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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment John F. Sargent Jr. Specialist in Science and Technology Policy May 6, 2013 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov R43061 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Summary The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs. Congress has enacted many programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also undertaken broad efforts to improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. Some policymakers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies. Many policymakers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts, economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and related policy issues. These issues include the question of the existence of a shortage of scientists and engineers in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E degrees, mismatched skills and needs), and whether the federal government should undertake policy interventions to address such a putative shortage or to allow market forces to work in this labor market. Among the key indicators used by labor economists to assess occupational labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates. In 2011, there were 5.9 million scientists and engineers employed in the United States, accounting for 4.6% of total U.S. employment. Science and engineering employment was concentrated in two S&E occupational groups, computer occupations (56%) and engineers (25%), with the rest accounted for by S&E managers (9%), physical scientists (4%), life scientists (4%), and those in mathematical occupations (2%). From 2008 to 2011 S&E employment increased by 99,550, rising to 5.9 million, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 0.6%, while overall U.S. employment contracted at 1.7% CAGR. Viewed only in aggregate, the overall increase in S&E employment masks the varied degrees of growth and decline in the detailed S&E occupations. In 2011, the mean wage for all scientists and engineers was $85,700, while the mean wage for all other occupations was $43,300. Between 2008 and 2011, the mean wages of each S&E occupational group grew more slowly (1.5%-2.2% CAGR) than the mean wage for all occupations (2.3% CAGR). Compared to the overall workforce, the S&E occupational groups had significantly lower unemployment rates for the 2008-2011 period. In general, though, the professional occupations (of which the S&E occupations are a part) historically have had lower unemployment rates than the workforce as a whole. In 2011, the overall S&E unemployment rate of 3.9% was higher than for other selected professional occupations, including lawyers (2.1%), physicians and surgeons (0.6%), dentists (0.7%), and registered nurses (2.0%). The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects the number of science and engineering jobs (as defined in this report) will grow by 1.1 million between 2010 and 2020, a growth rate (1.7% CAGR) that is somewhat faster than that of the overall workforce (1.3%). In addition, BLS projects that a further 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those projected to exit S&E occupations. Growth in the S&E occupational groups is projected to range from 1.0%-2.0% CAGR. The number of scientists and engineers needed to meet growth and net replacement needs between 2010 and 2020 is 2.4 million, including 1.4 million in the computer occupations and 525,900 engineers. Congressional Research Service The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Contents Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 1 Methodology .................................................................................................................................... 2 Occupational Taxonomy ............................................................................................................ 2 Data Sources .............................................................................................................................. 3 Timeframe ................................................................................................................................. 4 Methodological Limitations ...................................................................................................... 4 Selected S&E Occupational Data .................................................................................................... 6 Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment ................................................................... 6 Employment ........................................................................................................................ 6 Wages .................................................................................................................................. 6 Unemployment .................................................................................................................... 9 Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment .................................................. 12 Employment Trends .......................................................................................................... 12 Wage Trends ...................................................................................................................... 18 Unemployment Trends ...................................................................................................... 19 Employment Projections, 2010-2020 ...................................................................................... 20 Scientists and Engineers in Aggregate .............................................................................. 20 Science and Engineering Occupational Groups ................................................................ 20 Detailed Science and Engineering Occupations ................................................................ 23 Concluding Observations............................................................................................................... 27 Figures Figure 1. Share of S&E Occupational Employment, 2011 .............................................................. 6 Figure 2. Mean Wages of S&E Occupational Groups and Other Selected Professional Occupations, 2011 ........................................................................................................................ 7 Figure 3. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups and Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2011 .................................................................................................. 10 Figure 4. Nominal and Inflation-adjusted Compound Annual Growth Rates of Mean Wages in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2011 ....................................................................... 18 Figure 5. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups, the Overall Workforce, and Other Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2008-2011 ..................................... 19 Figure 6. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Growth, 2010-2020, by S&E Occupational Group .................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 7. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Openings (Job Growth plus Net Replacement Needs), 2010-2020, by S&E Occupational Group................................................ 22 Tables Table 1. Mean Wages of S&E Occupations, 2011 ........................................................................... 7 Congressional Research Service The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Table 2. Unemployment Rate for S&E Occupational Groups and Detailed S&E Occupations, 2011 ...................................................................................................................... 10 Table 3. Employment Change in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2011 ..................................... 12 Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2008-2011.................................................. 14 Table 5. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Growth, 2008-2011 ............................ 16 Table 6. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Losses, 2008-2011 ............................. 16 Table 7. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Growth Rates, 2008-2011 ......................................... 17 Table 8. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Growth Rates, 2008-2011 ....................................... 17 Table 9. 2010-2020 Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups .............................. 21 Table 10. S&E Occupations with the Highest Projected Growth in Jobs and Other Selected Occupations, 2010-2020 .............................................................................................. 23 Table 11. S&E Occupations with the Smallest Projected Growth in Jobs, 2010-2020.................. 24 Table 12. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Projected Job Growth, 2010-2020 .......................... 24 Table 13. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Projected Job Growth, 2010-2020 ........................ 25 Table 14. S&E Occupations with the Most Projected Job Openings, 2010-2020.......................... 26 Table 15. S&E Occupations with the Fewest Projected Job Openings, 2010-2020 ...................... 26 Appendixes Appendix. S&E Occupational Descriptions and Entry-Level Education Requirements ............... 32 Contacts Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 35 Congressional Research Service The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Overview Many congressional policymakers have maintained an ongoing interest in the adequacy of the number of U.S. scientists and engineers required to address the needs of U.S. employers, to spur economic growth and job creation through innovation, to maintain U.S. global technological leadership and industrial competitiveness, and to help address important national and societal needs. To help ensure an adequate S&E workforce, Congress has enacted and appropriated funds for a variety of federal programs. These programs intend to foster improved science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) skills among students; to incentivize students to pursue degrees in science and engineering (S&E) through tools such as fellowships, assistantships, and traineeships; and to provide graduate and post-graduate research experiences at U.S. colleges and universities through the financing of university-based research. The 113th Congress is considering legislation to create, reform, and provide funding for STEM education efforts, and may seek to Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
February 19, 2014 (R43061)

Contents

Tables

Summary

The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs. Congress has enacted many programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also undertaken broad efforts to improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. In addition, some policy makers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies.

Policy makers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts, economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and related policy issues. These issues include whether a shortage of scientists and engineers exists in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E degrees, mismatched skills and needs), and whether the federal government should undertake policy interventions to address such a putative shortage or to allow market forces to work in this labor market. Among the key indicators used by labor economists to assess occupational labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.

In 2012, there were 6.2 million scientists and engineers (as defined in this report) employed in the United States, accounting for 4.8% of total U.S. employment. Science and engineering employment was concentrated in two S&E occupational groups, computer occupations (56%) and engineers (25%), with the rest accounted for by S&E managers (9%), physical scientists (4%), life scientists (4%), and those in mathematical occupations (2%). From 2008 to 2012, S&E employment increased by 352,370, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 1.5%, while overall U.S. employment contracted at 0.9% CAGR. Viewed only in aggregate, the increase in S&E employment masks the varied degrees of growth and decline in detailed S&E occupations.

In 2012, the mean wage for all scientists and engineers was $87,330, while the mean wage for all other occupations was $45,790. Between 2008 and 2012, the nominal mean wages of the S&E occupational groups grew between 1.4% CAGR (life scientists) and 2.2% CAGR (physical scientists, S&E managers, mathematicians). Inflation-adjusted wage growth for each of the S&E occupational groups was less than 0.6% CAGR, and in the case of life scientists was negative. Nominal wage growth for all occupations in the economy was 1.1%; real wages declined 0.5%.

Compared to the overall workforce, the S&E occupational groups had significantly lower unemployment rates for the 2008-2012 period. In general, though, the professional occupations (of which the S&E occupations are a part) historically have had lower unemployment rates than the workforce as a whole. In 2012, the overall S&E unemployment rate of 3.6% was higher than for other selected professional occupations, including lawyers (1.4%), physicians and surgeons (0.8%), dentists (1.5%), and registered nurses (2.6%).

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projects that the number of S&E jobs will grow by 953,200 between 2012 and 2022, a growth rate (1.3% CAGR) that is somewhat faster than that of the overall workforce (1.0%). In addition, BLS projects that 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those projected to exit S&E occupations. The number of scientists and engineers needed to meet growth and net replacement needs between 2012 and 2022 is 2.3 million, including 1.2 million in the computer occupations and 544,300 engineers.

The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment

Overview

Many congressional policy makers have an ongoing interest in whether the number of U.S. scientists and engineers is sufficient to meet the needs of U.S. employers, to spur economic growth and job creation through innovation, to maintain U.S. global technological leadership and industrial competitiveness, and to address other important national and societal needs.

