of the crop is consumed domestically, and according to USAID, Bangladesh remains "food deficient.²¹⁹ In April 2017, flash floods reportedly "damaged over 700,000 tons of rice." (Unofficial estimates suggest that around 2.2 million tons may have been damaged.)²²⁰ Overall, rice accounts for "about two-thirds of the population's dietary intake."²²¹ Some studies suggest that Bangladesh's rice production may decrease by 8% by 2050 due to the effects of climate change, including increased salinity levels along the coast.²²² In some areas—particularly the north—droughts already seem to be becoming more common, and rising salinity levels in the Barisal Division in the southwest has made agriculture unprofitable, resulting in internal migration, particularly to Dhaka.²²³

The Ministry of Food monitors the government's rice reserves—which are meant to provide price support to rice farmers, if need be—but the reserves have decreased during the last year, in part because of a government-imposed 25% import duty.²²⁴ In June 2017, the government lowered the duty to 10%, following flash floods and an outbreak of rice-blast disease that led to soaring rice prices. Originally, the higher-rate rice duty was imposed to protect farmers from cheap Indian rice.²²⁵

In Bangladesh, waterways and rivers are used as transportation networks, and some projects—including one from the World Bank—have worked to ensure that these waterways remain resilient to the potential effects of climate change.²²⁶ Recently, because of seasonal changes in water levels, Bangladesh's government has resorted to dredging to keep waterways open.²²⁷ For instance, the Gorai River is a major source of freshwater for southwest Bangladesh, and it collects water from the Ganges. Yet, during the dry months, the Gorai becomes disconnected from the Ganges, causing a decrease in its freshwater flow. The government launched the Gorai River Restoration Project in 2009 to dredge and, ultimately, reconnect the two rivers. However, as of April 2017, some accounts suggest that the project has not been particularly successful.²²⁸

The U.S. and Bangladeshi governments see a common interest in working to counter extremist Islamists and their ideology. Bangladesh participates in the U.S. State Department's Antiterrorism Assistance program, which provides participating states with counterterrorism training and equipment, and the United States and Bangladesh signed the Counterterrorism Cooperation Initiative in 2013.²²⁹ In July 2016, the State Department sent Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs, Nisha Desai Biswal, to Dhaka to discuss U.S.-Bangladesh counterterrorism cooperation.²³⁰ The 2016 U.S. State Department Country Report on Terrorism states that

Bangladesh experienced a significant increase in terrorist activity in 2016. The Government of Bangladesh has articulated a zero-tolerance policy towards terrorism, made numerous arrests of terrorist suspects, and continued its counterterrorism cooperation with the international community.²³¹

There are signs that transnational terror networks operate in Bangladesh. In January 2014, Bangladeshi police arrested three suspected members of Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP)—otherwise known as the Pakistani Taliban.²³² Between September 2014 and October 2015, about 15 people with alleged links to IS were arrested in Bangladesh.²³³ In April 2016, a local employee at the U.S. Embassy was killed, along with a friend, and Al Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent (AQIS) claimed responsibility.²³⁴ The Islamic State also has "claimed more than two dozen attacks in Bangladesh since September 2015." One of the attacks killed over 20 people at Dhaka's Holey Artisan Bakery in July 2016.²³⁵ The bakery—which is near the U.S. Embassy—was a popular site with expatriates, and several foreigners were killed, including nine Italians, seven Japanese, one U.S. citizen, and one Indian.²³⁶

The full extent to which domestic Islamist groups have links with the IS or other international terrorist groups is unclear. Bangladesh's government was reluctant to blame IS for the Holey Artisan Bakery attack. Rather, it accused Jama'atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), a domestic militant group, of carrying out the assault, and it tried to minimize the group's links with IS.²³⁷ (The government banned JMB in 2005.) An aide to Sheikh Hasina said: "[The Islamic State is] not an organized group here. People with Islamic State links are here. But that is not to say [the] Islamic State is here."²³⁸

According to some observers, the government wants to downplay IS's presence in Bangladesh because it is trying to use the alleged threat of domestic militancy "as an excuse to stifle dissent."²³⁹ One observer pointed out:

[Choosing a] name decides who takes action against the [terrorist] organization and thereby who reaps the political fruits of its annihilation…. Call it Islamic State and the reins go into the hands of the international community. Naming it neo-JMB makes it home grown and therefore the reins stay in the hands of Sheikh Hasina. And when she keeps saying "BNP-Jamaat BNP-Jamaat," it builds the ground for effectively annihilating the political opposition in the name of fighting terrorists.²⁴⁰

After the bakery attack, some information came to light suggesting that IS had developed connections with Bangladeshi militants. For instance, IS knew about and approved the attack before it was carried out, according to some reports.²⁴¹ Tamim Ahmed Chowdhury—who reportedly was an IS coordinator in Bangladesh and the leader of a JMB branch—praised the attackers "as fallen comrades."²⁴² (In August 2016, Bangladeshi security forces killed Chowdhury in a shootout.)²⁴³ Some observers say that JMB has "'essentially repurposed' itself by trying to link itself to ISIS."²⁴⁴ However, some analysts point out that IS likely played little, if any, direct role in planning the Holey Artisan Bakery attack.²⁴⁵

