Contents

• Introduction
• Railroad Industry Background
• RRIF Program
• Program Overview
• Program Performance
• RRIF Program Issues and Options
• Need for Program
• Alternatives to RRIF
• Section 45G Tax Credit
• TIGER Grant Program
• TIFIA Loan Program
• State Programs
• Supportive Policy Options
• Program Effectiveness
• Length of Review Process
• Loan Costs
• Other Costs to Borrowers
• Loans to Passenger Rail Projects
• Growth in Lending to Passenger Rail Projects
• Unique Risks
• Legislative Proposals in the 114^th Congress

Summary

Congress created the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) program to offer long-term, low-cost loans to railroad operators, with particular attention to small freight railroads, to help them finance improvements to infrastructure and investments in equipment. The program is intended to operate at no cost to the government, and it does not receive an annual appropriation. Since 2000, the RRIF program has made 3436 loans totaling $2.75.2 billion (valued at $2.9$5.4 billion in 20152016 dollars). Although theThe program, which is administered by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), regularly receives applications, it has approved only one loan since 2012.

Build America Bureau within the Office of the Secretary of Transportation, has approved only three loans since 2012.

Congress has authorized $35 billion in loan authority for the RRIF program and repeatedly has urged FRAthe Department of Transportation (DOT) to increase the number of loans the program makes. Reports suggest the uncertain length and outcome of the RRIF loan application process and the up-front costs to prospective borrowers are among the elements of the program that have reduced its appeal compared with other financing options available to railroads.

By statute, FRAthe Build America Bureau has 90 days from the time a completed application is submitted to render a decision on the application. This timeline becomes uncertain due to FRAthe Bureau's discretion in determining when a loan application is "complete." A 2014 audit indicated that some loan applications had been in process for more than a year.

Unlike the Department of TransportationDOT's other prominent loan assistance program, the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) program, RRIF requires loan recipients are required to deposit the equivalent of a bond, referred to as a credit risk premium, which is intended to offset the risk of a default on their loan. The money is returned to the borrower when the loan is paid backDOT organizes loans it makes into cohorts; when all loans in a cohort are repaid, the borrowers in that cohort get their credit risk premiums returned. The credit risk premium helps the program comply with a congressional requirement that federal loan assistance programs operate at no cost to the federal government. However, it may make RRIF loans less attractive to borrowers than TIFIA loans, for which Congress appropriates funds to pay the cost of the credit risk premium for loan recipients, or than private loans, in which risk premiums typically are folded in to the cost of the loan and paid as part of the loan repayment schedule.

Since 2008, several RRIF loans have been made to government-run intercity passenger rail projects. A number of private companies seeking to build intercity passenger rail lines also have expressed interest in RRIF loansother types of federal, state, or private financing. Several RRIF loans have been made to government-run intercity passenger rail projects. A number of private companies seeking to build intercity passenger rail lines also have expressed interest in RRIF loans. Changes made by Congress in the Fixing America's Surface Transportation Act (P.L. 114-94), enacted in December 2015, may lead to even greater use of the RRIF program by sponsors of passenger rail and transit-related projects, as opposed to small freight railroads. Such loans likely would be quite large relative to those RRIF typically extends to small freight railroads, raising questions about the risk to the federal government if the projects are not completed or if they fail to generate sufficient revenue to service the loans. Legislation introduced in the 114^th Congress would reserve 40% of RRIF lending authority for Amtrak and would change elements of the RRIF program to make it more attractive to potential applicants.

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The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) Program

Introduction

The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) program offers long-term, low-interest loans to railroad operators for improving rail infrastructure. The program is intended to operate at no cost to the government and does not receive an annual appropriation. Congress has authorized $35 billion in loan authority for the program, but freight railroads have been relatively unenthusiastic. Since 2000, RRIF has made 3436 loans to 2628 operators for a total of $2.75.2 billion, representing $2.95.4 billion in 2015 dollars. About two-thirds of the nominal loan amount has gone to government-controlled entities for passenger rail projects rather than to freight operators. 2016 dollars. From 2000 through 20142015, private railroads' total investment in structures and equipment was approximately $109154 billion ($174 billion in 20152016 dollars.).¹ RRIF supplied less than 1% of freight railroads' capital expenditures for track and other structures over that period. The program is intended to operate at no cost to the government and does not receive an annual appropriation.

In recent years, sponsors of intercity passenger rail projects have shown increasing interest in the program. Part of this interest In recent years, sponsors of intercity passenger rail projects have shown increasing interest in the program. About 85% of the RRIF program's nominal loan amount has gone to government-controlled entities for passenger rail projects rather than to freight operators; loans to Amtrak, the national intercity passenger rail provider, alone represent 60% of the total nominal loan amount. Part of this activity may be explained by a growing interest in passenger rail services at the state and local level and the scarcity of other funding assistance for such projects, which tend to be extremely costly. Legislation recently passed by the House of Representatives seeks to shorten the time taken to complete loan application reviews and would specify that 40% of the available loan authority be reserved for improvements to Amtrak's Northeast Corridor, the most heavily used passenger rail corridor in the nation. The prospect of large loans for private, intercity passenger rail The Fixing America's Surface Transportation Act (FAST Act; P.L. 114-94), enacted in December 2015, included changes intended to make the RRIF program more attractive to potential applicants. Some of these changes may make the program more useful for funding passenger rail and transit-related projects. The prospect of large loans for private intercity passenger rail and transit-related projects raises questions about potential risks to the RRIF program, because such a projectprojects may have no source of earnings until and unless it isthey are completed and, even then, may not be able to generate sufficient revenue to service itstheir loans.