To help ensure an adequate science and engineering (S&E) workforce, Congress has established and funded a variety of federal programs. These programs are intended to foster improved science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) skills among students; to incentivize students to pursue degrees in science and engineering through tools such as fellowships, assistantships, and traineeships; and to provide graduate and post-graduate research experiences at U.S. colleges and universities through the financing of university-based research. The 113th Congress is considering legislation to create, reform, and provide funding for STEM education efforts, and may seek to
reauthorize the America COMPETES Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-69) and the America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-358).1).1 In addition, Congress is considering changes to immigration policies, among them the number of visas and processes associated with F-1 visas, H-1B visas, L1 visas, and legal permanent residency (commonly referred to as “Green Cards”), to "green cards"), to address U.S. S&E workforce needs.2 2 As Congress develops policies and programs and makes appropriations to help address the nation’ nation's needs for scientists and engineers, it may wish to consider past, current, and projected S&E workforce trends. In this regard, thisAmong the key factors that labor economists examine for evidence of labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates relative to other occupations.3 This report provides employment, wage, and unemployment information3 information for the computer occupations, mathematical occupations, engineers, life scientists, physical scientists, and S&E management occupations, in three sections: • “as follows: The section on "Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment" provides a statistical snapshot of of occupational employment, wage, and unemployment data for the S&E workforce in 20112012 (the latest year for which data are available) with respect to occupational employment, wage, and unemployment data. • “. The section on "Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment" provides a perspective on how S&E employment, wages, and unemployment have changed during the 2008-2011 period. • “Employment Projections, 2010-2020” during the period 2008-2012. The section on "Employment Projections, 2012-2022" provides an analysis of projections by the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ occupational projections examining for how the number employed in S&E occupations areis expected to change during the 2010-20202012-2022 period, as well as how many openings will be created by workers exiting each occupation (replacement needs). 1 For additional information about P.L. 110-69 and P.L. 111-358, see CRS Report R42430, America COMPETES 2010 and the FY2013 Budget, by Heather B. Gonzalez. 2 For additional information, see CRS Report R42530, Immigration of Foreign Nationals with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Degrees, by Ruth Ellen Wasem. 3 Among the key factors that labor economists examine for evidence of labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates relative to other occupations. See, for example, Carolyn M. Veneri, “Can Occupational Labor Shortages Be Identified Using Available Data?,” Monthly Labor Review, March 1999, p. 18. Congressional Research Service 1 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce (replacement needs).A final section, "Concluding Observations,”," provides various stakeholder perspectives that Congress may wish to consider as it seeks to ensure that the United States has an adequate S&E workforce to meet the demands of the 21st century. Methodology Occupational Taxonomy 21st century. Methodology Occupational Taxonomy Most experts agree that there is no authoritative definition of which occupations comprise the science and engineering (S&E) workforce. Rather, the selection of occupations included in any particular analysis of the S&E workforce may vary. Some analysts, policymakers, and policy makers, and organizations may refer to the group in different ways (e.g., the scientific and technical workforce, the STEM workforce) and include varying sets of occupations. In 2001, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), in defining the STEM occupations for a particular analysis, stated, “This "This is only one possible definition of STEM occupations; other definitions exist that may be better suited for other uses.”4 "4 The size of the S&E workforce varies substantially depending on which occupations are included in the definition. In its 2012 Science and Engineering Indicators report, the National Science Board (NSB) stated, "In the most recent estimates, the U.S. S&E workforce (defined by occupation) totaled between 4.8 million and 6.4 million people.”5"5 Previously, the NSB asserted that the S&E workforce could be as large as 21 million people if the definition included those with either an S&E degree or a degree in an S&E-related field such as health or technology.6 6 The policy debate about the adequacy of the U.S. S&E workforce has focused largely on the computer occupations, mathematical occupations, engineers, and physical scientists. For purposes of this report, these occupations, along with life scientists (a part of the natural sciences, with physics and chemistry) and S&E management occupations, are collectively referred to as the S&E workforce. Notably, this group does not include social scientists (e.g., economists, survey researchers, psychologists, sociologists, urban and regional planners, anthropologists, archeologists, geographers, historians, political scientists) or S&E-related technicians. As defined this way, the size of the S&E workforce in 20112012 was approximately 5.9 million. 6.2 million. This report uses a modified version of the Standard Occupation Classification (SOC) system7 to system7 to categorize scientists and engineers. The report taxonomy includes six S&E occupational groups, each composed of closely related detailed occupations: 4 For purposes of the BLS analysis, the authors defined the STEM occupation group as consisting of 97 occupations, including computer and math sciences, architecture and engineering, life and physical sciences, managerial and postsecondary teaching occupations associated with these functional areas, and two sales occupations that require scientific or technical education at the postsecondary level—sales engineers and wholesale and engineering manufacturing sales representatives of technical and scientific products. Ben Cover, John Jones, and Audrey Watson, “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Occupations: A Visual Essay,” Monthly Labor Review, May 2011, p. 3. 5 National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2012, January 2012, p. 3-10. 6 National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, January 2008, p. 3-8. 7 The Standard Occupational Classification system is a federal system that defines over 840 detailed occupations, and groups them into 461 broad occupations, 97 minor groups, and 23 major groups. Detailed occupations in the SOC with similar job duties, and in some cases skills, education, and/or training, are grouped together. The system is used by (continued...) Congressional Research Service 2 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce • computer occupations—including each composed of closely related detailed occupations: Computer occupations—computer and information research scientists; computer systems analysts; computer programmers; software developers, applications; software developers, systems software; database administrators; network and computer systems administrators; computer user support specialists; computer network support specialists; information security analysts, web developers, and; web developers; computer network architects; and computer occupations, all other; • mathematical. Mathematical occupations—actuaries; mathematicians; operations research analysts; statisticians; and mathematical science occupations, all other; • engineers—including . Engineersaerospace, agricultural, biomedical, chemical, civil, computer hardware, electrical, electronics (except computer), environmental, health and safety (except mining safety engineers and inspectors), industrial, materials, mechanical, mining and geological (including mining safety engineers), nuclear, and petroleum engineers; engineers, all other; and marine engineers and naval architects; • life scientists—. Life scientistsanimal scientists,; food scientists and technologists,; soil and plant scientists, scientists; biochemists and biophysicists,; microbiologists,; zoologists and wildlife biologists, biologists; biological scientists, all other,; conservation scientists,; foresters, epidemiologists,; epidemiologists; medical scientists (except epidemiologists),; and life scientists, all other. • physical scientists—astronomers, physicists, Physical scientistsastronomers; physicists; atmospheric and space scientists,; chemists, ; materials scientists,; environmental scientists and specialists (including health), ; geoscientists (except hydrologists and geographers),; hydrologists,; and physical scientists, all other; and • S&E managers— all other. Science and engineering managerscomputer and information systems managers, architectural and engineering managers,88 and natural sciences managers. A description of the detailed occupations is provided in the Appendix. Data Sources Appendix. Data Sources This report relies on federal government employment, wage, and unemployment data from the following sources:The Occupational Employment Statistics (OES),9Statistics (OES),9 a survey of non-farm establishments conducted by the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics and state workforce agencies, is the source of employment and wage data for the 2008-20112012 period. The survey provides employment and wage estimates annually for over 800 occupations. According to BLS, “employees” are all part-time and full-time workers who are paid a wage or salary. The survey (...continued) federal statistical agencies for the purpose of collecting, calculating, and disseminating data. First established in 1977, the SOC system has been revised periodically; the latest revision is the 2010 SOC. 8 Occupational Employment Survey (OES) employment figures for the occupation group “architectural and engineering managers” are reported as a single number, thus the architectural managers are included in this group, though data on architect and other architectural-related occupations are not otherwise included in this report. 9 Occupational Employment Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes. Congressional Research Service 3 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce "employees" are all part-time and full-time workers who are paid a wage or salary. The survey does not cover the self-employed, owners and partners in unincorporated firms, household workers, or unpaid family workers. For this report, the wage statistic used is the occupational "mean wage," an average wage calculated by summing the wages of all the employees in a given occupation and then dividing the total wages by the number of employees. The Current Population Survey (CPS),10,10 a monthly survey of households conducted for BLS by the Department of Commerce's Bureau of the Census, is the source of the unemployment data in this report. CPS data are also used to supplement OES data in BLS employment projections (discussed below). • BLS’s BLS's Employment Projections,11,11 a biennial product of BLS, provides provide occupational employment and industry employment projection data for ten10-year periods. The latest projections, covering the 2010-20202012-2022 period, were published in January 2012 December 2013. According to BLS, for most industries, the OES survey provides data for the occupational staffing patterns—the distribution of wage and salary employment by occupation in each industry—and Current Employment Statistics (CES)1212 data provide information on total wage and salary employment in each non-farm industry. While OES data include only wage and salary, non-farm employment, the employment data in the projections also include agricultural industry employment and the self-employed (derived from CPS data) to arrive at 2010 base year employment levels for each occupation.13 Timeframe The “13 Timeframe The "Current Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment" section provides information on changes in employment, wages, and unemployment for the period 2008 to 20112012. The "Employment Projections, 2010-2020”2012-2022" section relies entirely on the most recent Bureau of Labor Statistics biennial employment projections for the 2010-2020 timeframe. Methodological Limitations A variety of factors may affect the comparability of OES data over time: Although the OES survey methodology is designed to create detailed cross-sectional employment and wage estimates for the U.S., States, metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, across industry and by industry, it is less useful for comparisons of two or more points in time. Challenges in using OES data as a time series include changes in the occupational, industrial, and geographical classification systems, changes in the way data are collected, changes in the survey reference period, and changes in mean wage estimation methodology, as well as permanent features of the methodology.14 10 Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/cps. Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/emp. 12 The Current Employment Statistics survey provides industry employment data used by BLS in making its biennial ten-year projections. The CES survey does not collect occupational information. 13 Telephone conversation with Michael Wolf, economist, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, March 4, 2013. 14 BLS website, Occupational Employment Statistics, Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.bls.gov/oes/ (continued...) 11 Congressional Research Service 4 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce In its examination of current trends, CRS chose the 2008-2011 time period to enhance comparability of data across the period by reducing inconsistencies resulting from changes in the OES occupational classification system. The OES survey used the same occupational categories throughout the 2008-2011 period. The Bureau of Labor Statistics makes a number of estimates in developing its employment projections. These estimates include “the future size and composition of the population, as well as on the trends in labor force participation rates of different age, gender, race, and ethnic groups, a total of 136 separate categories,” “the rate of growth and demand composition of real GDP, the labor productivity growth rate, and the inflation rate,” expectations regarding the federal budget surplus or deficit, historical staffing patterns, shifts in product mix, changes in technology and business practices, and retirement rates.15 If these estimates do not accurately reflect future performance, occupational employment projections may be over- or underestimated. Other factors may affect occupational projections as well, including changes to immigration laws and patterns, trade laws and practices, regulatory regimes, and social and educational patterns; wars and disasters; revolutionary advances in technology; and shifts in consumer tastes. The BLS evaluates the accuracy of its projections regularly and publishes these evaluations in its Monthly Labor Review.16 (...continued) oes_ques.htm. 15 BLS website, Employment Projections, Projections Methodology, http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_projections_methods.htm. 16 For links to past evaluations of BLS projections, see http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_pub_projections_eval.htm. For the latest evaluation, see “Evaluating the 1996–2006 employment projections,” by Ian D. Wyatt, Monthly Labor Review, September 2010, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/09/art3full.pdf. Congressional Research Service 5 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Selected S&E Occupational Data Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment This section provides a snapshot of the S&E workforce in 2011, using employment, wages, and unemployment data. Employment Figure 1. Share of S&E Occupational Employment, 2011 Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, May 2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. 2012-2022 timeframe. Methodological Limitations

It is important to note that a wide range of factors can affect the size and occupational composition of the U.S. S&E workforce. Among these factors are global and domestic economic conditions; the development and market adoption of new technologies; capital cost and availability; the level of public and private funding for research and development; changes in scientific, technological, and market opportunities; the size, knowledge, and skills of the U.S.-born labor force; the size, knowledge, and skills of the foreign-born labor force in the United States; and changes in business practices regarding the use of foreign-based science and engineering capabilities. This report does not attempt to attribute changes in the U.S. S&E workforce to any of these factors specifically.

In addition, a variety of factors may affect the comparability of OES data over time:

Although the OES survey methodology is designed to create detailed cross-sectional employment and wage estimates for the U.S., States, metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, across industry and by industry, it is less useful for comparisons of two or more points in time. Challenges in using OES data as a time series include changes in the occupational, industrial, and geographical classification systems, changes in the way data are collected, changes in the survey reference period, and changes in mean wage estimation methodology, as well as permanent features of the methodology.14

In its examination of current trends, CRS chose the 2008-2012 time period to enhance comparability of data across the period by reducing inconsistencies resulting from changes in the OES occupational classification system. The OES survey used the same occupational categories throughout the 2008-2012 period.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics makes a number of estimates in developing its employment projections. These estimates include "the future size and composition of the population, as well as on the trends in labor force participation rates of different age, gender, race, and ethnic groups, a total of 136 separate categories," "the rate of growth and demand composition of real GDP, the labor productivity growth rate, and the inflation rate," expectations regarding the federal budget surplus or deficit, historical staffing patterns, shifts in product mix, changes in technology and business practices, and retirement rates.15 If these estimates do not accurately reflect future performance, occupational employment projections may be over- or underestimated. Other factors may affect occupational projections as well, including changes to immigration laws and patterns, trade laws and practices, regulatory regimes, and social and educational patterns; wars and disasters; revolutionary advances in technology; and shifts in consumer tastes. The BLS evaluates the accuracy of its projections regularly and publishes these evaluations in its Monthly Labor Review.16

Selected S&E Occupational Data Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment

This section provides a snapshot of the S&E workforce in 2012, using employment, wages, and unemployment data.

Employment

Figure 1. Compilation of S&E Occupational Employment, 2012 Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, May 2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. . Notes: Chart does not include social scientists or S&E-related technicians. In 2011 For additional information about which detailed occupations are included, see "Occupational Taxonomy." In 2012, the latest year for which Occupational Employment SurveyStatistics survey data are available, 5.9 6.2 million people were employed in the United States as scientists and engineers, accounting for 4.6 4.7% of total U.S. employment. Science and engineering employment was concentrated in two occupational groups—computer occupations and engineers—which together accounted for 81% of S&E jobs, with 56% and 25%, respectively. The remainder of S&E employment was accounted for by science and engineering managers (9%), physical scientists (4%), life scientists (4%), and mathematical occupations (2%). Employment totals and share of S&E occupational employment are presented in Figure 1. (See Table 4 for more detailed 2012 employment data on specific S&E occupations.) Wages Scientists and engineers have a mean annual wage that exceeds the mean annual wage for all Figure 1. Table 4 provides 2011 employment data for each of the individual S&E occupations, organized by S&E group. Wages Scientists and engineers, in general, have mean wages that exceed the mean wage for all occupations in the United States. In 2011, the mean 2012, the mean annual wage for all scientists and engineers was $87,330; the mean annual wage for all occupations—professional and non-professional—was $45,230790. S&E managers had the highest mean annual wage of all S&E occupational groups at $127,200130,660, followed by engineers, $89,00090,960; mathematical occupations, Congressional Research Service 6 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce $81,400 $84,940; physical scientists, $83,360; computer occupations, $78,60080,020; and life scientists, $76,80077,620. Scientists and engineers earn less have lower mean annual wages than some other professionals, such as physicians and surgeons ($190,100060), dentists ($166,900910), and lawyers ($130,900880). (See Figure 2.)