Increasingly, in Bangladesh, terrorists are using different or bolder tactics. In the past, Bangladeshi militants often would ambush their targets or detonate bombs—in 2005, for instance, JMB detonated bombs in 63 of Bangladesh's 64 districts.²⁴⁶ But during the assault on the Holey Artisan Bakery, the attackers did not retreat. Rather, they stood their ground until they were killed by security forces.²⁴⁷ As one journalist observed, "Taken together, the attacks in the second half of 2016 pointed to a whole new level of indoctrination. Where Islamists of the past had killed in the name of religion, the new breed was willing to die for it."²⁴⁸ More recently, in March 2017, IS claimed responsibility for a suicide-bomber attack on the Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport, as well as a failed attack on the Rapid Action Battalion barracks in Dhaka.²⁴⁹

Harkat-ul-Jihad-al Islami Bangladesh (HUJI-B) is another U.S.-designated Islamist terrorist group in the country, and it is considered the "fountainhead of the militant groups in Bangladesh."²⁵⁰ The U.S. State Department reports that HUJI-B is believed to have links with Al Qaeda and with official elements in Pakistan, including Pakistani ISI operatives.²⁵¹ According to the Delhi-based South Asia Terrorism Portal, HUJI-B operations commander, Mufti Abdul Hannan, trained in Peshawar, Pakistan before going to fight the Soviets in Afghanistan. HUJI-B has been linked to the Asif Reza Commando Force, which claimed responsibility for a 2002 attack against the American Center in Kolkata.²⁵² Dhaka banned HUJI-B in 2005. In March 2017, the Supreme Court upheld the death sentence for Hannan. He was sentenced to death due to his role in a 2004 attack on the U.K. high commissioner to Bangladesh. The attack killed three police officers. Seventy other people were injured, but the high commissioner escaped without injury.²⁵³

Other events have shed light on evolving terrorist networks in the region. In October 2014, for instance, an accidental bomb explosion in the Burdwan District of Indian West Bengal killed two suspected members of JMB and wounded another. Members of JMB reportedly have infiltrated from Bangladesh into India's border districts where they have sought out new recruits in several madrassas.²⁵⁴ Also, since several militant groups have been banned—including HUJI-B and JMB—their members have gone on to form other groups. One of these groups, Jund al-Tawheed wal Khilafah (JTK), has operatives who are former JMB members.²⁵⁵

Nevertheless, the AL government has tried to placate some of the country's Islamists. It has, for example, pledged to build a mosque in every town, making use of a $1 billion gift from Saudi Arabia.²⁵⁸ These gestures, Sheikh Hasina's son reportedly admitted, are meant to shield the AL from religious criticism.²⁵⁹

At present, there is an ongoing struggle over secularism in Bangladesh. By some accounts, Islamists have largely discredited secularism in the eyes of many Bangladeshis. The chief of Bangladesh's police counterterrorism unit, Monirul Islam, observed that, "'In general, people think they have done the right thing, that it's not unjustifiable to kill' the bloggers, gay people and other secularists."²⁶⁰

Positioned at the intersection of India, China, Southeast Asia, and the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh occupies a geo-strategically important location—not only to the South Asian sub-region, but also to Asia as a whole. When Bangladesh gained independence in 1971, it weakened Pakistan's position relative to India and set the stage for India to play a larger role beyond South Asia. Some analysts also have pointed to the area's growing importance as a result of China's Belt and Road Initiative—previously known as the One Belt, One Road Initiative—which emphasizes energy investments, trade and transit linkages throughout the region.²⁶³ India and China, according to some observers, are competing for influence in Bangladesh, leading to an uptick in Sino-Indo tensions.²⁶⁴ India, for instance, reportedly is worried that Sino-Bangladeshi energy cooperation has come to exceed Indo-Bangladeshi energy cooperation.²⁶⁵

Bangladesh's foreign policy seeks to promote trade, economic development, and diplomatic linkages. Dhaka is a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and values close ties with Muslim states, but it remains a relatively moderate Muslim nation. Bangladesh also is a member of the South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation, which aims to foster regional collaboration on trade, poverty reduction, and efforts to counter transnational crime and terrorism. Additionally, Bangladesh is a member of the Bangladesh-China-India Myanmar (BCIM) group—which has proposed an economic corridor to connect Kolkata, India, with Kunming, China, to facilitate a more integrated regional economy.²⁶⁶ The group has, however, struggled with internal conflicts—especially between China and India—over market access and trade deficits.²⁶⁷

Increasingly, according to observers, China and India are competing for influence in Bangladesh, particularly over trade and energy routes in the region. In 2015, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Bangladesh, leading to a 65-point Joint Declaration that addressed several issues, including cooperation on energy, "cross border transport connectivity," and "zero tolerance" for terrorism or extremism.²⁶⁸ The Joint Declaration "recalled with gratitude India's enormous contribution to the glorious Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971."²⁶⁹ Also, during the 2015 summit, Bangladesh and India signed an agreement clarifying their common border, thereby removing a source of tension between the two countries.²⁷⁰ Historically, India has been more supportive of AL governments, given their more secularist outlooks.²⁷¹

India has long been concerned about migrants illicitly crossing into its northeast from Bangladesh. Judging from past estimates, since 1971, about 12 million illegal Bangladeshi migrants have arrived in northeast India.²⁷² Other estimates put the number of illegal Bangladeshi migrants in India between 20 and 30 million.²⁷³ In 2014, over $4 billion in remittances came to Bangladesh from India.²⁷⁴ India also has expressed concerns about militant groups using Bangladesh as a "springboard for attacks in its territory."²⁷⁵