Railroad Industry Background

The railroad industry has changed significantly since Congress created a forerunner of RRIF in 1976. At that time, the nation's railroads were in great financial difficulty, investment in infrastructure and equipment had lagged, and there were questions about the future viability of the industry. Subsequently, Congress significantly deregulated the railroad industry, making it easier for carriers to consolidate and to shed less profitable routes. Since that time, mergers have reduced a large number of regional rail companies to a handfulrailroads to a handful of companies that operate across many states (known as Class I carriers).

Deregulation allowed the large railroads to focus their construction and maintenance efforts on heavily trafficked main lines and to stop service on routes that were not profitable. Some of this lightly used trackage was sold to smaller operators, which believed they could build business by working closely with shippers that used or might use the line. These smaller railroads, collectively known as short line railroads, are classified by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) as Class II and Class III carriers.¹2 Although there are now only 7seven Class I railroads operating in the United States,²3 there are more than 560 short line railroads.³

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The Class I freight railroads—large, profitable commercial entities—are able to finance improvements out of their considerable revenues, as well as by issuing stock and by borrowing in the commercial market. In 2015, they reportedly plan to spend around $29 billion on their networks.⁴

Class II and Class III railroads have fewer financing options. Their revenues are smaller, their lines of business typically are more limited than those of the Class I railroads, and their creditworthiness generally is lower. However, nearly half of the nation's short line railroads have come under the control of 27 holding companies,⁵ potentially offering them easier access to private financing. In addition, a number of short line railroads are terminal switching, port, or harbor rail lines that have a relationship with a Class I railroad, which may help them obtain financing, and some short line railroads are owned by states. These entities typically have easier access to the financial markets than do stand-alone short line railroads. ⁶

Amtrak, the national intercity passenger rail provider,6 Amtrak operates at a loss and relies on federal grants appropriated annually to continue operations. Amtrak's primary service corridor is the Northeast Corridor (NEC), a rail line running from Washington, DC, through New York City to Boston. This line also is used heavily by commuter rail operations and evenalso hosts some freight service. There is an estimated backlog of $9 billion to $1538 billion in capital investment needed to restore the aging NEC infrastructure to a state of good repair, and additional billions would be needed to make possible expanded service on the line.⁷

. In December 2016 DOT published a proposal for expanded and faster service on the NEC, with a capital cost estimate of $128 billion.⁷

RRIF Program

Congress created the RRIF program in 1998⁸ and revised it in 2005^,9 2008,¹⁰9 and 2008.¹⁰2015.¹¹ The program allows the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) to provide credit assistance for rail infrastructure by making low-cost direct loans or providing loan guarantees to project sponsors. Eligible recipients of this assistance include railroads, state and local governments, government-sponsored corporations, and joint ventures that include at least one railroad.

The RRIF program replaced a railroad financing program that Congress created in 1976.¹¹12 The original program allowed DOT to provide financial assistance for rail infrastructure by purchasing preference shares or issuing loan guarantees. The authorization to purchase preference shares expired in 1996.

In the 1998 revision that renamed the program, Congress authorized DOT to make direct loans as well as loan guarantees, set an overall cap of $3.5 billion on the total amount of outstanding debt that the program could have at any one time, and reserved almost 30% of that ($1 billion) for projects benefiting short line railroads. In 2005, Congress increased the limit on outstanding debt to $35 billion and increased the amount reserved for smaller freight railroads to $7 billion. The increase was not due to demand for the program—the program had issued a total of less than $1 billion in loans at that point—but in hopes of boosting interest in the program. In 2012, Congress provided that applicants could use future dedicated revenues as security for an RRIF loan, and added positive train control and pre-construction activities as eligible projects. In 2015, Congress added transit-oriented development projects to the list of eligible projects, and moved the administration of the program from the FRA to a newly created Build America Bureau.

Projects eligible for RRIF assistance include acquiring, improving, and rehabilitating track, bridges, rail yards, buildings, and shops (or refinancing existing debt that was incurred for these purposes); and developing new rail or intermodal facilities. Loans can be for up to 100% of the project cost, with repayment periods up to 35 years.

The RRIF program is designed to operate at no cost to the government. Applicants are charged a fee of 0.5% of the amount requested to cover the cost of processing their applications. Borrowers are charged another fee (the credit risk premium) at the time a loan is issued to cover the potential cost to the government of the loan not being repaid. The amount of the credit risk premium is based on several factors, including the financial condition of the applicant and the amount of collateral securing the loan.

This no-cost-to-the-government structure is why it was not controversial for Congress to raise the maximum outstanding loan amount from $3.5 billion to $35 billion in 2005. But the up-front costs of an RRIF loan may deter would-be applicants. By contrast, the other major DOT credit assistance program, established in the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation programAct (TIFIA), covers the cost of the credit risk premium for loan recipients (known as TIFIA's subsidy cost). And for). For private loans, the processing costs and credit risk premium typically are folded into the loan repayment schedule rather than being charged up front.

Program Overview

The RRIF program is one of four credit programs run by DOT;¹² it is administered by FRA..¹³ RRIF loan applications are reviewed by FRAthe Build America Bureau, independent financial analysts hired by FRA,the Bureau, and DOT's Office of Credit Oversight and Risk Management, and DOT's Credit Council.¹³ If the loan is recommended for approval, the credit risk premium is reviewed by the Office of Credit Oversight and Risk Management and the Office of Management and Budget. Final approval is decided by the FRA Administratorand Finance.¹⁴ The Secretary of Transportation has final authority over loan approval.

The interest rate on RRIF loans is equal to the rate paid by the U.S. Treasury to borrow for a similar period of time as of the date the loan is approved. That is, the recipient is able to borrow money at the lowest rate available, that paid by the federal government itself, and for a longer period of time than most other types of loans would permit. RRIF borrowers can ask to defer loan repayment for a period of six years (though interest accrues during this period). Alternatively, FRAthe Build America Bureau can guarantee a private loan based onextended at a rate DOT determines to be reasonable.