.) Figure 2. Mean Annual Wages of S&E Occupational Groups and Other Selected Professional Occupations, 2011 2012 Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment SurveyStatistics survey data, May 2011,2012 Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. Table 1 provides the 2011 mean wages for each of the . Table 1 shows the 2012 mean annual wage for each of the S&E occupational groups and individual S&E occupations, organized by S&E group. Table 1. Mean Wages of S&E Occupations, 2011 Occupational Group Mean Wage Science and Engineering Managers Computer and Information Systems Managers $125,660 Architectural and Engineering Managers 129,350 Natural Sciences Managers 128,230 Computer Occupations Computer and Information Research Scientists $103,160 Computer Systems Analysts 82,320 Computer Programmers 76,010 Software Developers, Applications 92,080 Software Developers, Systems Software 100,420 Database Administrators 77,350 Network and Computer Systems Administrators 74,270 Congressional Research Service 7 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Occupational Group Mean Wage Computer Support Specialists 51,820 Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architects 81,670 Computer Occupations, All Other 80,500 Mathematical Occupations Actuaries Mathematicians $103,000 101,320 Operations Research Analysts 78,840 Statisticians 77,280 Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other 63,170 Engineers Aerospace Engineers $103,870 Agricultural Engineers 78,400 Biomedical Engineers 88,360 Chemical Engineers 99,440 Civil Engineers 82,710 Computer Hardware Engineers 101,360 Electrical Engineers 89,200 Electronics Engineers, except Computer 94,670 Environmental Engineers 83,340 Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors 78,540 Industrial Engineers 79,840 Marine Engineers and Naval Architects 91,730 Materials Engineers 86,790 Mechanical Engineers 83,550 Mining and Geological Engineers, Including Mining Safety Engineers 90,070 Nuclear Engineers 105,160 Petroleum Engineers 138,980 Engineers, All Other 92,260 Life Scientists Animal Scientists $74,170 Food Scientists and Technologists 64,170 Soil and Plant Scientists 63,890 Biochemists and Biophysicists 87,640 Microbiologists 71,720 Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists 61,880 Congressional Research Service 8 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Occupational Group Mean Wage Biological Scientists, All Other 73,050 Conservation Scientists 62,290 Foresters 56,130 Epidemiologists 69,660 Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists 87,640 Life Scientists, All Other 74,220 Physical Scientists Astronomers Physicists $101,630 112,090 Atmospheric and Space Scientists 90,860 Chemists 74,780 Materials Scientists 86,600 Environmental Scientists and Specialists, Including Health 68,810 Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers 97,700 Hydrologists 79,070 Physical Scientists, All Other 96,290 Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, May 2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. Unemployment The 2011 S&E occupational group. Table 1. Mean Annual Wages of S&E Occupations, 2012

Occupational Group

Mean Annual Wage

Science and Engineering Managers

$130,660

Computer and Information Systems Managers

129,130

Architectural and Engineering Managers

133,240

Natural Sciences Managers

130,400

Computer Occupations

$80,020

Computer and Information Research Scientists

103,670

Computer Systems Analysts

83,800

Information Security Analysts

89,290

Computer Programmers

78,260

Software Developers, Applications

93,280

Software Developers, Systems Software

102,550

Web Developers

66,100

Database Administrators

79,120

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

76,320

Computer Network Architects

94,000

Computer User Support Specialists

50,130

Computer Network Support Specialists

62,690

Computer Occupations, All Other

81,860

Mathematical Occupations

$84,940

Actuaries

106,680

Mathematicians

101,280

Operations Research Analysts

79,830

Statisticians

79,570

Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

63,250

Engineers

$90,690

Aerospace Engineers

104,810

Agricultural Engineers

77,370

Biomedical Engineers

91,200

Chemical Engineers

102,270

Civil Engineers

84,140

Computer Hardware Engineers

103,980

Electrical Engineers

91,810

Electronics Engineers, except Computer

95,250

Environmental Engineers

85,140

Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

79,760

Industrial Engineers

82,100

Marine Engineers and Naval Architects

96,140

Materials Engineers

87,490

Mechanical Engineers

84,770

Mining and Geological Engineers, Including Mining Safety Engineers

91,250

Nuclear Engineers

107,140

Petroleum Engineers

147,470

Engineers, All Other

93,330

Life Scientists

$77,620

Animal Scientists

73,400

Food Scientists and Technologists

64,140

Soil and Plant Scientists

63,290

Biochemists and Biophysicists

89,470

Microbiologists

73,250

Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists

62,500

Biological Scientists, All Other

76,220

Conservation Scientists

63,590

Foresters

57,140

Epidemiologists

71,400

Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists

87,830

Life Scientists, All Other

74,740

Physical Scientists

$83,360

Astronomers

102,550

Physicists

114,150

Atmospheric and Space Scientists

90,010

Chemists

76,870

Materials Scientists

89,740

Environmental Scientists and Specialists, Including Health

68,970

Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers

106,780

Hydrologists

78,920

Physical Scientists, All Other

93,720

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, May 2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. Unemployment The 2012 annual average
unemployment rates for S&E occupational groups are shown in Figure 3, together with the the annual average unemployment rates of other selected professional and related occupations.17 The 17 The annual average unemployment rates for the S&E occupations overall (3.96%) and for each individual S&E of the S&E occupational groups (which range from 21.3% to 5.33.8%) were lower than the overall unemployment annual average unemployment rate for those 16 and over (8.9%), and generally 7.3%) and lower than the annual average unemployment rate for the professional and related occupations group (4.3%).182%).18 However, the annual average unemployment rates for the most of the S&E occupational groups were higher than the rates for some other professional occupations, including lawyers (2.1%), secondary school teachers (3.01.4%), physicians and surgeons (0.68%), dentists (0.71.5%), and registered nurses (2.0%). 17 Science and engineering occupations are part of the larger category of “Professional and Related Occupations” used in the Current Population Survey. 18 Mathematical occupations was the only S&E occupational group with a higher unemployment rate (5.3%) than the professional and related occupations group (4.3%). Congressional Research Service 9 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Figure 3.6%)—but lower in general than some, such as accountants and auditors (4.2%).