Indian Railways, a state-owned company, has been pushing for an "Iron Silk Road"—or a freight corridor connecting the two countries and the wider region. The initiative is, according to some, aimed at countering China's growing strategic influence in South Asia.²⁷⁶ Yet constructing railways between the two countries has at times proven difficult because there is little available free land.²⁷⁷

In April 2017, Prime Minister Hasina visited India to meet with Modi. Their two governments signed 22 agreements—including ones dealing with arms sales—and India extended a $4.5 billion "concessional credit line to Bangladesh for priority infrastructure projects."²⁷⁸ However, water rights between the two countries remain a point of contention, particularly regarding the Teesta River, which flows through both states.²⁷⁹

During Bangladesh's war of independence from Pakistan, China supported Pakistan, but in recent years, Bangladesh and China have strengthened their ties. Some commentators in Bangladesh favor pursuing closer ties with China to balance Bangladesh's relationship with India, while others place greater emphasis on pursuing such ties alongside deeper linkages with India and others.²⁸⁰ Bangladesh became a full member of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA)—which focuses primarily on regional security cooperation—in May 2014. China and Russia are considered the "dual cores" of the organization; the United States is an observer, but not an official CICA member.²⁸¹

The relatively low cost of labor in Bangladesh may make it an increasingly important component of Chinese value chains. In 2014, China announced plans to contribute $40 billion to establish a "Silk Road infrastructure fund to boost connectivity" throughout Asia, and the China Development Bank announced plans to invest $890 billion in hundreds of Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) projects in 60 countries.²⁸² Bangladesh figures into China's BRI, in part through its membership in the BCIM group, and the two countries recently agreed to enhance their ties to the strategic partnership level.²⁸³ In October 2016, during Chinese President Xi Jinping's visit to Bangladesh, the two countries signed several investment deals totaling $13.6 billion—much of it going to infrastructure projects, including railway construction.²⁸⁴ Already, China is financing and building the Padma Bridge, Bangladesh's largest infrastructure project.²⁸⁵

China also is building a network of ports in the Indian Ocean region.²⁸⁶ Previously, Bangladesh did not pursue negotiations with China about an $8 billion deep water port in Sonadia. Instead, Dhaka chose a Japanese-financed port project.²⁸⁷ As part of the project, Japan proposed to finance and build a seaport at Matarbari—which is located about 16 miles from Sonadia—along with 4 power plants.²⁸⁸ Japan has signed agreements with Bangladesh, financing several infrastructure projects, including the Jamuna Railway Bridge and a "mass rapid-transit system in Dhaka."²⁸⁹ According to some observers, Japan may be trying to "counter the deepening Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean Region."²⁹⁰

China is Bangladesh's largest trading partner and supplier of military equipment.²⁹¹ From 2009 to 2013, according to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 82% of Bangladesh's arms purchases were from China.²⁹² In 2016, China delivered two Ming-class submarines to Bangladesh.²⁹³ A former admiral in India's navy called the submarine deal a "provocation."²⁹⁴

Source: ESRI, NGA, and Google Maps. Adapted by CRS.

Author Contact Information

Footnotes

"UN Says Over 582,000 Rohingya Have Fled to Bangladesh," RTE, October 17, 2017. Eleanor Albert, "The Rohingya Migrant Crisis," Council on Foreign Relations, September 13, 2017; "Myanmar Crisis: Bangladesh PM in Rohingya Plea," BBC, September 12, 2017; Laura Smith-Spark, "UN Chief Says Desperate Rohingya Refugees Have 'Absolutely Nothing,'" CNN, September 28, 2017.

"Myanmar Crisis: Bangladesh PM in Rohingya Plea," BBC, September 12, 2017.

The Economist Intelligence Unit, Bangladesh Country Report, October 17, 2017.

"Bangladesh Country Profile," BBC, August 13, 2017; Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 17.

Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 8.

The Economist Intelligence Unit, Bangladesh Country Report, August 2017, p. 2.

United Nations Development Policy and Analysis Division, World Economic Situation and Prospects: No. 103, June 2017. The Economist Intelligence Unit, Bangladesh Country Report, October, 2017, p.3.

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic Security, Bangladesh 2017 Crime and Safety Report, February 1, 2017.

Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2017: Bangladesh Country Report, 2017.

Annie Gowen, "Bangladesh's Political Unrest Threatens Economic Gains, Democracy," Washington Post, March 22, 2014; "New Evidence Shows Deep Islamic State Role in Bangladesh Massacre," Reuters, December 1, 2016.

The Economist Intelligence Unit, Bangladesh Country Report, June 2017, p. 3.

Mizan Rahman, "War Crimes Tribunal Gets New Chairman," Gulf Times, October 11, 2017.

Lord Carlile of Berriew CBE QC, "Bangladesh's Democratic Backsliding: Time to Act Before It's Too Late," The Diplomat, November 11, 2015; "Bangladesh: Two Opposition Leaders Face Imminent Execution After Serious Flaws in Their Trials and Appeals," Amnesty International, October 27, 2015.

"2 Kishoreganj War Criminals Get Death Sentence," Prothom Alo, April 19, 2017.

"ICT,B Investigation Against Osman Faruque, Moosa Underway," Prothom Alo, July 30, 2017.

Pew Research Center: Global Attitudes and Trends, Opinion of the United States, 2014.

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, "Joint Statement of the Fifth U.S.-Bangladesh Partnership," June 24, 2016.