In addition to the statutory elements of the program, Congress has put; to date, no loan guarantees have been provided through the program. Congress has imposed certain other restrictions on the program. For example, for FY2015, the program is limited to a total loan amount of $5.6 billion in any one state, and FY2017, as in previous years, appropriations legislation prohibited the use of any federal funds to pay the credit risk premium on a loan is prohibited.¹⁴

an RRIF loan.¹⁵

Congress has specified¹⁵16 that in evaluating RRIF applications, FRAthe Build America Bureau should favor projects that

• enhance public safety (including installation of positive train control); promote economic development;
• enhance the environment;
• promote economic development;
• enable U.S. companies to be more competitive in international markets;
• are endorsed by the plans prepared under Section 135 of Title 23 by the state or states in which they are located;¹⁶
17
• improve railroad stations and passenger facilities and increase transit-oriented development;
• preserve or enhance rail or intermodal service to small communities or rural areas;
• enhance service and capacity in the national rail system; and
• materially alleviate rail capacity problems that degrade the provision of service to shippers and would fulfill a need in the national transportation system.

Program Performance

The RRIF program has used relatively little of its lending authority. RRIF may have a maximum of $35 billion of outstanding loans and loan guarantees. It currently has about 614% of this amount committed.

The From its inception through April 2017, the RRIF program has issued 3436 loans for a total amount of $2.7 billion as of May 2015 (5.2 billion (see Table 1).¹⁷18 The loans ranged in amounts from $53,000 to $967 million. Although loans can be made for up to 35 years, 10 of the 34 loans have been repaid in full.

2.45 billion. Eighteen of the 36 loans have been repaid in full. One loan is in default. The total amount obligated to active RRIF loans as of April 2017 is $3.789 billion.¹⁹

Of the 3436 loans made, two-thirds were executed prior to 2008 and only 1 hasthree have been approved since 2012 (see Table 1). FRA reported that in FY2014 it was evaluating 13 applications totaling $10 billion.¹⁸ FRAas of February 2016 it was evaluating six applications totaling $3.2 billion²⁰ (by comparison, FRA was evaluating 13 applications totaling $10 billion in February 2014).²¹ DOT treats loan applications as confidential, although some applicants have stated publicly that they have applied for RRIF loans. FRA and Congress has directed DOT to post a monthly report on its website providing information about each loan application.²² DOT may approve a loan for less than the amount requested; in one case, that ofthe case of a 2007 loan, the Dakota, Minnesota & Eastern Railroad, the company applied for a $2.5 billion loan and received a loan of $48 million.¹⁹

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Figure 1. RRIF Loans Executed by Year (fiscal years through May 2015April 2017)

Sources: CRS, based on data from the Federal Railroad AdministrationBuild America Bureau's Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing program website. Note: First loans made in 2002.

Public-sector entities have emerged as the largest borrowers under the RRIF program, representing some 85% of the amount loaned. Most loans to public-sector entities have been intended for passenger rail projects. However, one, an $83.7 million loan to the Alameda Corridor Transportation Authority in 2012, was to support a freight project.

RRIF Program Issues and Options

Need for Program

The policy rationales for the RRIF program are that railroad companies, especially short line companies too small to raise money in the bond market, need better access to long-term, low-cost financing to maintain and expand their networks, and that the safety and efficiency of their networks is a public concern.²⁰24 However, it is not clear that railroads, even short line railroads, have significant difficulty financing the maintenance and expansion of their networks. FRA looked at the safety record of short line railroads, taking accidentsaccident rates as a proxy for the condition of the infrastructure (that is, if the infrastructure were deteriorating, the number of accidentsaccident rate likely would increase). FRA found that the number of infrastructure-related accidents per million train-miles on short line railroads declined significantly between 2001 and 2013, from more than 8eight accidents per million train-miles to fewer than 4four accidents per million train-miles. FRA stated that "the positive trend, illustrated by a decreasing accident rate, suggests improving maintenance and investment.... "²¹

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Another measure of the condition of short line railroad infrastructure condition is its capability to handle 286,000-pound rail cars. Since the late 1980s, Class I railroads have moved from maximum car weights of 263,000 pounds to 286,000 pounds. Track and bridges must be strengthened to handle these heavier loads. According to the Association of Short Line Railroads, 39% of short line route-miles were able to handle the 286,000-pound cars in 2002, whereas 57% of a larger number of total route-miles could handle the heavier cars in 2010. FRA stated, after examining both the safety and capacity numbers, that "these data points and trends illustrate that these carriers in aggregate are maintaining their systems and enhancing infrastructure to meet their customer needs."²²

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On the basis of a 2013 survey of Class II and Class III railroads' estimated spending requirements for infrastructure and equipment, FRA estimated that the total investment needs of short line railroads would be $6.9 billion over the five-year period from 2013 to 2017. The survey respondents anticipated that they would be able to cover about 70% to 75% of their estimated spending needs for infrastructure and equipment during that period, with most of the funding coming from their revenues; they expected about a quarter of the funding to come from other sources, chiefly state (9%) and federal (8%) grants and loans.²³27 The survey results suggested an estimated gap of around $265 million per year between the available funding and the amount short lines felt was needed.²⁴28

Alternatives to RRIF

RRIF is only one of several federal and state programs available to reduce the cost of railroads' investment in infrastructure. Others include the following.

Section 45G Tax Credit

This tax credit, first enacted in 2004, allows Class II and Class III railroads to reduce their taxes by 50% of the cost of track maintenance expenses incurred in a year, up to a limit established by multiplying the railroad's track mileage by $3,500. The cost to the federal government in forgone tax revenue is estimated at $165 million to $202 million per year, which represents investments of roughly $300-$400 million annually.²⁵29 In contrast to the RRIF program, this tax credit is targeted exclusively to short line railroads. It does not require the recipient to undertake an uncertain loan application process, with its attendant costs, or to comply with laws that govern RRIF loans, such as the Buy America Act and the National Environmental Policy Act.²⁶30 The tax credit last expired on December 31, 20142016. Legislation to reinstate the credit and extend it through the end of 2016 extend the credit has been introduced in the 114^115th Congress (H.R. 721/; S. 637407).