Figure 3. Annual Average
Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups and Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2011 2012 Source: CRS analysis of unpublished 20112012 data from the Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics. The unemployment rate for each detailed S&E occupation is provided in Table 2.19 The .19 The unemployment rates for S&E occupations rangesrange from 1.2% for environmental scientists and geoscientists to 7.3% for computer support specialists.20 Table 2. 0.3% for astronomers and physicists to 18.5% for mining and geological engineers (including mine safety engineers). The unemployment rate for mining and geological engineers is more than twice the rate of any other detailed S&E occupation.20 Table 2. Annual Average Unemployment Rate for S&E Occupational Groups and Detailed S&E Occupations, 2011 Occupation Unemployment Rate (Percentage) Total, all occupations, 16 years and over 8.9 Science and Engineering Managers Computer and information systems managers Architectural and engineering managers Natural sciences managers Computer Occupations Computer and information research scientists Computer systems analysts Information security analysts Computer programmers Software developers, applications and systems software Web developers Computer support specialists Database administrators 2.3 2.9 1.6 n/a 4.1 n/a 2.5 n/a 3.7 4.0 4.7 7.3 1.3 19 The occupational classification system used in the Current Population Survey is based on the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification System but differs somewhat from those used by in the Occupational Employment Survey. 20 CPS does not publish unemployment rates for occupations with an employment base of less than 50,000. Congressional Research Service 10 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Occupation Network and computer systems administrators Computer network architects Computer occupations, all other Mathematical Occupations Actuaries Mathematicians Operations research analysts Statisticians Miscellaneous mathematical science occupations Engineers Aerospace engineers Agricultural engineers Biomedical engineers Chemical engineers Civil engineers Computer hardware engineers Electrical and electronics engineers Environmental engineers Industrial engineers, including health and safety Marine engineers and naval architects Materials engineers Mechanical engineers Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety Nuclear engineers Petroleum engineers Engineers, all other Life Scientists Agricultural and food scientists Biological scientists Conservation scientists and foresters Medical scientists Life scientists, all other Physical Scientists Astronomers and physicists Atmospheric and space scientists Chemists and materials scientists Environmental scientists and geoscientists Physical scientists, all other Unemployment Rate (Percentage) 3.9 0.4 4.7 5.3 n/a n/a 6.5 n/a n/a 3.6 1.9 n/a n/a 3.6 4.8 2.3 3.4 n/a 5.5 n/a n/a 2.4 n/a n/a n/a 2.9 3.4 n/a 2.9 n/a 3.4 n/a 3.7 n/a n/a 6.1 1.2 4.0 Source: Current Population Survey, 2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Notes: Unemployment for occupations refers to the experienced unemployed (those with prior work experience), classified according to their last job. For occupations in which the total number of employed and unemployed totals less than 50,000 the unemployment rate is not shown; n/a indicate data are not available. Congressional Research Service 11 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment This section provides information on changes in employment, wages, and unemployment for the period 2008 to 2011. Employment Trends Aggregate S&E Employment During the 2008-2011 period, aggregate S&E employment increased by 99,550 jobs, rising from 5.8 million to 5.9 million, a compound annual growth rate of 0.6%.21 The growth in the S&E occupations ran counter to overall U.S. employment which contracted at 1.7% CAGR during this same period. Growth rates for the S&E occupational groups and detailed occupations are provided in the following sections. Science and Engineering Occupational Groups Table 3 provides employment data—2008 employment, 2011 employment, and changes in number employed and the compound annual growth rates during the 2008 to 2011 period—for each S&E occupational group. The fastest growth rate among S&E occupational groups during this period was in science and engineering managers which grew at 2.0% CAGR, while the largest increase in the number employed was in computer occupations which added 94,970 jobs. Among the S&E occupational groups, only engineers experienced a decline in employment, losing a total of 40,620 jobs during this period (-0.9% CAGR). Table 3. Employment Change in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2011 Employment Change, Number Employment Change, Compound Annual Growth Rate Employment, 2008 Employment, 2011 135,185,230 128,278,550 -6,906,680 -1.7% 5,835,390 5,934,940 99,550 0.6% 502,180 532,870 30,690 2.0% 3,198,050 3,293,020 94,970 1.0% 109,130 112,630 3,500 1.1% 1,516,230 1,475,610 -40,620 -0.9% Life scientists 250,250 256,600 6,350 0.8% Physical scientists 259,550 264,210 4,660 0.6% Occupation All occupations All S&E occupations S&E managers Computer occupations Mathematical occupations Engineers Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. 21 A compound annual growth rate (CAGR) is a calculated growth rate which, if applied year after year to a beginning amount reaches a specified final amount. Congressional Research Service 12 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Detailed S&E Occupations Table 4 provides 2008-2011 employment data for each of the S&E occupations, organized by S&E group. The data indicate that there was substantial variation in the number of jobs gained and lost among the S&E occupations, as well as in their growth rates. With respect to the number employed, the occupation with the largest gain was computer support specialists which added 86,970 jobs, while the occupation experiencing the largest decrease was computer programmers which lost 74,130 jobs. The S&E occupation with the fastest growth rate was astronomers with a 17.6% CAGR (though the number of new jobs (800) was small compared to other S&E occupations), while the occupation with the fastest decline was mathematical science occupations, all other, which experienced a -42.4% CAGR. Among the computer occupations, those with the fastest growth rates were information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects (5.8% CAGR); computer support specialists (5.1% CAGR); and computer software developers, applications (3.0% CAGR). These occupations also accounted for the vast majority of the job growth in the computer occupations group. These gains offset losses in other computer occupations, including computer programmers (-74,130, -6.7% CAGR); computer occupations, all other (-14,150, -2.5% CAGR); and database administrators (-7,270, -2.1% CAGR). Several engineering occupations increased employment during this period, including aerospace engineers (11,600, 5.4% CAGR), petroleum engineers (10,000, 13.9% CAGR), nuclear engineers (1,790, 3.5%), mechanical engineers (4,650, 0.7% CAGR), and biomedical engineers (1,370, 2.9% CAGR). Employment gains in these engineering occupations were offset by declines in twelve engineering occupations, including engineers, all other (-43,650, -9.5% CAGR); civil engineers (-7,230, -0.9% CAGR); electronics engineers (-3,620, -0.9% CAGR); industrial engineers (-3,090, -0.5%), and chemical engineers (-3,110, -3.5% CAGR). Growth in the mathematical occupations was led by operations research analysts (4,170, 2.2% CAGR), statisticians (3,090, 4.8%), and actuaries (1,370, 2.4% CAGR). Mathematicians grew somewhat (210, 2.5% CAGR), while mathematical science occupations, all other declined (-5,340, -42.4% CAGR). Among life scientists, the occupation biological scientists, all other, had the largest employment growth (3,260, 3.7% CAGR), while conservation scientists had the fastest growth rate (3,080, 6.1% CAGR). Employment declined in four life science occupations: medical scientists (-4,530, -1.5% CAGR); life scientists, all other (-2,010, -5.9% CAGR); foresters (-1,160, -4.0% CAGR); and animal scientists (-570, -7.4% CAGR). The physical sciences occupations with the largest growth were environmental scientists and specialists (2,970, 1.2% CAGR); physical scientists, all other (2,890, 4.0% CAGR); physicists (1,410, 3.1% CAGR); and geoscientists (1,230, 1.3%). Employment in three physical sciences occupations declined: chemists (-3,040, -1.2% CAGR), material scientists (-1,750, 6.5% CAGR), and hydrologists (-630, -2.8% CAGR). Employment grew in each of the S&E managers occupations. The largest growth was in computer and information systems managers (24,010, 2.8%). Natural science managers had the fastest growth rate (4,450, 3.3%). Architectural and engineering managers grew by 2,230, with a growth rate of 0.4%. Congressional Research Service 13 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2008-2011 Occupational Group Employment, 2008 Employment, 2011 Employment Change, Number Employment Change, Compound Annual Growth Rate Science and Engineering Managers Computer and Information Systems Managers 276,820 300,830 24,010 2.80% Architectural and Engineering Managers 182,300 184,530 2,230 0.40% 43,060 47,510 4,450 3.30% 26,610 25,160 -1,450 -1.90% Computer Systems Analysts 489,890 487,740 -2,150 -0.10% Computer Programmers 394,230 320,100 -74,130 -6.70% Software Developers, Applications 494,160 539,880 45,720 3.00% Software Developers, Systems Software 381,830 387,050 5,220 0.50% Database Administrators 115,770 108,500 -7,270 -2.10% Network and Computer Systems Administrators 327,850 341,800 13,950 1.40% Computer Support Specialists 545,520 632,490 86,970 5.10% Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architects 230,410 272,670 42,260 5.80% Computer Occupations, All Other 191,780 177,630 -14,150 -2.50% 18,220 19,590 1,370 2.40% 2,770 2,980 210 2.50% Operations Research Analysts 60,860 65,030 4,170 2.20% Statisticians 20,680 23,770 3,090 4.80% 6,600 1,260 -5,340 -42.40% Aerospace Engineers 67,800 79,400 11,600 5.40% Agricultural Engineers 2,640 2,650 10 0.10% Biomedical Engineers 15,220 16,590 1,370 2.90% Chemical Engineers 30,970 27,860 -3,110 -3.50% 261,360 254,130 -7,230 -0.90% 73,370 71,990 -1,380 -0.60% Electrical Engineers 154,670 154,250 -420 -0.10% Electronics Engineers, except Computer 139,930 136,310 -3,620 -0.90% Environmental Engineers 52,590 50,350 -2,240 -1.40% Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors 25,190 23,170 -2,020 -2.70% Natural Sciences Managers Computer Occupations Computer and Information Research Scientists Mathematical Occupations Actuaries Mathematicians Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other Engineers Civil Engineers Computer Hardware Engineers Congressional Research Service 14 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Industrial Engineers 214,580 211,490 -3,090 -0.50% 6,480 5,470 -1,010 -5.50% 24,160 22,160 -2,000 -2.80% 233,610 238,260 4,650 0.70% 6,900 6,630 -270 -1.30% Nuclear Engineers 16,640 18,430 1,790 3.50% Petroleum Engineers 20,880 30,880 10,000 13.90% Engineers, All Other 169,240 125,590 -43,650 -9.50% 2,760 2,190 -570 -7.40% Food Scientists and Technologists 10,510 12,040 1,530 4.60% Soil and Plant Scientists 10,790 11,860 1,070 3.20% Biochemists and Biophysicists 22,230 25,160 2,930 4.20% Microbiologists 15,750 17,660 1,910 3.90% Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists 17,780 18,380 600 1.10% Biological Scientists, All Other 28,290 31,550 3,260 3.70% Conservation Scientists 15,830 18,910 3,080 6.10% Foresters 10,160 9,000 -1,160 -4.00% 4,370 4,610 240 1.80% Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists 99,750 95,220 -4,530 -1.50% Life Scientists, All Other 12,030 10,020 -2,010 -5.90% 1,280 2,080 800 17.60% 14,810 16,220 1,410 3.10% 8,860 9,640 780 2.90% 83,080 80,040 -3,040 -1.20% 9,650 7,900 -1,750 -6.50% Environmental Scientists and Specialists, including Health 80,120 83,090 2,970 1.20% Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers 31,260 32,490 1,230 1.30% 7,590 6,960 -630 -2.80% 22,900 25,790 2,890 4.00% Marine Engineers and Naval Architects Materials Engineers Mechanical Engineers Mining and Geological Engineers, incl. Mining Safety Engineers Life Scientists Animal Scientists Epidemiologists Physical Scientists Astronomers Physicists Atmospheric and Space Scientists Chemists Materials Scientists Hydrologists Physical Scientists, All Other Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. Congressional Research Service 15 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Table 5 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment growth. The top five occupations are computer occupations, followed by aerospace engineers and petroleum engineers. Table 5. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Growth, 2008-2011 Rank S&E Occupation Employment Growth 1 Computer Support Specialists 86,970 2 Software Developers, Applications 45,720 3 Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architects 42,260 4 Computer and Information Systems Managers 24,010 5 Network and Computer Systems Administrators 13,950 6 Aerospace Engineers 11,600 7 Petroleum Engineers 10,000 8 Software Developers, Systems Software 5,220 9 Mechanical Engineers 4,650 10 Natural Sciences Managers 4,450 Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor. Table 6 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment losses. The occupation with the greatest employment loss is computer programmers. Some have speculated that some of the losses in computer programmers may be due to reclassification of these positions as other computer occupations (e.g., software developers). Table 6. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Losses, 2008-2011 Rank S&E Occupation Employment Growth 1 Computer Programmers -74,130 2 Engineers, All Other -43,650 3 Computer Occupations, All Other -14,150 4 Database Administrators -7,270 5 Civil Engineers -7,230 6 Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other -5,340 7 Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists -4,530 8 Electronics Engineers, except Computer -3,620 9 Chemical Engineers -3,110 10 Industrial Engineers -3,090 Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. Congressional Research Service 16 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Table 7 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest growth rates. The occupation with the fastest growth rate was astronomers, though the growth in the number of jobs (800) was small compared to some S&E occupations. In contrast, petroleum engineers, the second fastest growing S&E occupation, was also the seventh ranked occupation in terms of job growth (10,000). Table 7. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Growth Rates, 2008-2011 Rank S&E Occupation Employment Growth rate 1 Astronomers 17.60% 2 Petroleum Engineers 13.90% 3 5.80% 5 Conservation Scientists Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architects Aerospace Engineers 6 Computer Support Specialists 5.10% 7 Statisticians 4.80% 8 Food Scientists and Technologists 4.60% 9 Biochemists and Biophysicists 4.20% 10 Physical Scientists, All Other 4.00% 4 6.10% 5.40% Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. Table 8 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest growth rates. This group includes at least one occupation from each of the engineering, physical sciences, life sciences, mathematics, and computer occupational groups. Table 8. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Growth Rates, 2008-2011 Rank S&E Occupation Employment Growth Rate 1 Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other -42.40% 2 Engineers, All Other -9.50% 3 Animal Scientists -7.40% 4 Computer Programmers -6.70% 5 Materials Scientists -6.50% 6 Life Scientists, All Other -5.90% 7 Marine Engineers and Naval Architects -5.50% 8 Foresters -4.00% 9 Chemical Engineers -3.50% 10 Materials Engineers -2.80% Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. Congressional Research Service 17 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Wage Trends Between 2008 and 2011, mean wages for each S&E occupational group grew at slower compound annual growth rates than the overall mean wage growth rate for all occupations, and 2012

Occupation

Unemployment Rate (Percentage)

Total, all occupations, 16 years and over

7.3

 

3.0

Science and Engineering Managers

3.0

Computer and information systems managers

3.2

Architectural and engineering managers

2.3

Natural sciences managers

2.1

Computer Occupations

3.8

Computer and information research scientists

2.2

Computer systems analysts

3.6

Information security analysts

0.9

Computer programmers

4.5

Software developers, applications and systems software

2.8

Web developers

4.2

Computer support specialists

6.6

Database administrators

3.6

Network and computer systems administrators

4.1

Computer network architects

2.2

Computer occupations, all other

3.2

Mathematical Occupations

1.3

Actuaries

Mathematicians

Operations research analysts

1.3

Statisticians

Miscellaneous mathematical science occupations

1.3

Engineers

3.3

Aerospace engineers

3.7

Agricultural engineers

Biomedical engineers

0.4

Chemical engineers

2.7

Civil engineers

3.4

Computer hardware engineers

1.9

Electrical and electronics engineers

3.4

Environmental engineers

2.7

Industrial engineers, including health and safety

2.7

Marine engineers and naval architects

8.2

Materials engineers

4.4

Mechanical engineers

3.1

Mining and geological engineers, incl. mining safety engineers

18.5

Nuclear engineers

1.7

Petroleum engineers

0.6

Engineers, all other

3.4

Life Scientists

2.9

Agricultural and food scientists

3.7

Biological scientists

3.0

Conservation scientists and foresters

2.1

Medical scientists

2.2

Life scientists, all other

Physical Scientists

3.3

Astronomers and physicists

0.3

Atmospheric and space scientists

Chemists and materials scientists

5.5

Environmental scientists and geoscientists

2.6

Physical scientists, all other

3.1

Source: Current Population Survey, 2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

Notes: Unemployment for occupations refers to the experienced unemployed (those with prior work experience), classified according to their last job. For occupations in which the total number of employed and unemployed totals less than 50,000 the unemployment rate is not shown;— indicate data are not available.

Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment

This section provides information on changes in employment, wages, and unemployment for the period 2008 to 2012.

Employment Trends
Aggregate S&E Employment

During the 2008-2012 period, aggregate S&E employment increased by 353,520 jobs, rising from 5.8 million to 6.2 million, a compound annual growth rate of 1.5%.21 The growth in the S&E occupations ran counter to overall U.S. employment, which contracted at 0.9% CAGR during this same period. Growth rates for the S&E occupational groups and detailed occupations are provided in the following sections.

Science and Engineering Occupational Groups
Figure 4 illustrates the aggregate size and occupational composition of the S&E workforce from 2008 to 2012. Aggregate employment decreased somewhat from 2008 to 2010, led by reductions in the number of engineers employed. Modest growth in aggregate S&E employment returned in 2011 and 2012, led by increases in computer occupations.