U.S. Department of State, U.S. Embassy in Bangladesh, "Acting Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs Alice Wells Visited Dhaka," August 30, 2017.

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, "Joint Statement of the Fifth U.S.-Bangladesh Partnership Dialogue," June 24, 2016; U.S. Department of State, U.S. Embassy in Bangladesh, "Joint Press Statement After U.S.-Bangladesh Security Dialogue," October 2, 2016.

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, "Joint Statement of the Fifth U.S.-Bangladesh Partnership Dialogue," June 24, 2016.

Ibid.

Petty Officer 2^nd Class Robin Peak, "PACOM Commander Visits Bangladesh," U.S. Pacific Command, July 10, 2017.

Richard Tomkins, "Bangladesh Acquires U.S. Coast Guard Cutter," UPI, May 18, 2015.

Commander, Task Force 73 Public Affairs, "Southeast Asia Cooperation and Training Enhances Cooperative Maritime Security between Navies in Southeast Asia," U.S. Pacific Command, August 22, 2016.

Senior Airman Brittany Chase, "Operation Pacific Angel 16-3 Kicks Off," U.S. Pacific Command, August 17, 2016.

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, "Joint Statement of the Third U.S.-Bangladesh Partnership Dialogue," October 29, 2014.

Ibid.

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2013, April 2014, p. 179.

U.S. Department of State, "Bangladesh," in Congressional Budget Justification, Foreign Assistance, Supplementary Tables, Fiscal Year 2017, 2016.

Asian Development Bank, Basic Statistics, 2017, p. 2.

S. R. Osmani et al., Strategic Review of Food Security and Nutrition in Bangladesh, World Food Programme, September 2016, p. 7.

USAID, "Bangladesh Country Profile," http://www.usaid.gov/bangladesh.

Linda McCandless, "4.8 million USAID grant to improve food security," Cornell Chronicle, March 29, 2016.

USAID, "Bangladesh Country Profile," http://www.usaid.gov/bangladesh.

Josh Lederman, "U.S. to Give $32 Million for Myanmar's Rohingya Refugees," Associated Press, September 20, 2017; U.S. Department of State, Department Spokesperson, "Bangladesh Hosting of Rohingya," press release, September 9, 2017.

Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, "Bangladesh," https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/south-central-asia/bangladesh.

Ibid.

"Apparel Exports to US Fall 5.5pc," Prothom Alo, August 17, 2017.

"Bangladesh," US Trade Representative, https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/south-central-asia/bangladesh.

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, "Joint Statement of the Third U.S.-Bangladesh Partnership Dialogue," October 29, 2014.

U.S. Trade Representative, "Bangladesh," https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/south-central-asia/bangladesh.

"India, U.S. Find 'Large' Natural Gas Reserve in Indian Ocean," Offshore Energy Today, July 26, 2016; Ruma Paul and Henning Gloystein, "South Asia Becomes Global LNG Hotspot as Bangladesh Enters Market," Reuters, August 2, 2017.

Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, "GSP Review of Bangladesh Recognizes Progress, Urges That More Be Done on Worker Safety and Rights," press release, January 2015.

Ibid.

Ibid; U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Economic and Business Ties, "US Bangladesh Trade and Investment Ties," November 23, 2014; "GSP May Be Handed Back This Year: Former US Envoy," The Daily Star, August 4, 2017.

U.S. Department of State, Bangladesh 2016 Human Rights Report, 2017, p. 1.

U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, Annual Report 2017: Bangladesh, April 2017

U.S. Department of State, Department Spokesperson, "Bangladesh Hosting of Rohingya," press release, September 9, 2017.

Josh Lederman, "U.S. to Give $32 Million for Myanmar's Rohingya Refugees," Associated Press, September 20, 2017.

The Economist Intelligence Unit, Bangladesh Political Structure, July 10, 2017.

"Bangladesh's Government Is Pandering to Islamist Zealots," The Economist, June 1, 2017.

International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES), Bangladesh, Assessed September 13, 2017.

Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of State, Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, Richard Hoagland, "Developments in South and Central Asia," June 2, 2015.

Ali Riaz, Illinois State University, "Bangladesh 'Election' 2014," Presentation Viewgraphs, Council on Foreign Relations, January 8, 2014; Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, pp. 24-26.

"Democracy in the Crossfire," Human Rights Watch, April 29, 2014; "Bangladesh's Bitter Election Boycott," BBC, January 3, 2014.

"Democracy in the Crossfire," Human Rights Watch, April 29, 2014.

Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, pp. 8-9.

"Motorcade of Bangladesh Opposition Leader Comes Under Attack," The Daily Star, April 21, 2015; Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2017: Bangladesh Country Report, 2017.

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, "Ongoing Violence in Bangladesh," February 5, 2015.

"US Calls for Greater Democracy During Visit," The Economist Intelligence Unit, August 31, 2016.

Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 26.

"Democracy in the Crossfire," Human Rights Watch, April 29, 2014; Syed Al-Mahamood, "Bangladesh Court Strikes Down Jamaat-e-Islami's Electoral Registration," The Wall Street Journal, August 1, 2013.

"New Election Commission Appointed," The Economist Intelligence Unit, February 9, 2017.

"Bangladesh's Volatile Politics: The Battling Begums," The Economist, August 10, 2013; Simon Tisdall and Anna Ridout, "Bangladesh's PM Rejects Claims of Repression: 'I Do Politics for the People,'" The Guardian, September 21, 2015.