TIGER Grant Program

Congress created a National Infrastructure Investment discretionary grant program within the Office of the Secretary of DOTTransportation in 2009. This program, popularly known as the Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery (TIGER) grant program, made over $45 billion in grants through FY2014FY2016. Grants require a 20% match in urbanized areas; in rural areas, no local match is required. Although only governmental entities are eligible to receive grants, applications may represent public-private partnerships. Passenger and freight rail infrastructure projects are eligible uses of TIGER funds. Freight rail projects (including port improvement projects with a rail component) have received nearly $810 million in grants; short line railroad improvement projects have received more than $270 million.²⁷31 The program is very competitive, with several times as much funding requested each year as the $500 million typically available for grants.

TIFIA Loan Program

The TIFIA loan program, like the RRIF program, was authorized by Congress in 1998. As of the end of calendar year 20142016, the program had assisted 4756 projects with a total value of almost $72over $82 billion; the federal value of credit assistance provided was more than $1920 billion, at a direct cost of more than $1 billion (representing the cost of the credit risk premium and the administrative costs of processing applications).²⁸32 Eligible projects include "rail projects involving the design and construction of intercity passenger rail facilities or the procurement of intercity passenger rail vehicles" and "intermodal freight transfer facilities."²⁹33 Although five intermodal projects involving rail freight have received assistance, no TIFIA loans have been approved for pure rail projects. Congress appropriates funding to cover the credit risk premium cost of TIFIA loans, reducing the cost of loans to recipients.

In the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21^st Century Act (MAP-21; P.L. 112-141), the 2012FAST Act, the 2015 surface transportation authorization legislation, Congress authorized $1.75435 billion through FY2020 to administer the program and cover the credit risk premium. Since DOT assumes a loss ratio of around 10%, the $1.6435 billion available after administrative costs gave it the capacity to provide about $1614 billion in TIFIA loans or loan guarantees during FY2013 and FY2014.³⁰from FY2016 through FY2020.³⁴

State Programs

A number of states have established grant, loan, and tax benefit programs to help short line railroads finance infrastructure or equipment purchases. In its report on Class II and Class III railroad capital needs and funding sources, FRA reported that, in a survey of how short line railroads expected to fund their needs in the near future, respondents expected to get a greater percentage of funding for infrastructure and equipment investments from state programs (9%) than from federal programs (8%).³¹35

Supportive Policy Options

The primary competition for short line and regional railroads is the trucking industry. The degree of competition is affected by the extent of regulation and taxation on the rail and truck sectors. Trucks operate over publicly provided infrastructure (the highway network), whereas railroads are financially responsible for their own infrastructure. Although federal and state taxes on diesel fuel contribute to maintaining the highway infrastructure, studies indicate that heavy trucks cause much more damage to highways than they pay in fuel taxes. This problem is exacerbated by exemptions Congress has provided to limits on truck weights, which raise the productivity of trucking vis-à-vis railroads while increasing the amount of damage the trucks cause to the highway infrastructure.

Congress could aid the short line and regional railroads by, for example, increasing the amount of fuel tax paid by heavy trucks to a level commensurate with the damage they cause to the highway infrastructure and limiting exemptions to truck weight restrictions. Such changes also would benefit the Class I railroads. However, these changes could increase the cost of shipping goods by truck, adversely affecting trucking industry employment. In addition, higher truck rates could affect rail shippers by giving railroads room to raise their own rates.

Program Effectiveness

There are many possible ways of evaluating the effectiveness of the RRIF program. By one measure on which Congress has focused—the extent to which railroads have made use of RRIF loans—the program has not been very effective because less than $36 billion of the $35 billion in loan authority that Congress has provided to the program has been used. However, the $35 billion in loan authoritylimit appears to have been set somewhat arbitrarily, rather than reflecting an analysis of railroad investment needs that could not be met by other means. The fact that the RRIF program has lent far less than the amount Congress authorized in 2005, particularly to private-sector borrowers, may indicate that freight railroads' ability to finance their investment needs without recourse to government support may beis greater than Congress believed.

In its 2014 audit of the program, the DOT Inspector General's Office published information about numbers of applications received over a period of roughly 3.5 years the period from January 1, 2010, to April 30, 2013. According to the audit, 29 applications were submitted during that period (see Table 3).

Congress has expressed a desire that the program be used more heavily, especially by short line railroads, and has identified two aspects of the program that may be reducing its attractiveness: the uncertain length of the loan review process and the cost to the applicant of the loan.

Length of Review Process

By statute, an RRIF loan application is supposed to be approved or disapproved within 90 days. But that 90-day clock does not begin until a loan application is considered complete. In its audit, the DOT Office of Inspector General found that unclear program information resulted in incomplete loan applications that required FRA to work with applicants on completing the applications. In combination withThe Inspector General determined that due to the extensive loan review process, which involvesinvolved FRA, outside reviewers, the DOT's Office of Credit Oversight and Risk Management, and its Credit Council, and the Office of Management and Budget, the audit revealed that the loan application process took a long time and had an uncertain outcome for loan, discouraging potential applicants.³² The combination of the lengthy process and uncertain outcome discouraged potential applicants from making use of the program, the audit found.

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In response to the audit findings, FRA said the RRIF programit would take steps to speed up the process, such as publishing comprehensive guidance for the program, making pre-application meetings mandatory, and working with the DOT Credit Council to streamline the review process.³³

37 The Build America Bureau published a guide to its credit programs (covering both RRIF and TIFIA) in January 2017.³⁸

Loan Costs

Federal law requires that federal credit programs operate at no cost to the government. The government faces two primary costs for loan assistance and guarantee programs: that of administering the program, including evaluating applicants, and that of a borrower failing to repay its loan.