Figure 4. Aggregate S&E Employment, 2008-2012

by S&E Occupational Group Composition

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. Table 3 provides employment data—2008 employment, 2012 employment, and changes in number employed and the compound annual growth rates during the 2008 to 2012 period—for each S&E occupational group. The fastest growth rate among S&E occupational groups during this period was in mathematical occupations which grew at 2.8%% CAGR, while the largest increase in the number employed was in computer occupations which added 258,450 jobs. The slowest growth rate among S&E occupational groups during this period was in engineers which grew at 0.2% CAGR. Table 3. Employment Change in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2012

Occupation

Employment, 2008

Employment, 2012

Employment Change, Number Employment Change,Compound Annual Growth Rate

All occupations

135,185,230

130,287,700

-4,897,530

-0.9%

All S&E occupations

5,835,390

6,188,910

353,520

1.5%

S&E managers

502,180

545,940

43,760

2.1%

Computer occupations

3,198,050

3,456,500

258,450

2.0%

Mathematical occupations

109,130

121,710

12,580

2.8%

Engineers

1,516,230

1,530,110

13,880

0.2%

Life scientists

250,250

260,040

9,790

1.0%

Physical scientists

259,550

274,610

15,060

1.4%

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Detailed S&E Occupations
Table 4 provides 2008-2012 employment data for each of the S&E occupations, organized by S&E group. The data indicate that there was substantial variation in the number of jobs gained and lost among the S&E occupations, as well as in their growth rates. With respect to the number employed, the occupation with the largest gain was software developers, applications, which added 92,180 jobs, while the occupation experiencing the largest decrease was computer programmers, which lost 77,440 jobs. Some have speculated that some of the losses in computer programmers may be due to reclassification of these positions as other computer occupations (e.g., software developers). The S&E occupation with the fastest growth rate was petroleum engineers with a 14.9% CAGR, adding 15,530 new jobs, while the occupation with the fastest decline was mathematical science occupations, all other, which experienced a -34.43% CAGR and a loss of 5,380 jobs. The three fastest declining occupations were all "other" categories—mathematical science occupations, all other; engineers, all other; and life scientists, all other. These declines may be due, in part, to assignation by employers of jobs previously classified in these residual classifications to other detailed and specific S&E occupations; if so, consequentially, some growth in the detailed occupations may be due, in part, to such re-assignations. Among the computer occupations with comparable data across the 2008-2012 period,22 those with the fastest growth rates were software developers, applications (4.4% CAGR); network and computer systems administrators (1.7% CAGR); and software developers, systems software (0.6% CAGR). Nevertheless, it appears that the vast majority of job growth occurred in the occupational areas that were separated into more detailed occupational classifications in the 2012 survey. Comparing the aggregate of two 2012 detailed occupations—computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists—to the previously used classification, "computer support specialists," shows job growth of 148,090 (6.2% CAGR).23 Similarly, comparing three 2012 detailed occupations—information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects—to the previously used classification, "information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects," shows job growth of 148,090 (8.0% CAGR).24 Within the computer occupations group, these gains offset losses in other computer occupations, including computer programmers (-77,440, -5.3% CAGR); database administrators (4,180, -0.9% CAGR); and computer occupations, all other (-6,050, -0.8% CAGR).

Eleven engineering occupations increased employment during this period, with the largest growth in mechanical engineers (18,930, 2.0% CAGR), petroleum engineers (15,530, 14.9% CAGR), and aerospace engineers (12,620, 4.4% CAGR). Employment gains in these engineering occupations were offset by declines in seven engineering occupations, including engineers, all other (-46,830, -7.8% CAGR); electronics engineers (-4,970, -0.9% CAGR); and civil engineers (-3,260, -0.3% CAGR).

Growth in the mathematical occupations was led by operations research analysts (8,320, 3.3% CAGR), statisticians (4,890, 5.4%), actuaries (3,120, 4.0% CAGR), and mathematicians (480, 4.1% CAGR). Mathematical science occupations, all other, declined (-5,380, -34.4% CAGR).

Among life scientists, the occupation biochemists and biophysicists had the largest employment growth (4,180, 4.4% CAGR), followed by food scientists and technologists (3,170, 6.8% CAGR), which also had the fastest growth rate. Employment declined in four life science occupations: medical scientists (-4,330, -1.1% CAGR); life scientists, all other (-3,090, -7.2% CAGR); foresters (-690, -1.7% CAGR); and animal scientists (-640, -6.4% CAGR).

The physical sciences occupations with the largest growth were environmental scientists and specialists (4,120, 1.3% CAGR); geoscientists (3,920, 3.0% CAGR), and physicists (3,010, 4.7% CAGR). Employment in two physical sciences occupations declined: material scientists (-1,680, ˗4.7% CAGR), and hydrologists (-710, -2.4% CAGR).

Employment grew in each of the S&E managers occupations. The largest growth was in computer and information systems managers (32,920, 2.8% CAGR). Natural science managers had the fastest growth rate (3.1%), adding 5,500 jobs. Architectural and engineering managers grew by 5,340, with a growth rate of 0.7%.

Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2008-2012

Occupational Group

Employ-ment,2008 Employ-ment,2012

Employ-ment Change, Number

Employ-ment Change, CAGR

Science and Engineering Managers

       

Computer and Information Systems Managers

276,820

309,740

32,920

2.8%

Architectural and Engineering Managers

182,300

187,640

5,340

0.7%

Natural Sciences Managers

43,060

48,560

5,500

3.1%

Computer Occupations

       

Computer and Information Research Scientists

26,610

24,880

-1,730

-1.7%

Computer Systems Analysts

489,890

482,040

-7,850

-0.4%

Computer Programmers

394,230

316,790

-77,440

-5.3%

Software Developers, Applications

494,160

586,340

92,180

4.4%

Software Developers, Systems Software

381,830

391,700

9,870

0.6%

Database Administrators

115,770

111,590

-4,180

-0.9%

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

327,850

350,320

22,470

1.7%

Computer Support Specialistsa

545,520

     

Computer User Support Specialists

 

525,630

   

Computer Network Support Specialists

 

167,980

    Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architectsb

230,410

     

Information Security Analysts

 

72,670

   

Web Developers

 

102,940

   

Computer Network Architects

 

137,890

   

Computer Occupations, All Other

191,780

185,730

-6,050

-0.8%

Mathematical Occupations

       

Actuaries

18,220

21,340

3,120

4.0%

Mathematicians

2,770

3,250

480

4.1%

Operations Research Analysts

60,860

69,180

8,320

3.3%

Statisticians

20,680

25,570

4,890

5.4%

Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

6,600

1,220

-5,380

-34.4%

Engineers

       

Aerospace Engineers

67,800

80,420

12,620

4.4%

Agricultural Engineers

2,640

2,470

-170

-1.7%

Biomedical Engineers

15,220

18,810

3,590

5.4%

Chemical Engineers

30,970

32,190

1,220

1.0%

Civil Engineers

261,360

258,100

-3,260

-0.3%

Computer Hardware Engineers

73,370

79,580

6,210

2.1%

Electrical Engineers

154,670

160,560

5,890

0.9%

Electronics Engineers, except Computer

139,930

134,960

-4,970

-0.9%

Environmental Engineers

52,590

50,850

-1,740

-0.8%

Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

25,190

23,490

-1,700

-1.7%

Industrial Engineers

214,580

220,130

5,550

0.6%

Marine Engineers and Naval Architects

6,480

6,880

400

1.5%

Materials Engineers

24,160

22,740

-1,420

-1.5%

Mechanical Engineers

233,610

252,540

18,930

2.0%

Mining and Geological Engrs., incl. Mining Safety Engrs.

6,900

7,640

740

2.6%

Nuclear Engineers

16,640

19,930

3,290

4.6%

Petroleum Engineers

20,880

36,410

15,530

14.9%

Engineers, All Other

169,240

122,410

-46,830

-7.8%

Life Scientists

       

Animal Scientists

2,760

2,120

-640

-6.4%

Food Scientists and Technologists

10,510

13,680

3,170

6.8%

Soil and Plant Scientists

10,790

12,410

1,620

3.6%

Biochemists and Biophysicists

22,230

26,410

4,180

4.4%

Microbiologists

15,750

18,550

2,800

4.2%

Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists

17,780

18,650

870

1.2%

Biological Scientists, All Other

28,290

31,080

2,790

2.4%

Conservation Scientists

15,830

18,460

2,630

3.9%

Foresters

10,160

9,470

-690

-1.7%

Epidemiologists

4,370

4,850

480

2.6%

Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists

99,750

95,420

-4,330

-1.1%

Life Scientists, All Other

12,030

8,940

-3,090

-7.2%

Physical Scientists

       

Astronomers

1,280

2,150

870

13.8%

Physicists

14,810

17,820

3,010

4.7%

Atmospheric and Space Scientists

8,860

10,190

1,330

3.6%

Chemists

83,080

84,950

1,870

0.6%

Materials Scientists

9,650

7,970

-1,680

-4.7%

Environmental Scientists and Specialists, including Health

80,120

84,240

4,120

1.3%

Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers

31,260

35,180

3,920

3.0%

Hydrologists

7,590

6,880

-710

-2.4%

Physical Scientists, All Other

22,900

25,230

2,330

2.5%

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm. a. See footnote 23. b. See footnote 24. Table 5 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment growth from 2008 to 2012. The list includes six engineering occupations, three computer occupations, and one mathematics occupation. Table 5. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Growth, 2008-2012

Rank

S&E Occupation

Employment Growth

1

Software Developers, Applications

92,180

2

Network and Computer Systems Administrators

22,470

3

Mechanical Engineers

18,930

4

Petroleum Engineers

15,530

5

Aerospace Engineers

12,620

6

Software Developers, Systems Software

9,870

7

Operations Research Analysts

8,320

8

Computer Hardware Engineers

6,210

9

Electrical Engineers

5,890

10

Industrial Engineers

5,550

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.

Table 6 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment losses. The occupation with the greatest employment loss is computer programmers. As mentioned earlier, some have speculated that some of the losses in computer programmers may be due to reclassification of these positions as other computer occupations (e.g., software developers). Table 6. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Losses, 2008-2012

Rank

S&E Occupation

Employment Growth

1

Computer Programmers

-77,440

2

Engineers, All Other

-46,830

3

Computer Systems Analysts

-7,850

4

Computer Occupations, All Other

-6,050

5

Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

-5,380

6

Electronics Engineers, except Computer

-4,970

7

Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists

-4,330

8

Database Administrators

-4,180

9

Civil Engineers

-3,260

10

Life Scientists, All Other

-3,090

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.

Table 7 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest growth rates. The occupation with the fastest growth rate was petroleum engineers (14.9% CAGR), adding 15,530 jobs from 2008 to 2012, followed by astronomers (13.8% CAGR), and food scientists and technologists (6.8% CAGR). Table 7. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Growth Rates, 2008-2012

Rank

S&E Occupation

Employment Growth rate

1

Petroleum Engineers

14.9%

2

Astronomers

13.8%

3

Food Scientists and Technologists

6.8%

4

Statisticians

5.4%

5

Biomedical Engineers

5.4%

6

Physicists

4.7%

7

Nuclear Engineers

4.6%

8

Biochemists and Biophysicists

4.4%

9

Software Developers, Applications

4.4%

10

Aerospace Engineers

4.4%

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.

Table 8 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest growth rates. All 10 of these occupations have negative growth rates. This group includes at least one occupation from each of the engineering, physical sciences, life sciences, mathematics, and computer occupational groups. Table 8. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Growth Rates, 2008-2012

Rank

S&E Occupation

Employment Growth Rate

1

Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

-34.4

2

Engineers, All Other

-7.8

3

Life Scientists, All Other

-7.2

4

Animal Scientists

-6.4

5

Computer Programmers

-5.3

6

Materials Scientists

-4.7

7

Hydrologists

-2.4

8

Foresters

-1.7

9

Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

-1.7

10

Computer and Information Research Scientists

-1.7

Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, BLS, Department of Labor.

Wage Trends Between 2008 and 2012, mean wages for each S&E occupational group grew at about the same pace as the overall mean wage for all occupations, and
only somewhat faster than inflation. Figure 45 illustrates the nominal and inflation-adjusted compound annual growth rates for each S&E occupational group, as well as for all occupations. The nominal growth rate of mean wages for all occupations during this period was 2.3%0% CAGR, while the fastest growth rate in the S&E occupational groups was for physical scientists (2.2%) and mathematical occupations (2.2%), followed by engineers (2.1%), S&E managers (2.0%), computer occupations (1.8%), and life scientists (1.5%). Life scientists experienced nearly no real (inflation-adjusted) growth in mean wages between 2008 and 2011, while the other S&E occupational categories grew by less than 1% in inflation-adjusted terms, below the overall growth rate for all occupations. Figure 423% CAGR), followed by S&E managers (2.20% CAGR), and mathematical occupations (2.16% CAGR), engineers (2.12% CAGR), computer occupations (1.84% CAGR), and life scientists (1.4% CAGR). Adjusting for inflation, life scientists experienced a small decline (-0.2% CAGR) in mean wages between 2008 and 2012, while the other S&E occupational categories grew by less than 1%.