Ishaan Tharoor, "Behind Bangladesh's Failed Coup Plot: A History of Violence," Time, January 19, 2012; Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 17.

"Bangladeshi Military 'Foils Coup Plot,'" The Guardian, January 19, 2012; Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 17.

"Bangladesh Today," International Crisis Group, October 23, 2006, p. 3.

Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, pp. 24-25; "Democracy in the Crossfire," Human Rights Watch, April 29, 2014.

Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 25.

Ibid., p. 55.

Ibid.

Ibid., pp. 35, 66; Julfikar Ali Manik and Shariful Islam, "Around 800 to Be Charged with BDR Carnage," The Daily Star, February 23, 2010; "Dhaka Mutiny Due to Poor Pay," BBC, May 27, 2009.

Gary Bass, The Blood Telegram: Nixon Kissinger and a Forgotten Genocide (New York: Vintage Books, 2014); Dexter Filkins, "Collateral Damage: 'The Blood Telegram,' by Gary J. Bass," The New York Times, September 27, 2013.

Gary Bass, "Nixon and Kissinger's Forgotten Shame," The New York Times, September 29, 2013.

Dexter Filkins, "Collateral Damage: 'The Blood Telegram,' by Gary J. Bass," The New York Times, September 27, 2013.

Gary Bass, "Nixon and Kissinger's Forgotten Shame," The New York Times, September 29, 2013.

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, "Statement on the Bangladesh International Crimes Tribunal (ICT) Death Sentence of Kamaruzzaman," press release, April 11, 2015.

Gary Bass, "Nixon and Kissinger's Forgotten Shame," The New York Times, September 29, 2013.

International Crisis Group, Mapping Bangladesh's Political Crisis, February 9, 2015; "The Birth of Bangladesh: Blood Meridian," The Economist, September 25, 2013.

Gary Bass, The Blood Telegram: Nixon Kissinger and a Forgotten Genocide (New York: Vintage Books, 2014).

"End Deadly Cycle of Crimes," Human Rights Watch, , February 6, 20152017.

U.S. Department of State, Bangladesh 2013,2016 Human Rights Report, 20132017, p. 1.

"End Deadly Cycle of Crimes," Human Rights Watch, February 6, 2015.

Alyssa Ayres, Council on Foreign Relations, Testimony Before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific, "Political Polarization and Religious Extremism in Bangladesh," April 30, 2015.

"Widen Inquiry into Rapid Actin Battalion," Human Rights Watch, May 14, 2014.

"Stability at the Cost of Democracy," Roll Call, October 2, 2014Geeta Anand and Julfikar Ali Manik, "Bangladesh Says It Now Knows Who's Killing the Bloggers," New York Times, June 8, 2016.

"Bangladesh Rights Body Says 130 Killed in 509 Incidents of Political Violence," BBC News, October 2, 2014.

See Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook: Bangladesh. 111.

U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Preliminary Findings of Country Visit to Bangladesh by Heiner Bielefeldt, Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief," press release, September 9, 2015.

Jay Kansara, Testimony Before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific, "Bangladesh's Fracture: Political and Religious Extremism," Hindu American Foundation, April 30, 2015; "Religious Minorities Targeted," New Age, March 6, 2015.

U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, Annual Report 2017: Bangladesh, April 2017, p. 193.

Ibid., 193; Sri Lankan Ministry of External Affairs, Attack on Buddhist Temples in Chittagong—No Cause for Alarm, September 5, 2012; Julfikar Ali Manik , "Suicide Bomber Strikes at Ahmadi Mosque in Bangladesh," New York Times, December 25, 2015.

Human Rights Watch, World Report 2017: Bangladesh, 2017.

UNICEF, Child Sexual Abuse, Exploitation and Trafficking in Bangladesh.

U.S. Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report, June 2017, pp. 80-82.

Medhavi Arora and Ben Westcott, "Human Rights Groups Condemn New Bangladesh Child Marriage Law," CNN, March 3, 2017.

"Government Considers Amending Child Marriage Law," Economist Intelligence Unit, January 24, 2017.

"Reducing Child Labour Is a Challenge for the Authorities," The Economist Intelligence Unit, September 29, 2016.

Nyein Nyein, "Govt Complains to Bangladesh over Rohingya Op-ed," The Irrawaddy, March 25, 2014; "Myanmar Tensions: Annan Warns on Rakhine 'Radicalisation,'" BBC, August 24, 2017.

"Assist, Protect Rohingya Refugees," Human Rights Watch, August 22, 2012.

Euan McKirdy, "Human Rights Watch Claims Rohingya Migrants Beaten, Forced onto Boats," CNN, May 27, 2015.

Alyssa Ayres, Council on Foreign Relations, Testimony Before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific, "Political Polarization and Religious Extremism in Bangladesh," April 30, 2015.

Syed Zain Al-Mahmood, Factories Fail Safety Checks in Bangladesh," Wall Street Journal, October 15, 2014.

"Bangladesh Murder Trial over Rana Plaza Factory Collapse," BBC News, June 1, 2015.

USAID, "Bangladesh Country Profile," http://www.usaid.gov/bangladesh.; "Rana Plaza Owner Jailed for Three Years over Corruption," Al Jazeera, August 29, 2017. 163.

"Widespread Safety Issues Identified at Bangladesh Clothing Factories," Reuters, October 14, 2014.

Ibid.

International Labour Organization, Towards Improved Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh, May 2017, pp. 1, 6.

Ibid, p. 1.