To cover the cost of administering the program (including evaluating loan applications), the RRIF program charges loan applicants a nonrefundable fee of up to 0.5% of the loan amount. To protect against the possibility of defaults, federal law requires that loan programs keep enough money in reserve to cover the estimated cost to the government of defaults on the loans made. This reserve amount, which in the case of the RRIF program is paid by the borrower, is referred to as a credit risk premium. A credit risk premium is calculated for each loan, based primarily on the financial soundness of the borrower and the amount of collateral pledged by the borrower. Credit risk premiums for the RRIF program generally have been between 0% and 5% of the loan amount.³⁴39 For example, Amtrak payspaid a 4.424% credit risk premium for its 2011 RRIF loan and 5.8% for its 2016 RRIF loan.⁴⁰.³⁵ If collateral of sufficient value is pledged, no credit risk premium may be required. The RRIF program refunds the credit risk premium to borrowers as their loans are closed outthe cohort of loans that includes theirs is closed out.⁴¹ However, as of April 2017, DOT is still working on a formal definition of a "cohort of loans"; 18 RRIF loans have been repaid, but no credit risk premiums have yet been returned to borrowers.

The 2014 audit of the RRIF program noted that some short line railroads had pointed to the credit risk premium as discouraging them from applying to the program. In response, FRA stated that it has no discretion to subsidize the credit risk premium for applicants. Such a step would require congressional action. As noted above, for several years Congress has included in DOT appropriations bills a provision barring the use of federal funds to pay the credit risk premium.

Other Costs to Borrowers

There are other costs to participation in the RRIF program that are harder to measure. For example, to qualify for a loan, an applicant must comply with requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and a "Buy America" requirement.³⁶42 NEPA requires that FRA review a project's environmental impact. The Buy America Act requires that a project receiving a government loan use steel, iron, and other manufactured goods produced in the United States, unless the project sponsor receives a waiver from FRA.³⁷

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Loans to Passenger Rail Projects

Growth in Lending to Passenger Rail Projects

The RRIF program was created primarily to support freight rail service, and FRA sayshas said that its priority is to make capital available to short line railroads.³⁸44 But a significant portion of RRIF assistance has gone to intercity passenger rail service, especially since 2008. The recipients of the greatest amount of assistance have been Amtrak (three loans totaling $3.1 billion) and the New York City Metropolitan Transportation Administration (one loan for $967 million) and Amtrak (two loans totaling $663 million). As of May 2015April 2017, just over two-thirdsfour-fifths of the total assistance provided by the program has gone to passenger rail projects (see Table 4).

One cause of this disparity is that the large Class I railroads have made little use of the RRIF program, whereas the short line railroads typically have smaller, and thus less expensive, projects than the passenger rail projects for which RRIF funding has been sought. Another cause may be the lack of alternative funding sources for intercity passenger rail projects. In calendar year 2009, Congress appropriated $10.5 billion (later reduced to $10.1 billion through a rescission of appropriated funding) for grants for high-speed and intercity passenger rail projects.³⁹45 The availability of that funding generated significant interest on the part of states to establish or expand passenger rail service; FRA reported receiving applications for a total of more than $75 billion.⁴⁰46 Congress has provided no funding for this program since calendar year 2009, and some organizations interested in passenger rail services may have turned to RRIF as an alternative or supplemental source of funding.

Unique Risks

Lending to intercity passenger rail projects creates some unique challenges for RRIF. Government-run passengerPassenger rail projects often fail to make an operating profit, and few of them anywhere in the world generate sufficient operating profit to cover their capital costs.

Amtrak, the federally owned intercity passenger railroad operator, is responsible forhas received more than one-thirdhalf of all funds borrowed from RRIF. Amtrak states that it is servicing these loansloaned by the RRIF program. Amtrak has repaid two of the loans; it does not have to begin repaying the 2016 loan until 2022. Amtrak states that it will service this loan with revenue from its Northeast Corridor operations, with interest and principal payments in FY2015 projected to be $25.5 million. However, Amtrak does not earn an operating profit. However, while Amtrak earns an operating profit on its Northeast Corridor operations, it loses money overall and relies on an annual appropriation of approximately $1.4 billion from Congress to cover its costscontinue operating. Thus, the railroad's ability to repay its RRIF loansloan depends on the receipt of other federal funds. Amtrak's most recent audited financial statement reflects an outstanding balance of loans from RRIF of $277.7 million as of September 30, 2013, with additional approved loan amounts to be drawn. Amtrak expects to continue drawing down its RRIF loans through FY2019.⁴¹

In 2010, RRIF extended a $155 million loan to the Denver Union Station Project Authority for the reconstruction of Denver Union Station as an intermodal passenger station. The loan iswas serviced from the proceeds of tax-increment revenue from development around the station, with a backstop commitment from the City and County of Denver.⁴²

47 The project's revenues have exceeded projections and it refinanced its debt, repaying both its RRIF and TIFIA loans in February 2017.⁴⁸

Several private entities seeking to build and operate passenger rail projects have expressed interest in RRIF loans in recent years. Privately owned companies operate passenger rail services in many countries, but they typically pay only a portion of the cost of building and maintaining rail infrastructure, which usually receives some form of government support.