Figure 5
. Nominal and Inflation-adjusted Compound Annual Growth Rates of Mean Wages in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2011 2012 Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment SurveyStatistics survey data, 2008-2011, 2012, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm, using BLStables.htm, using Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Price Index Inflation Calculator, http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl. Unemployment Trends Table 9 provides unemployment rates for cpicalc.pl. Congressional Research Service 18 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Unemployment Trends Figure 5 illustrates unemployment rates for the S&E occupational groups, as well as all for all workers (16 years and over) and selected professional and related occupations (e.g., lawyers, dentists, physicians and surgeons, registered nurses) for the years 2008-2011. This figure for the years 2008-2012. This table provides a perspective on how the unemployment rates of S&E occupational groups compare to the overall unemployment rate and other selected professional and related occupations, as well as how these rates changed during this period. Figure 5. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups, the Overall Workforce, and Other Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2008-2011 Compared to the overall workforce, S&E occupational groups had significantly lower unemployment rates for the 2008-2011 period. In general, though, the professional as how these rates changed during this period. Professional occupations (of which the S&E occupations are a part) historically have had a lower lower unemployment rate than the workforce as a whole.22 As shown in Figure 5, the S&E occupational groups generally had unemployment rates that were comparable or higher than the rates for selected professional occupations during the 2008-2011 period. Also, the unemployment rates for the S&E occupational groups grew more than did the unemployment rates for the other selected professional occupations included in Figure 5 (e.g., lawyers, dentists, physicians and surgeons, registered nurses). Consequently, the separation between the unemployment rates of the S&E occupational groups and the other selected professional occupations grew during this period. In 2008, the unemployment rates for each S&E occupational group and each selected professional occupation were below 3%. In 2011, the unemployment rates for each of the Source: CRS analysis of unpublished 2011data from selected professional occupations remained the Current Population Survey, BLS. below 3% while the unemployment rates for each of the S&E occupational groups were above 3%. 22 For example, between 2000 and 2011, the unemployment rate for the overall workforce (age 16 years and over) was generally twice as high as that of professional and related occupations. In 2000, the unemployment rate for the overall workforce was 4.0%, while the unemployment rate for professional and related occupations was 1.9%; in 2011, the rates were 8.9% and 4.3%, respectively. Congressional Research Service 19 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Employment Projections, 2010-2020 This section provides an analysis of the Bureau of Labor Statistics occupational employment projections data for the 2010-2020 period. Scientists and Engineers in Aggregate An analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics employment projections indicates that the science and engineering workforce will grow by 1.1 million (18.0%) jobs between 2010 and 2020, a CAGR of 1.7%. This growth rate is somewhat higher than the growth rate projected for all occupations (1.3%) during this period.23 In addition to the job openings created by growth in the number of jobs in S&E occupations, BLS projects that an additional 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those who are expected to exit the S&E occupations during this period due to retirement, death, career change, etc. (i.e., net replacements). BLS projects a total of 2.4 million job openings in S&E occupations due to growth and net replacements during this period. Science and Engineering Occupational Groups Projection data for science and engineering occupational groups is provided in Table 9, which includes the following data for each group: 2010 actual employment, 2020 projected employment, the change in the number of jobs between 2010 and 2020, the total percentage increase in the number of jobs, the compound annual growth rate in the number of jobs, and the total job openings due to growth and net replacements. Among the S&E occupational groups, computer occupations are projected to see the fastest employment growth (2.0% CAGR), the largest increase in the number employed (758,900), and the largest number of job openings (1,336,400). Computer occupations, which accounted for 57.5% of all S&E jobs in 2010, are projected to account for 68.5% of the total growth in S&E occupations between 2010 and 2020. (See Figure 6.) As a result, the share of all S&E jobs accounted for by computer occupations is projected to rise from 55.6% in 2010 to 57.5% in 2020. Life scientists is the only other S&E occupational group projected to account for a greater share (5.3%) of total S&E job growth than its share of total 2010 S&E employment (4.6%). As a result, life scientists’ share of S&E employment is projected to increase slightly to 4.7% in 2020. The mathematical occupations group is projected to account for 1.8% of S&E job growth during this period, approximately the same as its 1.9% share of S&E occupational employment in 2010. The occupational groups that are projected to have growth slower than their share of total 2010 S&E employment are: • 23 engineers—projected to account for 14.5% of total S&E job growth during the 2010-2020 period, below its 24.6% share of S&E employment in 2010, thus reducing its projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 23.1%; CRS analysis of BLS 2010-2020 employment projections, http://www.bls.gov/emp. Congressional Research Service 20 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce • physical scientists—projected to account for 3.2% of total S&E job growth during the 2010-2020 period, below its 4.6% share of S&E employment in 2010, thus reducing its projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 4.4%; and • S&E managers—projected to account for 6.8% of total S&E job growth during the 2010-2020 period, below its 8.7% share of S&E employment in 2010, thus reducing its projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 8.4%. Table 9. 2010-2020 Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups Numbers in thousands, except percent and CAGR Employment Occupations 2010 Computer Occupations Change, 2010-2020 2020 Number % CAGR Job Openings Due to Growth and Net Replacements 3,425.9 4,184.6 758.9 22.1 2.0 1,366.4 116.9 136.4 19.5 16.7 1.6 71.6 1,519.0 1,679.6 160.3 10.6 1.0 525.9 Life Scientists 286.0 344.3 58.2 20.4 1.9 106.1 Physical Scientists 282.0 317.6 35.7 12.6 1.2 121.8 S&E Managers 534.0 608.8 74.8 14.0 1.3 186.0 6,163.8 7,271.3 1,107.4 18.0 1.7 2,377.8 Lawyers 728.2 801.8 73.6 10.1 1.0 212 Dentists 155.7 187.9 32.2 20.7 1.9 78.4 Physicians and Surgeons 691.0 859.3 168.3 24.4 2.2 305.1 Registered Nurses 2,737.4 3,449.3 711.9 26.0 2.3 1,207.4 Post-Secondary Teachers 1,756.0 2061.7 305.7 17.4 1.6 586.1 Total, All Occupations 143,068.2 163,537.1 20,468.9 14.3 1.3 54,787.4 Mathematical Occupations Engineers S&E Occupations, Total Other Selected Occupations Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Notes: Numbers for S&E occupational groups may not add due to rounding of component occupations. Congressional Research Service 21 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Figure 6. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Growth, 2010-2020, by S&E Occupational Group Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Notes: Numbers are rounded and may not add to 100%. For some S&E occupational groups, the number of openings resulting from growth in the number employed is comparable to the number of openings resulting from those exiting the occupations (net replacements). For example, BLS projects an increase of 758,900 jobs in the computer occupations between 2010 and 2020. During the same period, BLS projects that there will be 607,500 job openings in computer occupations due to net replacement needs. For other S&E occupational groups, net replacement needs greatly exceed the number of projected new jobs in the occupation. For example, BLS projects 365,600 job openings due to net replacement needs in the engineering occupations between 2010 and 2020, and job growth of 160,300. Figure 7 illustrates the composition of total projected S&E job openings (due to growth and net replacements) by S&E occupational group. Figure 7. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Openings (Job Growth plus Net Replacement Needs), 2010-2020, by S&E Occupational Group Mathematical Occupations 3.0% Engineers 22.1% Computer Occupations 57.5% Life Scientists 4.5% Physical Scientists 5.1% S&E Managers 7.8% Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Congressional Research Service 22 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Detailed Science and Engineering Occupations The Bureau of Labor Statistics’ projected job growth and projected total job openings (job growth plus net replacements) for the S&E occupations vary substantially during the 2010-2020 projection period. Tables 12-17 show the top ten S&E occupations in terms of job growth, job losses, and job openings. Table 10 shows the ten S&E occupations with the highest projected growth in jobs. Seven of the 10 S&E occupations on this list are in the computer occupations. One of the remaining three occupations is computer and information systems managers. The only non-IT occupations in the top ten are civil engineers and medical scientists. Table 10. S&E Occupations with the Highest Projected Growth in Jobs and Other Selected Occupations, 2010-2020 Rank S&E Occupation Projected Average Annual Job Growtha 1 Software Developers, Applications 14,380 2 Software Developers, Systems Software 12,720 3 Computer Systems Analysts 12,040 4 Computer Support Specialists 11,000 5 Network and Computer Systems Administrators 9,660 6 Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architects 6,570 7 Computer and Information Systems Managers 5,580 8 Civil Engineers 5,110 9 Computer Programmers 4,370 10 Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists 3,640 Other Selected Occupations with High Projected Growth Registered Nurses 71,190 Retail Salespersons 70,680 Home Health Aides 70,630 Personal Care Aides 60,700 Office Clerks, General 48,950 Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Congressional Research Service 23 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Table 11 shows the ten S&E occupations with the smallest projected growth in jobs. The list includes occupations from physical and life sciences, mathematics, and engineering occupations. The number of new jobs projected to be created in these ten occupations total an average of less than 600 per year. Table 11. S&E Occupations with the Smallest Projected Growth in Jobs, 2010-2020 Rank 1 Projected Average Annual Job Growtha S&E Occupation Agricultural Engineers 20 2 Astronomers 20 3 Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other 30 4 Animal Scientists 40 5 Mathematicians 50 6 Foresters 50 7 Mining and Geological Engineers, incl. Mining Safety Engineers 60 8 Materials Scientists 90 9 Marine Engineers and Naval Architects 100 10 Atmospheric and Space Scientists 100 Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Table 12 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest projected job growth. Biomedical engineers (4.9% CAGR) and medical scientists (3.2% CAGR) are the fastest growing S&E occupations. The remaining occupations on the list range from 2.0%-2.8% CAGR, faster than the overall projected job growth rate for all occupations (1.3% CAGR). The list includes five computer occupations. Table 12. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Projected Job Growth, 2010-2020 Rank S&E Occupation Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR) Projected Average Annual Job Growtha 1 Biomedical Engineers 4.9% 970 2 Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists 3.2% 3,640 3 Software Developers, Systems Software 2.8% 12,720 4 Biochemists and Biophysicists 2.7% 770 5 Database Administrators 2.7% 3,390 6 Network and Computer Systems Administrators 2.5% 9,660 7 Software Developers, Applications 2.5% 14,380 8 Actuaries 2.4% 580 9 Epidemiologists 2.0% 120 10 Computer Systems Analysts 2.0% 12,040 Congressional Research Service 24 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Rank S&E Occupation Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR) Projected Average Annual Job Growtha Other Occupations with the Fastest Projected Growth Personal Care Aides 5.5% 60,700 Home Health Aides 5.4% 70,630 Helpers, Brickmasons, Blockmasons, Stonemasons, and Tile and Marble Setters 4.9% 1,760 Helpers, Carpenters 4.5% 2,590 Veterinary technologists and technicians 4.3% 4,170 1.3% 2,046,890 All Occupations Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Table 13 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest projected job growth, ranging between 0.4%-0.6% CAGR, well below the overall projected job growth rate of 1.3% CAGR. The list includes five engineering occupations. Table 13. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Projected Job Growth, 2010-2020 Rank S&E Occupation Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR) Projected Average Annual Job Growtha 1 Chemists 0.4% 320 2 Foresters 0.4% 50 3 Aerospace Engineers 0.5% 400 4 Electronics Engineers, except Computer 0.5% 680 5 Conservation Scientists 0.5% 120 6 Computer Occupations, All Other 0.6% 1,230 7 Chemical Engineers 0.6% 180 8 Biological Scientists, All Other 0.6% 220 9 Industrial Engineers 0.6% 1,310 10 Engineers, All Other 0.6% 1,030 Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Congressional Research Service 25 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Table 14 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the most projected job openings (jobs growth plus net replacements). This category shows where the most job opportunities are projected to be. The top seven occupations are computer occupations, with computer and information systems managers in the ninth spot. The other two occupations on the list are engineering occupations, civil engineering and mechanical engineering. Table 14. S&E Occupations with the Most Projected Job Openings, 2010-2020 Rank S&E Occupation Projected Average Annual Job Growtha 1 Computer Support Specialists 26,950 2 Computer Systems Analysts 22,250 3 Software Developers, Applications 19,790 4 Software Developers, Systems Software 16,800 5 Network and Computer Systems Administrators 15,530 6 Computer Programmers 12,800 7 Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and 11,030 8 Civil Engineers 10,440 9 Computer and Information Systems Managers 10,280 10 Mechanical Engineers 9,960 Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Table 15 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fewest projected job openings. This list includes occupations from the life sciences, engineering, physical sciences, and mathematics occupations. Table 15. S&E Occupations with the Fewest Projected Job Openings, 2010-2020 Rank 1 S&E Occupation Agricultural Engineers Projected Average Annual Job Growtha 80 2 Astronomers 3 Epidemiologists 90 4 Miscellaneous Mathematical Science Occupations 170 5 Animal Scientists 180 6 Foresters 190 7 Mining and Geological Engineers, incl. Mining Safety Engineers 200 8 Life Scientists, All Other 210 9 Atmospheric and Space Scientists 210 10 Marine Engineers and Naval Architects 230 150 Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Congressional Research Service 26 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Concluding Observations The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs. Congress has enacted many programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also undertaken broad efforts improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. Some policymakers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs (e.g., treating and preventing diseases, ensuring access to affordable energy, protecting and restoring the environment). However, there are varying perspectives with respect to the question of the existence of a shortage of scientists and engineers in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E degrees, a mismatch of worker skills and employer needs), and whether the federal government should undertake policy interventions to address a putative shortage or allow market forces to work in this labor market. Many policymakers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts, economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and related policy issues. Here are some general characterizations of those views: • There is a shortage. There is a shortage (or a looming shortage) of scientists and engineers (or, alternatively, an inadequate supply of workers with degrees in science and engineering fields), potentially resulting in the loss of U.S. scientific, engineering, technological, and industrial leadership and consequent effects on areas such as economic growth, job creation, standard of living, and national security.24 • There is not a shortage. Assertions of a broad shortage of scientists and engineers are not supported by the data when considering indicators such as employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.25 24 See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11463; U.S. Department of Energy, Secretary Chu, Intel President Discuss Need for More U.S. Engineers, September 1, 2011, http://energy.gov/ articles/secretary-chu-intel-president-discuss-need-more-us-engineers; Shirley Ann Jackson, President, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, The Quite Crisis: Falling Short in Producing American Scientific and Technical Talent, Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST), 2002; and Vinton G. Cerf, “How to Fire Up U.S. Innovation,” Wall Street Journal, April 12, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704461304576216911954533514.html; and Rodney C. Atkins, Senior Vice President, Systems and Technology Group, IBM, “America Desperately Needs More STEM Students. Here’s How to Get Them,” Forbes, July 9, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/ 2012/07/09/america-desperately-needs-more-stem-students-heres-how-to-get-them. 25 See, for example, testimony of Ralph Gomory, President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part I, 110th Cong., June 12, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); testimony of Michael Teitelbaum, Vice President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and Harold Salzman, Senior Research Associate, The Urban Institute, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on (continued...) Congressional Research Service 27 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce • More scientists and engineers are needed regardless of the existence of a shortage. Regardless of whether demand currently exceeds supply, increasing the number of U.S. scientists and engineers will increase U.S. innovation, economic performance, and job creation. Even if there is not a shortage of scientists and engineers, jobs in many occupations require a higher level of STEM knowledge than ever before.26 Students who earn S&E degrees gain thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and STEM knowledge that will enable them to be successful not only in S&E occupations, but also in S&E-related careers or to apply their S&E knowledge and skills in non-S&E fields.27 Historically, federal policies, programs, and investments have contributed to the development of the United States’ scientific and engineering workforce. • rates than the overall workforce. As shown in Table 9, S&E occupational groups had significantly lower unemployment rates than those of the overall workforce for the 2008-2012 period. Nevertheless, during this period the S&E occupational groups generally had unemployment rates that were comparable or higher than the rates for many other selected professional occupations (e.g., lawyers, dentists, physicians and surgeons, registered nurses, accountants and auditors). In 2008, the unemployment rates for each S&E occupational group and each selected professional occupation were below 3%. However, from 2008 to 2011, the unemployment rates for the S&E occupational groups grew faster than did the other selected professional occupations. Consequently, the separation between the unemployment rates of the S&E occupational groups and the other selected professional occupations grew during this period (see Table 9). In 2011, the unemployment rates for each of the selected professional occupations remained around or below 2% while the unemployment rates for each of the S&E occupational groups were above 3%. In 2012, the unemployment rate for all of the S&E occupational groups fell, some dropping below 3%. Table 9. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups, the Overall Workforce, and Other Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2008-2012  