"Bangladesh Factory Fire: At Least 23 Killed in Tongi," BBC, September 10, 2016.

"ITUC Report Highlights Concerns over Workers' Rights," The Economist Intelligence Unit, July 29, 2017.

U.S. Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report, June 2017, pp. 81, 82.

Ibid, p. 81.

Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook: Bangladesh.

"Gender Employment Gap Remains Wide," Economist Intelligence Unit, March 8, 2017.

Ibid; "In Bangladesh, Empowering and Employing Women in the Garments Sector," The World Bank, February 7, 2017.

Ibid.

"Bangladesh Increases Its Capacity to Train UN Peacekeepers," U.S. Embassy in Bangladesh, July 10, 2017.

David Smith, "UN Takes over Peacekeeping in Central African Republic," The Guardian, September 16, 2014; Nicolas Haque, "Bangladesh Troops Lead Global Peacekeeping," Al Jazeera, May 29, 2012.

Joe Bavier, "Explosion in Mali Kills Three U.N. Soldiers from Bangladesh," Reuters September 24, 2017.

Kelly Reese, "Partnering with Bangladesh to Promote Peacekeeping," DipNote, US Department of State, July 27, 2017.

Ban Ki Moon, "Remarks at the Bangladesh Institute of Peace Support Operation Training," United Nations Secretary General, November 14, 2011.

Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook: Bangladesh.

"Bangladesh Country Report," Economist Intelligence Unit, June 2017.

"World Bank Supports Improving College Education in Bangladesh," The World Bank, September 8, 2016.

Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook: Bangladesh.

Rachel Abrams and Maher Sattar, "Protests in Bangladesh Shake a Global Workshop for Apparel," New York Times, January 22, 2017.

Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook: Bangladesh.

"Remittances Fell by 14.5% in 2016/17," The Economist Intelligence Unit, July 12, 2017; Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook: Bangladesh.

"Remittances Fell by 14.5% in 2016/17," The Economist Intelligence Unit, July 12, 2017.

"Authorities Consider Measures to Boost Official Remittances," The Economist Intelligence Unit, February 10, 2017.

Adil Sakhawat, "Bangladesh to Send One Million Workers Abroad in 2017," Dhaka Tribune, July 25, 2017.

"Protests Held over Gas Price Hike," The Economist Intelligence Unit, March 2, 2017.

Ibid; "Bangladesh Hikes Natural Gas Price in Likely Blow to Garment Industry," Reuters, February 24, 2017.

"Protests Held over Gas Price Hike," The Economist Intelligence Unit, March 2, 2017; Ashif Islam Shaon, "Household Gas Users Relieved of Second Price Hike," Dhaka Tribune, July 30, 2017.

"LNG Imports Will Substitute Falling Domestic Output," The Economist Intelligence Unit, July 17, 2017, http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=595689843.

"Banking Sector Faces Challenges," The Economist Intelligence Unit, June 26, 2017.

Ibid.

Ibid.

"Making the Business Environment More Attractive," The Economist Intelligence Unit, May 25, 2017.

"Government Planning 1,000 MW Solar Plan," The Economist Intelligence Unit, June 30, 2017.

"Making the Business Environment More Attractive," The Economist Intelligence Unit, May 25, 2017; Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index 2016, January 25, 2017.

"Further Efforts Needed to Boost FDI Inflows," The Economist Intelligence Unit, June 29, 2017; "Making the Business Environment More Attractive," The Economist Intelligence Unit, May 25, 2017.

"Further Efforts Needed to Boost FDI Inflows," The Economist Intelligence Unit, June 29, 2017.

"Bangladesh: Building Resilience to Climate Change," The World Bank, October 9, 2016.

"Facing Up to Climate Change," The Economist Intelligence Unit, January 25, 2017.

Gardiner Harris, "Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land: Facing Rising Seas, Bangladesh Confronts the Consequences of Climate Change," New York Times, March 28, 2014.

"Facing Up to Climate Change," The Economist Intelligence Unit, January 25, 2017.

Gardiner Harris, "Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land: Facing Rising Seas, Bangladesh Confronts the Consequences of Climate Change," New York Times, March 28, 2014; Poppy McPherson, "Dhaka: The City Where Climate Refugees Are Already a Reality," The Guardian, December 1, 2015.

Robert Glennon, "The Unfolding Tragedy of Climate Change in Bangladesh," Scientific American, April 21, 2017; "Climate Change Induced Migration in Bangladesh," International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), October 5, 2015.

Robert Glennon, "The Unfolding Tragedy of Climate Change in Bangladesh," Scientific American, April 21, 2017.

World Bank, "Warming Climate to Hit Bangladesh Hard with Sea Level Rise, More Floods and Cyclones, World Bank Report Says," press release, June 19, 2013.

"Cyclone Mora: Bangladesh Fishermen Missing After Storm," BBC, June 1, 2017.

"Facing Up to Climate Change," The Economist Intelligence Unit, January 25, 2017; "Bangladesh's Census: In Search of Common Denominator," The Economist, March 17, 2011; Gardiner Harris, "Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land: Facing Rising Seas, Bangladesh Confronts the Consequences of Climate Change," New York Times, March 28, 2014.

"Facing Up to Climate Change," The Economist Intelligence Unit, January 25, 2017.

"Facing Up to Climate Change," The Economist Intelligence Unit, January 25, 2017; "Bangladesh: Building Resilience to Climate Change," The World Bank, October 9, 2016; Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF), Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, "Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC)," September 2015.