One entity that has begun construction, All Aboard Florida, a subsidiary of Florida East Coast Railway, a freight rail companyis expected to begin operating passenger rail service in 2017, All Aboard Florida, reportedly applied for a $1.87 billion RRIF loan to develop 110-mile per hour passenger service between Miami and Orlando.⁴³49 The company later told the press it is seeking other financing to supplement or replace theinstead of an RRIF loan.⁴⁴50 XpressWest, a proposed privately funded high-speed rail line between Las Vegas and Southern California, reportedly applied for a $5.5 billion RRIF loan in December 2010.⁴⁵51 The chairs of the House and Senate Budget Committees sent a letter to the Secretary of DOT on March 6, 2013, opposing the loan as being too risky;⁴⁶52 on June 28, 2013, DOT issued a letter saying it had suspended review of the XpressWest loan application due to the applicant's difficulties in satisfying Buy America requirements and providing documentation for the loan request.⁴⁷53 A subsequent venture with a Chinese rail company to build the line was terminated, reportedly also due to difficulties in satisfying the Buy America requirements of the RRIF program.⁵⁴ The Texas Central Railway, a private group proposing to build a high-speed line between Dallas and Houston, has said that it is considering seeking a loan from the RRIF or TIFIA programs but that it presently is not eligible to apply.⁴⁸55 To date, FRA has approved no RRIF loans to private passenger rail operators.

If such loans are extended, they are likely to be quite large relative to the loans RRIF has extended for freight projects and may pose different risks. RRIF loans for freight projects typically are for the purpose of improving an operating railroad that already generates revenue from customers. Those existing facilities may serve as collateral for the loans. Some of the private passenger rail projects now under development, by contrast, involve provision of new services on trackage that has yet to be built, potentially leaving the RRIF program with a significant risk of loss if the project is not completed

Legislative Proposals in the 114^th Congress

The Administration's surface transportation reauthorization proposal, the GROW AMERICA Act, proposes changes to RRIF.⁴⁹ It would authorize FRA to make grants under a new Local Rail Facilities and Safety program to pay for the credit risk premium for short line railroad loan recipients.⁵⁰ This change would make the program more attractive to short line railroads by reducing their up-front cost of getting a loan. The act also would cap the maximum RRIF share at 80% of total project costs for projects greater than $100 million that receive a grant to subsidize their credit risk premium.

The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee marked up a passenger rail reauthorization bill in February 2015 that included proposed changes to the RRIF program. The bill, H.R. 749, would require that 40% of the assistance available through the RRIF program be available only for improvements to Amtrak's Northeast Corridor;⁵¹ in effect, this requirement would set aside a minimum of $14 billion RRIF loan authority for passenger rail projects. The bill also would specify that positive train control projects⁵² are eligible for RRIF loans. It would attempt to shorten the application process by requiring that an application be determined to be complete or incomplete within 45 days of submission and by mandating that an application be approved or disapproved within 90 days of being determined to be complete.

S. 797, the Railroad Infrastructure Financing Improvement Act, would make significant changes to the RRIF program. It would make real estate development activities "physically or functionally connected" to a passenger rail station eligible for RRIF loans, a provision that might assist major property developments planned adjacent to New York Penn Station, Philadelphia 30^th Street Station, Washington Union Station, and other major rail hubs. The bill would add a number of items that could be offered as collateral "in lieu of any tangible asset," extend the maximum loan term to 50 years (or more), and authorize the appropriation of funds to cover credit risk premiums for applicants.

Footnotes

2. P.L. 94-210, the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976, Title V.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, FY2015 Budget Estimate, February 2014, p. 128, at http://www.dot.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/FRA-FY2015-Budget-Estimates.pdf.

23. 39. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Railroad Rehabilitation & Improvement Financing Program Guide, July 2014, pp. 10-12.

49. Texas Central Railway, "Answers to your Questions: Taxpayer Funding," at http://texascentral.com/answers-to-your-questions/.