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

S&E Occupations

         

Computer Occupations

2.6%

5.3%

5.4%

4.1%

3.8%

Mathematical Occupations

1.6%

2.6%

1.4%

5.3%

1.3%

Engineers

2.6%

5.1%

4.5%

3.6%

3.3%

Life Scientists

1.0%

3.9%

4.2%

3.4%

2.9%

Physical Scientists

2.1%

3.3%

2.3%

3.7%

3.3%

Selected Non-S&E Occupations

         

Lawyers

1.9%

2.3%

1.5%

2.1%

1.4%

Dentists

0.4%

1.2%

0.8%

0.7%

1.5%

Physicians and surgeons

0.8%

0.8%

0.9%

0.6%

0.8%

Registered nurses

1.2%

2.1%

2.1%

2.0%

2.6%

Accountants and auditors

2.5%

5.0%

5.0%

4.2%

4.2%

Source: CRS analysis of unpublished data from the Current Population Survey, BLS.

Employment Projections, 2012-2022

This section provides an analysis of the Bureau of Labor Statistics occupational employment projections for the 2012-2022 period.

Scientists and Engineers in Aggregate

An analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics employment projections indicates that the science and engineering workforce will grow by 953,200 (14.3%) jobs between 2012 and 2022, a CAGR of 1.3%. This growth rate is somewhat higher than the growth rate projected for all occupations (1.0%) during this period.25

In addition to the job openings created by growth in the number of jobs in S&E occupations, BLS projects that an additional 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those who are expected to exit the S&E occupations during this period due to retirement, death, career change, etc. (i.e., net replacements). BLS projects a total of 2.3 million job openings in S&E occupations due to growth and net replacements during this period.

Science and Engineering Occupational Groups Employment projections for science and engineering occupational groups are provided in Table 10, which includes the following for each group: 2012 actual employment, 2022 projected employment, the change in the number of jobs between 2012 and 2022, the total percentage increase in the number of jobs, the compound annual growth rate in the number of jobs, and the total job openings due to growth and net replacements. Among the S&E occupational groups, computer occupations are projected to see the largest increase in the number employed (651,500) and the largest number of job openings (1,240,100). Computer occupations, which accounted for 55.2% of all S&E jobs in 2012, are projected to account for 68.3% of the total growth in S&E occupations between 2012 and 2022. (See Figure 6.) As a result, the share of all S&E jobs accounted for by computer occupations is projected to rise from 55.2% in 2012 to 56.9% in 2022.

Mathematical occupations are projected to have the fastest employment growth (2.4% CAGR), increasing their projected share of total S&E employment slightly to 2.2% in 2022.

The occupational groups that are projected to account for a smaller share of total S&E job growth than their share of total 2012 S&E employment are:

  • Engineers—projected to account for 14.4% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 23.8% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 22.7%;
  • Physical scientists—projected to account for 3.8% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 5.9% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 5.6%; and Life scientists—projected to account for 2.9% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 4.4% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 4.2%; and
  • S&E managers—projected to account for 7.0% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 8.7% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 8.5%.
  • Table 10. 2012-2022 Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups

    Numbers in thousands, except percent and CAGR

    Occupations

    Employment

    Change, 2012-2022

    Job Openings Due to Growth and Net Replacements

    2012

    2022

    Number

    %

    CAGR

    Computer Occupations

    3,682.1

    4,333.6

    651.5

    17.7%

    1.6%

    1,240.1

    Mathematical Occupations

    130.5

    164.7

    34.2

    26.2%

    2.4%

    67.7

    Engineers

    1,589.6

    1,726.4

    136.8

    8.6%

    0.8%

    544.3

    Life Scientists

    294.3

    322.0

    27.7

    9.4%

    0.9%

    104.7

    Physical Scientists

    393.6

    429.7

    36.1

    9.2%

    0.9%

    140.9

    S&E Managers

    578.1

    645.0

    66.9

    11.6%

    1.1%

    171.4

    S&E Occupations, Total

    6,668.2

    7,621.4

    953.2

    14.3%

    1.3%

    2,269.1

    Selected Other Professional and Related Occupations

               

    Lawyers

    759.8

    834.7

    74.8

    9.8%

    0.9%

    196.5

    Dentists

    146.8

    170.2

    23.3

    15.9%

    1.5%

    59.1

    Physicians and Surgeons

    691.4

    814.7

    123.3

    17.8%

    1.7%

    296.4

    Registered Nurses

    2,711.5

    3,238.4

    526.8

    19.4%

    1.8%

    1,052.6

    Accountants and auditors

    1,275.4

    1,442.2

    166.7

    13.1%

    1.2%

    544.2

                 

    Total, All Occupations

    145,355.8

    160,983.7

    15,628.0

    10.8%

    1.0%

    50,557.3

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    Notes: Numbers for S&E occupational groups may not add due to rounding of component occupations.

    Figure 6. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Growth,2012-2022, by S&E Occupational Group

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    Notes: Numbers are rounded and may not add to 100%.

    Across all occupations (not just S&E occupations) the number needed to replace those exiting the workforce (34.9 million) is expected to be more than twice the number of new jobs created (15.6 million). For certain S&E occupational groups, in contrast, the number of openings resulting from growth in the number employed is expected to exceed the number of openings resulting from those exiting the occupations (net replacements). For example, BLS projects an increase of 651,500 jobs in the computer occupations between 2012 and 2022. During the same period, BLS projects that there will be 588,600 job openings in computer occupations due to net replacement needs. Similarly, for the mathematics occupations, the increase in jobs (34,200) exceeds the number needed to replace those exiting the field (33,500). For certain other S&E occupational groups, however, net replacement needs greatly exceed the number of projected new jobs in the occupation as for the workforce as a whole. For engineering occupations, BLS projects that 75% of job openings in the 2012 to 2022 period will result from the need to replace those exiting the occupations (407,500 job openings due to net replacement needs and 136,800 due to increases in the number of engineering jobs). Figure 7 illustrates the composition of total projected S&E job openings (due to growth and net replacements) by S&E occupational group.

    Figure 7. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Openings (Job Growth plus Net Replacement Needs), 2012-2022, by S&E Occupational Group

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    Notes: Numbers are rounded and may not add to 100%.

    Detailed Science and Engineering Occupations The Bureau of Labor Statistics' projected job growth and projected total job openings (job growth plus net replacements) for the S&E occupations vary substantially during the 2012-2022 projection period. Table 11-Table 16 show the top 10 S&E occupations in terms of job growth, job losses, and job openings. Table 11 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the highest projected growth in jobs. Eight of the ten S&E occupations on this list are in the computer occupations. One of the remaining two occupations is computer and information systems managers. The only non-IT occupation in the top 10 is civil engineers. Table 11. S&E Occupations with the Highest Projected Growth in Jobs and Other Selected Occupations, 2012-2022

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Average Annual Job Growtha

    1

    Software developers, applications

    13,990

    2

    Computer systems analysts

    12,770

    3

    Computer user support specialists

    11,080

    4

    Software developers, systems software

    8,280

    5

    Civil engineers

    5,370

    6

    Computer and information systems managers

    5,090

    7

    Network and computer systems administrators

    4,290

    8

    Web developers

    2,850

    9

    Computer programmers

    2,840

    10

    Information security analysts

    2,740

    Non S&E Selected Occupations with Highest Projected Growth

     

    Personal Care Aides

    58,080

     

    Registered Nurses

    52,680

     

    Retail Salespersons

    43,470

     

    Home Health Aides

    42,420

     

    Combined food preparation/serving workers, incl. fast food

    42,190

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Table 12 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the smallest projected growth in jobs. The list includes occupations from physical and life sciences, mathematics, and engineering occupations. The number of new jobs projected to be created in these 10 occupations total less than 300 per year. Table 12. S&E Occupations with the Smallest Projected Growth in Jobs, 2012-2022

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Average Annual Job Growtha

    1

    Biological scientists, all other

    -20

    2

    Conservation scientists

    10

    3

    Agricultural engineers

    10

    4

    Animal scientists

    20

    5

    Materials engineers

    20

    6

    Astronomers

    30

    7

    Mathematical science occupations, all other

    30

    8

    Materials scientists

    40

    9

    Epidemiologists

    50

    10

    Foresters

    70

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Table 13 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest projected job growth rates. Information security analysts (3.2%) and biomedical engineers (2.4% CAGR) are the fastest growing S&E occupations. The remaining occupations on the list range from 1.9% to 2.4% CAGR, faster than the overall projected job growth rate for all occupations (1.0% CAGR). The list includes four computer occupations, four mathematical occupations, and two engineering occupations. Table 13. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Projected Job Growth Rates, 2012-2022