Gardiner Harris, "Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land: Facing Rising Seas, Bangladesh Confronts the Consequences of Climate Change," New York Times, March 28, 2014.

"Government Plans Introduction of Carbon Tax," The Economist Intelligence Unit, June 1, 2017.

The Economist Intelligence Unit, Global Food Security Index 2016, pp. 9-24.

Reid Hamel, "Tracking Promises," Center for Strategic and International Studies, September 2016.

World Food Programme, "Countries: Bangladesh," http://www.wfp.org/node/3398; Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 43.

USAID, Bangladesh: Country Profile 2016; "Rising Rice Prices Will Push Up Headline Inflation," The Economist Intelligence Unit, April 25, 2017.

Ibid.

World Food Programme, Countries: Bangladesh.

USAID, Office of Food for Peace, Food Security Country Framework for Bangladesh FY 2015-2019, February 2015, p. 4.

"Facing Up to Climate Change," The Economist Intelligence Unit, January 25, 2017.

"Rising Rice Prices Will Push Up Headline Inflation," The Economist Intelligence Unit, April 25, 2017.

"The Government Reduces Rice Import Duties," The Economist Intelligence Unit, June 23, 2017.

Karla Gonzalez Carvajal and Diep Nguyen-Van Houtte, "Unlocking the Transformative Power of Waterways," The World Bank, June 27, 2016.

Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 45.

Asian Development Bank, Adapting to Climate Change, 2011, p. 19; "Dredging Fails to Restore Ganges Distributary in BD," Green Watch, April 2, 2017.

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2013, April 2014, p. 179; U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2016, July 2017.

"Dhaka Visit Was 'Important,' Biswal Says," The Daily Star, July 12, 2016.

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2016, July 2017.

"Bangladesh Counterterrorism Efforts Earn US Appreciation," The Bangladesh Chronicle, April 30, 2014.

"15 IS Suspects Held in 1 year," The Daily Star, October 8, 2015.

Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2016, July 2017.

"Increase in Terrorism Threatens Stability," The Economist Intelligence Unit, March 29, 2017; U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2016, July 2017.

Siddharthya Roy, "A Year of Bangladesh's War on Terror," The Diplomat, July 6, 2017; U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2016, July 2017.

Siddharthya Roy, "A Year of Bangladesh's War on Terror," The Diplomat, July 6, 2017.

"New Evidence Shows Deep Islamic State Role in Bangladesh Massacre," Reuters, December 1, 2016.

Ibid.

Siddharthya Roy, "A Year of Bangladesh's War on Terror," The Diplomat, July 6, 2017.

"New Evidence Shows Deep Islamic State Role in Bangladesh Massacre," Reuters, December 1, 2016.

Siddharthya Roy, "A Year of Bangladesh's War on Terror," The Diplomat, July 6, 2017; Julfikar Ali Manik and Nida Najar, "Bangladesh Police Kill Man Suspected of Planning Dhaka Bakery Attack," New York Times, August 27, 2016.

Julfikar Ali Manik and Nida Najar, "Bangladesh Police Kill Man Suspected of Planning Dhaka Bakery Attack," New York Times, August 27, 2016.

Krishnadev Calamur, "Bangladesh's Long Road to Islamist Violence," The Atlantic, July 9, 2016.

"New Evidence Shows Deep Islamic State Role in Bangladesh Massacre," Reuters, December 1, 2016; Krishnadev Calamur, "Bangladesh's Long Road to Islamist Violence," The Atlantic, July 9, 2016.

Tiffany Ap, "Who Are the Terror Groups Jostling for Influence in Bangladesh?," CNN, July 3, 2016; Krishnadev Calamur, "Bangladesh's Long Road to Islamist Violence," The Atlantic, July 9, 2016.

Siddharthya Roy, "A Year of Bangladesh's War on Terror," The Diplomat, July 6, 2017.

Ibid.

"Increase in Terrorism Threatens Stability," The Economist Intelligence Unit, March 29, 2017.

Ali Riaz, "Debate over Bangladeshi Militants' External Connections," The Daily Star, May 24, 2016.

U.S. State Department, Bureau of Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2014, June 2015.

"Terrorist Groups—Bangladesh," South Asia Terrorism Portal, October 12, 2014, http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/bangladesh.

"Bangladesh Villagers Bury Islamist Extremists After Hanging," Agence France-Presse, April 13, 2017; "Supreme Court Upholds Use of Death Penalty," The Economist Intelligence Unit, March 29, 2017; Terrorist Groups—Bangladesh," South Asia Terrorism Portal, October 12, 2014, http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/bangladesh.

Saikat Datta, "Ending the Suspense: Mystery of Burdwan Blast Explained," Hindustan Times, December 2, 2014; Saikat Datta, "Larger Terror Design Behind Burdwan Blast?" Hindustan Times, October 14, 2014.

Animesh Roul, "How Bangladesh Became Fertile Ground for Al-Qa'ida and the Islamic State," CTC Sentinel, vol. 9, no. 5 (May 2016), p. 31.

Tiffany Ap, "Who Are the Terror Groups Jostling for Influence in Bangladesh?," CNN, July 3, 2016; "Ansar al-Islam Claims Bangladesh Student's Killing," Al Jazeera, April 9, 2016; Tekendra Parmar, "Police Arrest 'Islamic Militant' for the Killing of Bangladeshi Atheist Blogger Nazimuddin Samad," Time, October 18, 2016.