1. Author Contact Information [author name scrubbed], Analyst in Transportation Policy ([email address scrubbed], [phone number scrubbed]) Footnotes
1.	Association of American Railroads, Railroad Facts, annual, 2015 & 2016 editions, "Capital Expenditures," p. 46. Figures inflated using the Chained GDP column from Table 10.1, "Gross Domestic Product and Deflators Used in the Historical Tables," from the "Historical Tables" volume of the annual Budget of the United States.
The classification of a railroad as being in Class I, II, or III is based on the company's annual revenue; the threshold amounts are adjusted for inflation each year and are roughly $450 million and above for a Class I, between $40 and $450 million for a Class II, and below $40 million for a Class III.
23.	The seven Class I railroads are freight rail companies; Amtrak is not included in the category.
34.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Summary of Class II and Class III Railroad Capital Needs and Funding Sources: A Report to Congress, October 2014, p. iv, at https://www.fra.dot.gov/Elib/Document/14131.
4.	Association of American Railroads, Executive Summary, 2015 Outlook, p.3.
5.	For example, Genesee & Wyoming Inc. owns 113 short line and regional freight railroads in the United States and another 7 outside the United States; it would qualify as a Class I railroad if its U.S. operations were considered as a single rail operator.
6.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Summary of Class II and Class III Railroad Capital Needs and Funding Sources: A Report to Congress, October 2014, p. v, at https://www.fra.dot.gov/Elib/Document/14131.
7.	$938 billion estimate: Northeast Corridor Commission, Northeast Corridor Capital Investment Plan, Fiscal Years 2018-2022, p. 8, http://www.nec-commission.com/capital-investment-plan/plan/NEC-Capital-Investment-Plan-18-22.pdf; $128 billion plan: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, A Rail Investment Plan for the Northeast Corridor, Tier 1 Final Environmental Impact Statement, December 2016, http://www.necfuture.com/ billion estimate: Amtrak, FY2014 Budget and Business Plan, FY2105 Budget Request Justification, & FY2014-2018 Five Year Financial Plan, April 2014, p. 49, at http://www.amtrak.com/ccurl/458/748/FY14-Budget-Business-Plan-FY15-Budget-Justification-FY14-18-Five-Year-Financial-Plan.pdf; $15 billion estimate: Northeast Corridor Commission, Northeast Corridor Five-Year Capital Needs Assessment, Fiscal Years 2015 to 2019, September 16, 2014, Table 4, at http://www.nec-commission.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/NEC-Five-Year-Capital-Needs-Assessment-FY15-19.pdf.
8.	P.L. 105-178, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century, §7203.
9.	P.L. 109-59, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible and Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users, §9003.
10.	P.L. 110-432, the Rail Safety Improvement Act of 2008, Division A, §701(e).
11.	P.L. 114-94, Fixing America's Surface Transportation Act, Title XI, Subtitle F.	12.
1213.	The other three are the TIFIA Program, the Maritime Guaranteed Loan (Title XI) Program, and the Minority Business Resource Center (MBRC) Short-Term Lending Program. These programs all must conform to the requirements of the Federal Credit Reform Act of 1990.
1314.	The Credit Council is made up of 10-13Office of Credit and Finance consists of eight to 11 DOT officials, including the Deputy Secretary of Transportation (the chair), DOT's chief financial officer and general counsel, and the administrators of several DOT operating agencies.
1415.	P.L. 113-235115-31, the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 20152017, Division K, Title I.
1516.	In 45 U.S.C. §822(c).
1617.	This refers to state transportation plans and state transportation improvement programs, which indicate the transportation projects states plan to undertake in the near future.
1718.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, "Railroad Rehabilitation & Improvement Financing (RRIF)," Executed Loan Agreements, at http://www.fra.dot.gov/Page/P0128. The first RRIF loan executed since 2012, to the New York Metropolitan Transportation Administration for $967 million, was announced on May 6, 2015, and did not appear on that list as of May 7 (see http://www.dot.gov/briefing-room/federal-railroad-administration-issues-9671-million-mta-loan-finance-critical-safety).
18.	U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, FY201519.	Personal communication from DOT, May 4, 2017.
20.	U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, FY2017 Budget Estimate, February 2016, p. 122, at http://www.dot.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/FRA-FY2017-CJ.pdf.
21.
1922.	This directive was included in the FAST Act and is codified at 45 U.S.C. 822(i)(5).	The loan request was part of a $6.5 billion plan to expand access to coal fields in Wyoming and Montana. Dakota, Minnesota & Eastern subsequently was acquired by a Class I railroad (Canadian Pacific) in 2008, and the loan (along with an earlier RRIF loan) was repaid. U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Dakota, Minnesota & Eastern Railroad Powder River Basin Expansion Project Environmental Impact Statement and Section 4(f)/303 Statement, at https://www.fra.dot.gov/Page/P0234; Greg Gormick, "Steady As She Goes," Railway Age, November 2008, p. 32; personal communication from FRA.
2024.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, FY2016 Budget Estimate, p. 122, at http://www.dot.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/FY2016-BudgetEstimate-FRA.pdf.
2125.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Summary of Class II and Class III Railroad Capital Needs and Funding Sources: A Report to Congress, October 2014, p. 4, at https://www.fra.dot.gov/Elib/Document/14131.
2226.	Ibid., pp. 5-6.
2327.	Ibid., pp. 22-24.
2428.	FRA extrapolated Class II and III investment needs over the next five years at $5.3 billion (Ibid,.ibid., p. 23); respondents anticipated that they would be able to cover around 70% (pp. 22-23) to 75% of their investment needs (ibid., p. 24), leaving a shortfall of around one-fourth of the estimated $5.3 billion, or $1.3 billion over five years, around $265 million annually.
2529.	American Short Line and Regional Railroad Association, "The 45G Short Line Railroad Tax Credit," at http://www.aslrra.org/legislative/Short_Line_Tax_Credit_Extension.
2630.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Office of Inspector General, Audit Report: Process Inefficiencies and Costs Discourage Participation in FRA's RRIF Program, June 10, 2014, CR-2014-054, Exhibit E, pp. 19-20, at https://www.oig.dot.gov/sites/default/files/RRIF%20final.pdf.
2731.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Summary of Class II and Class III Railroad Capital Needs and Funding Sources: A Report to Congress, October 2014, p. 16, at https://www.fra.dot.gov/Elib/Document/14131.
2832.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, TIFIA 2016 Report to Congress, August 11, 2016, https://cms.dot.gov/policy-initiatives/tifia/2016-tifia-report-congress of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, FY2016 Budget Estimate, pp. III-131, at http://www.dot.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/FY2016-BudgetEstimate-FHWA.pdf.