Ibid; Tiffany Ap, "Who Are the Terror Groups Jostling for Influence in Bangladesh?," CNN, July 3, 2016 ; "Ansar al-Islam Claims Bangladesh Student's Killing," Al Jazeera, April 9, 2016; Tipu Sultan, "Ansarullah Bangla Team Reorganised as Ansar al-Islam," Prothom Alo, April 10, 2016.

"Bangladesh's Prime Minister Uses Piety to Mask Misrule: Sheikh Hasina's Blunder," The Economist, June 1, 2017.

Ibid.

Geeta Anand and Julfikar Ali Manik, "Bangladesh Says It Now Knows Who's Killing the Bloggers," New York Times, June 8, 2016.

There are reports indicating that JMB received financing from Al Qaeda-affiliated NGOs.

Also, one of Ansar al Islam's leaders previously was affiliated with the JMB.

Jane Perlez and Yufan Huang, "Behind China's $1 Trillion Plan to Shake Up the Economic Order," New York Times, May 13, 2017.

Prarthana Kashinath, "To Fend Off China, India Must Galvanize Ties with Bangladesh," The Diplomat, October 29, 2016.

Ibid.

"Rite of Passage," The Economist, May 25, 2013; Saadat Hassan Bilal, "India Has Nothing to Fear From China's 'Belt and Road,'" The Diplomat, January 11, 2017.

"Political Consensus Imperative for Regional Connectivity," Prothom Alo, August 20, 2017; Roshan Iyer, "Reviving the Comatose Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Corridor," The Diplomat, May 3, 2017; Atul Aneja, "Dialogue on Stalled BCIM Corridor Set to Resume in Kolkata," The Hindu, April 19, 2017.

"PM Modi Says India-Bangladesh Journey Just Begins," The Daily Star, June 8, 2015; "Bangladesh-India Joint Declaration," The Daily Star, June 7, 2015.

Ibid.

"India, Bangladesh Sign Historic Land Boundary Agreement," Reuters, June 6, 2015.

Dhruva Jaishankar, "India's Bid for 'Regionalism' in South Asia and What It Means vis-a-vis Pakistan," Washington Post, September 22, 2016.

Anand Kumar, "Illegal Bangladeshi Migration to India: Impact on Internal Security," Strategic Analysis, vol. 35, no. 1 (January 2011) p. 106.

Joyeeta Bhattacharjee, "India: Resolving the Bangladesh Immigration Issue," The Diplomat, May 27, 2014.

Dhruva Jaishankar, "India's Bid for 'Regionalism' in South Asia and What It Means vis-a-vis Pakistan," Washington Post, September 22, 2016.

"Increase in Terrorism Threatens Stability," The Economist Intelligence Unit, March 29, 2017.

"India's Growing Push for Regional Connectivity," The Economist Intelligence Unit, March 13, 2017..

Ibid; "A 1600 km Distance Between Kolkata to Agartala Would Come Down to 500 Km If This Railway Line Comes Through," Financial Express (IANS), July 27, 2017.

"Prime Minister of Bangladesh Concludes Visit to India," The Economist Intelligence Unit, April 13, 2017.

Ibid.

"Dhaka Seeks Balance of Strategic Ties," The Hindu, December 1, 2016.

"Bangladesh Now a Full Member of CICA," bdnews, May 20, 2014; Mu Chunshan, "What Is CICA (and Why Does China Care About It," The Diplomat, May 17, 2014.

Vikram Mansharamani,"China Is Spending Nearly $1 Trillion to Rebuild the Silk Road," PBS Newshour, March 2, 2016; "China to Establish $40 Billion Silk Road Infrastructure Fund," Reuters, November 8, 2014.

Roshan Iyer, "Reviving the Comatose Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Corridor," The Diplomat, May 3, 2017; "China-Bangladesh Defence Relations Reach 'Unprecedented Heights,'" bdnews, August 1, 2017.

"Bangladesh Signs US$13.6bn Investment Package with China," The Economist Intelligence Unit, October 20, 2016.

Arafat Kabir, "India Embraces Bangladesh to Keep China in Check," Forbes, June 16, 2015; "Padma Bridge Project Is Awarded to a Chinese Firm," The Economist Intelligence Unit, May 30, 2014.

Jane Perlez, "China Showers Myanmar with Attention, as Trump Looks Elsewhere," New York Times, July 19, 2017.

Sanjeev Miglani and Ruma Paul, "Exclusive: Bangladesh Favours Japan for Port and Power Plant, in Blow to China," Reuters, September 10, 2015; "Bangladesh- Japan Deal May Disrupt Chinese BRI," The Financial Express, July 19, 2017.

Sanjeev Miglani and Ruma Paul, "Exclusive: Bangladesh Favours Japan for Port and Power Plant, in Blow to China," Reuters, September 10, 2015.

"Japan Fulfilling PM Abe's Commitment to Bangladesh: Outgoing Ambassador," bdnews, August 23, 2017.

ASMG Kibra, "Bangladesh Juggles Chinese, Japanese Interest," The Diplomat, January 5, 2015.

"Bangladesh Signs US$13.6bn Investment Package with China," The Economist Intelligence Unit, October 20, 2016; Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, Country Report: Bangladesh, June 21, 2017, p. 31.

Sanjeev Miglani, "Indian Leader Heading to Bangladesh with China on His Mind," May 27, 2015.

Jeff Smith, "Why China's Submarine Deal with Bangladesh Matters," The Diplomat, January 20, 2017.