2933.	U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, TIFIA Program Guide, December 2009, p. 3-1, at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/pdfs/tifia/tifia_program_guide.pdf.
3034.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, "TIFIA FAQs," July 2013, at http://www.dot.gov/tifia/faqsTIFIA 2016 Report to Congress, August 11, 2016, at https://cms.dot.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/TIFIA%20Report%20to%20Congress%202016.pdf.
3135.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Summary of Class II and Class III Railroad Capital Needs and Funding Sources: A Report to Congress, October 2014, p. 23-24 and Figure 3, at https://www.fra.dot.gov/Elib/Document/14131.
3236.	To cite some extreme cases, the DOT Inspector General's audit found that four RRIF loan applications were still in pending status after more than two years. U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Office of the Inspector General, Audit Report: Process Inefficiencies and Costs Discourage Participation in FRA's RRIF Program, CR-2014-054, June 10, 2014, p. 18, at https://www.oig.dot.gov/sites/default/files/RRIF%20final.pdf.
3337.	Ibid., Appendix: Agency Comments, pp. 22-23. However, in DOT's Annual Performance Report Fiscal Year 2012, FRA reported that it was already implementing an action plan to expand the use of the RRIF program, including "holding pre-application meetings with entities that express an interest applying for financing.... FRA's increased focus on pre-application activity and coordination ensures that the applications are complete before submission to FRA." (See U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Annual Performance Report Fiscal Year 2012, , pp. 103-104, at http://www.dot.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/FY2012_annual_performance_report_0.pdf.)
3438.	Available at https://cms.dot.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/Bureau%20Credit%20Programs%20Guide_January_2017.pdf.	U.S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Office of the Inspector General, Audit Report: Process Inefficiencies and Costs Discourage Participation in FRA's RRIF Program, CR-2014-054, June 10, 2014, p. 20, at https://www.oig.dot.gov/sites/default/files/RRIF%20final.pdf.
3540.	Ernst & Young LLP, Consolidated Financial Statements: National Railroad Passenger Corporation and Subsidiaries (Amtrak), Years Ended September 30, 20132016 and 20122015, with Report of Independent Authors, at httphttps://www.amtrak.com/ccurl/259/992/Amtrak-736/320/Audited-Consolidated-Financial-Statements-2013FY2016.pdf, p. 38.
36.	U.S. Dept.24.
41.	In the Government Accountability Office's (GAO's) July 2016 report on "Stakeholders' Views on Recent Changes to the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program," GAO reports that FRA officials said credit risk premiums paid after passage of the FAST Act are not refundable; see https://www.gao.gov/assets/680/678388.pdf , p. 9.
42.
3743.	See CRS Report R43388, R44266, Effects of Buy America on Transportation Spending and "Buy America" Requirements, byInfrastructure and U.S. Manufacturing: Policy Options, by [author name scrubbed] and [author name scrubbed].
3844.	U. S. Dept.Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, FY2016 Budget Estimate, p. 123, at http://www.dot.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/FY2016-BudgetEstimate-FRA.pdf.
3945.	Congress appropriated $8 billion in P.L. 111-5, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA,; also known as the economic stimulus act), and $2.5 billion in P.L. 111-117, the Consolidated Appropriations Act. Congress rescinded $400 million of this funding in 2010 (in P.L. 112-10 §2222).
4046.	U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, "High Speed Intercity Passenger Rail (HSIPR) Program," at http://www.fra.dot.gov/Page/P0134.
41.	National Railroad Passenger Corporation, FY2015-2019 Five Year Financial Plan, February 2015; Amtrak Audited Consolidated Financial Statements, 2013, pp. 34, 38, at http://www.amtrak.com/ccurl/259/992/Amtrak-Audited-Consolidated-Financial-Statements-2013.pdf.
4247.	Regional Transportation District, Denver Union Station, at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/conferences/2014/Finance/14.Lien,Marla.pdf, pp. 10-11; Fitch Ratings, "Fitch Affirms Denver Union Station Project Authority's (CO) 2010 Senior Notes at 'A,'" press release, December 5, 2014, at http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/05/ny-fitch-ratings-denver-idUSnBw055872a+100+BSW20141205.
4348.	City of Denver, Department of Finance, "Denver Union Station revenues exceeding projections, positioning City and RTD [Regional Transportation District] to save money with new refinancing agreement," February 3, 2017, at https://www.denvergov.org/content/denvergov/en/denver-department-of-finance/newsroom/news-releases/2017/denver-union-station-revenues-exceeding-projections—positioning.html.	Lidia Dinkova, "All Aboard Florida on line for government aid," Miami Today, October 22, 2014, at http://www.miamitodaynews.com/2014/10/22/aboard-florida-line-government-aid/.
4450.	Kim Miller, "All Aboard Florida seeks private financing to replace or augment federal loan request," Palm Beach Post, October 7, 2014, at http://realtime.blog.palmbeachpost.com/2014/10/07/all-aboard-florida-seeks-private-financing-to-replace-or-augment-federal-loan-request/. All Aboard Florida was planning to use the tracks of Florida East Coast Railways, which was purchased by Grupo Mexico Transportes in March 2017. All Aboard Florida has been reported as saying that it has operating agreements in place, and that the sale will not affect its plans. Lisa Broadt, Grupo Mexico to buy Florida East Coast Railway for $2.1 billion, TC Pal, March 28, 2017, at http://www.tcpalm.com/story/news/local/shaping-our-future/all-aboard-florida/2017/03/28/grupo-mexico-buy-florida-east-coast-railway-21-billion/99745026/. 51/.
45.	Richard N. Velotta, "High-speed rail project waiting on $5.5 billion government loan," VegasINC, February 12, 2013, at http://www.vegasinc.com/business/2013/feb/12/high-speed-rail-project-waiting-55-billion-governm/.
4652.	Letter from Representative Paul Ryan, Chairman of the House Budget Committee, and Senator Jeff Sessions, Ranking Member of the Senate Budget Committee, to Ray H. LaHood, Secretary of Transportation, March 6, 2013, at httphttps://www.budget.senate.gov/republican/public/index.cfm/files/serve/?File_id=af2e546f-cce2-4653-9793-70ef55a79976chairman/newsroom/press/sessions-ryan-call-for-halt-on-taxpayer-funding-for-risky-high-speed-rail-project.
4753.	Natalie Rodriguez, "Feds halt Review of $5.5B Loan For Vegas Rail Plan," Law360, July 18, 2013, at http://www.law360.com/articles/458185/feds-halt-review-of-5-5b-loan-for-vegas-rail-plan.
4854.	Julie Makinen, "China will not build L.A.-to-Vegas rail line—U.S. company calls the deal off," Los Angeles Times, June 8, 2016, http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-xpresswest-rail-line-20160608-snap-story.html.	55.	Texas Central Railway, "Answers to your Questions: Taxpayer Funding," at http://texascentral.com/answers-to-your-questions/.
49.	The Administration's proposal is available at http://www.dot.gov/grow-america.
50.	Section 9102 of the GROW AMERICA Act.
51.	Section 302 of H.R. 749 (114th Congress).
52.	For details, see CRS Report R42637, Positive Train Control (PTC): Overview and Policy Issues, by [author name scrubbed].