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR)

    Projected Average Annual Job Growtha

    1

    Information security analysts

    3.2%

    2,740

    2

    Biomedical engineers

    2.4%

    520

    3

    Operation research analysts

    2.4%

    1,950

    4

    Statisticians

    2.4%

    740

    5

    Actuaries

    2.3%

    630

    6

    Petroleum engineers

    2.3%

    980

    7

    Computer systems analysts

    2.2%

    12,770

    8

    Mathematicians

    2.1%

    80

    9

    Software developers, applications

    2.1%

    13,990

    10

    Software developers, systems software

    1.9%

    8,280

    Non S&E Occupations with Fastest Projected Growth

       

    Industrial-organizational psychologists

    4.6%

    90

     

    Personal care aides

    4.1%

    58,080

     

    Home health aides

    4.0%

    42,420

     

    Insulation workers, mechanical

    3.9%

    1,350

     

    Interpreters and translators

    3.9%

    2,930

    All Occupations

    1.0%

    1,562,800

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Table 14 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest projected job growth rates, ranging from -0.1% to 0.4% CAGR, well below the overall projected job growth rate of 1.0% CAGR. The list includes seven engineering occupations, two biological sciences occupations, and one computer occupation. Table 14. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Projected Job Growth Rates, 2012-2022

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR)

    Projected Average Annual Job Growtha

    1

    Biological scientists, all other

    -0.1%

    -20

    2

    Materials engineers

    0.1%

    20

    3

    Conservation scientists

    0.1%

    10

    4

    Electronics engineers, except computer

    0.3%

    480

    5

    Computer occupations, all others

    0.4%

    780

    6

    Engineers, all others

    0.4%

    510

    7

    Agricultural engineers

    0.4%

    10

    8

    Mechanical engineers

    0.4%

    1,160

    9

    Chemical engineers

    0.4%

    150

    10

    Industrial engineers

    0.4%

    1,010

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Table 15 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the most projected job openings (jobs growth plus net replacements). This category shows where the most job opportunities are projected to be. Six of the ten occupations are computer occupations and another is computer and information systems managers. The other three occupations on the list are engineering occupations—civil, mechanical, and industrial engineering. Table 15. S&E Occupations with the Most Projected Job Openings, 2012-2022

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Average Annual Job Openingsa

    1

    Software developers, applications

    21,850

    2

    Computer systems analysts

    20,960

    3

    Computer user support specialists

    19,690

    4

    Software developers, systems software

    13,470

    5

    Civil engineers

    12,010

    6

    Computer programmers

    11,810

    7

    Network and computer systems administrators

    10,050

    8

    Mechanical engineers

    9,970

    9

    Computer and information systems managers

    9,710

    10

    Industrial engineers

    7,540

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Table 16 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fewest projected job openings. This list includes occupations from the life sciences, engineering, physical sciences, and mathematical fields. Table 16. S&E Occupations with the Fewest Projected Job Openings, 2012-2022

    Rank

    S&E Occupation

    Projected Average Annual Job Openingsa

    1

    Mathematical science occupations, all other

    70

    2

    Agricultural engineers

    80

    3

    Astronomers

    90

    4

    Animal scientists

    120

    5

    Epidemiologists

    160

    6

    Mathematicians

    170

    7

    Materials scientists

    260

    8

    Marine engineers and naval architects

    260

    9

    Hydrologists

    290

    10

    Mining and geological engineers, incl. mining safety engineers

    300

    Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

    a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created. Concluding Observations

    Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs (e.g., treating and preventing diseases, ensuring access to affordable energy, protecting and restoring the environment). The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Congress has enacted many programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also undertaken broad efforts improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. Some policy makers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies.

    While there is a broad consensus on the important role of scientists and engineers to the United States, policy makers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts, economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and related policy issues. In particular, there are varying perspectives about whether a shortage of scientists and engineers exists in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E degrees, a mismatch of worker skills and employer needs), and whether the federal government should undertake policy interventions to address a putative shortage or allow market forces to work in this labor market.

    Perspectives on the Adequacy of the U.S. S&E Workforce

    Here are some general ways in which their views may be expressed:

  • There is a shortage. There is a shortage (or a looming shortage) of scientists and engineers (or alternatively, an inadequate supply of workers with degrees in science and engineering fields), and this may result in the loss of U.S. scientific, engineering, technological, and industrial leadership, with consequent effects on areas such as economic growth, job creation, standard of living, and national security.26
  • There is not a shortage. Assertions of a broad shortage of scientists and engineers are not supported by the data when considering indicators such as employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.27
  • More scientists and engineers are needed regardless of the existence of a shortage. Historically, federal policies, programs, and investments have contributed to the development of the United States' scientific and engineering workforce. Regardless of whether demand currently exceeds supply, increasing the number of U.S. scientists and engineers will increase U.S. innovation, economic performance, and job creation. Even if there is not a shortage of scientists and engineers, jobs in many occupations require a higher level of STEM knowledge than ever before.28 Students who earn S&E degrees gain thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and STEM knowledge that will enable them to be successful not only in S&E occupations, but also in S&E-related careers and in non-S&E fields where they can apply their S&E knowledge and skills.29
  • Government interventions in the S&E labor market to address perceived shortages may introduce inefficiencies.may introduce inefficiencies. Federal government efforts to increase the number of scientists and engineers by incentivizing the pursuit of degrees in S&E disciplines and/or increasing immigration quotas may result in less efficient operation of the S&E labor market (e.g.. For example, too many students may be educated in S&E for the number of jobs available; lower salaries for and graduates who find S&E jobs).28 • may receive lower salaries.30 Workforce projections are unreliable for predicting shortages. . Long-term projections for S&E occupations are unreliable.2931 Relying on such projections could possibly may result in the preparation of too many or too few students with S&E degrees or in mismatches between the students' education and market needs. Among the difficulties in making long -term projections are unexpected changes in: the mix of industrial output or employment due to technological or market changes; the use of, factor substitution (e.g., substitution of capital for labor) resulting from changes in factor prices;due to changes in prices, changes in retirement behavior;, the availability of foreign labor sources;, labor market demographics; and government policies.30 (...continued) Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); Robert J. Samuelson, “Sputnik Scare, Updated” Washington Post, August 26, 2005, p. A27, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/25/AR2005052501812.html; and Michael Teitelbaum, “The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: An Unconventional Portrait,” Pan-Organizational Summit on the U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce, Government-Industry-University Research Roundtable, National Research Council, 2003, pp. 1-7, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10727. 26 See, for example, U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee, Chairman’s Staff, STEM Education: Preparing for the Jobs of the Future, April 2012, http://www.jec.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?a=Files.Serve&File_id=6aaa7e1f-958647be-82e7-326f47658320. 27 See, for example, Vern Ehlers, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008). 28 See, for example, Leonard Lynn, Case Western Reserve University, and Hal Salzman, Rutgers University, “Dynamics of Engineering Labor Markets: Petroleum Engineering and Responsive Supply,” presentation at “U.S. Engineering in the Global Economy,” sponsored by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Cambridge, MA, September 26, 2011, http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/salzman/dynamics.pdf. 29 See, for example, Office of Technology Assessment, Demographic Trends and the Scientific and Engineering Workforce, OTA-TM-SET-35, December 1985, http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk2/1985/8507/8507.PDF. 30 See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Is a Great Labor Shortage Coming? Replacement Demand in the Global Economy, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 12541, Cambridge, MA, September 2006, http://www.nber.org/papers/w12541. Congressional Research Service 28 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce • , and government policies.32 There may be shortages in certain industriesindustries, occupations, or fields. Shortages may exist in some S&E occupations or for certain employers, for example in new and emerging S&E fields (e.g., nanotechnology),; cyclical industries (e.g., aerospace); in fields where foreign scientists and engineers may not be employed due to export control laws; and for employers otherwise limited, in general or for specific purposes, to using only U.S. citizens. • The The labor market will resolve such needs. . If markets are allowed to operate freely (i.e., without government interventions), any short-term “shortages” "shortages" will be resolved as wages equilibrate demand and supply, labor as the labor supply increases (i.ee.g., as more students earn S&E degrees) in response to market signals, or through substitution of alternative inputs.31 • 33 The potential adverse consequences of even discrete shortages require government interventions. These shortages should be met with federal efforts to increase supply or the United States may face the loss of technological leadership in new and emerging fields, lower economic performance, and diminished national security.32 • 34 Industry assertions of shortages are driven by a desire to reduce costs, and/or increase current knowledge. . Industry assertions of S&E shortages are driven primarily by a desire to lower their labor costs through increased supply and by by providing a continuous stream of young, lower-cost recent college graduates (i.e., through education and, training, and immigration. These new hires can and by increases in immigrant visas) who can be hired to replace older, higher-cost workers with less current knowledge.33 • The real35 The real issue is a skills mismatch, not a shortage of people. The difficulty employers have in meeting their S&E workforce needs (in particular their information technology workforce needs) results primarily from a mismatch between the specific skills—or combinations of knowledge, skills, and experience—needed by employers and those held by S&E workers.34 • Expanding immigration36 Expanding immigration can help address the shortage. Immigration policies directed at increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers in the United States puts the creativity of the world's best and brightest to work for the U.S. economy and preventsreduces the loss of U.S.-educated foreign nationals with S&E degrees (i.e., returning to their countries of origin, working in countries other than the United States).35 31 See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Does Globalization of the Scientific/Engineering Workforce Threaten U.S. Economic Leadership?, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 11457, Cambridge, MA, June 2005, http://www.nber.org/papers/w11457.pdf. 32 See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007. 33 See, for example, various writings of Norm Matloff, Professor of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/matloff.html. 34 See, for example, Tom Kucharvy, Solutions to STEM Skills Mismatch, Beyond IT, February 25, 2012, http://beyondit-inc.com/GKEblog/solutions-to-stem-skills-mismatch.html; and “Statistic of the Month: Investigating the Skills Mismatch,” Center on International Education Benchmarking, July 31, 2012, http://www.ncee.org/2012/07/statistic-ofthe-month-investigating-the-skills-mismatch. 35 See, for example, Vivek Wadhwa, Anna Lee Saxenian, Richard Freeman, and Alex Salever, Losing the World’s Best and Brightest: America’s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, March 2009, (continued...) Congressional Research Service 29 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce • Expanding immigration than the United States or their countries of origin).37 Expanding immigration will dampen the market signals that would otherwise drive more U.S. students into science and engineering. Visa and immigration policies directed at increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers in the United States may, by increasing the overall supply of scientists and engineers, depress wages, increase unemployment, and reduce career opportunities for U.S. scientists and engineers; discourage American students from pursuing S&E degrees and careers; and cloud labor market signals (e.g., wage increases, lower unemployment wage growth, unemployment rates) to students considering pursing S&E degrees and careers.36 • 38 U.S. students lag those of other nations in STEM knowledge; federal efforts to improve STEM education are needed. . U.S. students lag foreign students in STEM knowledge possibly resulting, and this may result in fewer and/or less-talented U.S. scientists and engineers, lower economic growth, and reduced economic competitiveness.37 39 Federal policies and programs can help to build a stronger K-12 STEM education system. International assessments do not reflect the adequacy of U.S. student STEM knowledge. Standardized tests used to compare the STEM knowledge of U.S. K12K-12 students to those of other nations doesdo not appropriately reflect the STEM knowledge of U.S. students, the adequacy of their preparation to pursue S&E degrees and occupations, or their future capabilities as scientists and engineers.38 40Perspectives on Ways to Foster Development of the S&E Workforce These disparate perspectives contribute to a variety of opinions on the role(s)roles the federal government should play in fostering the development of the S&E workforce, including the merits of federal policies focused on: • increasing the number of students pursuing S&E degrees; (...continued) http://www.kauffman.org/uploadedFiles/ResearchAndPolicy/Losing_the_World%27s_Best_and_Brightest.pdf; The White House, “Fact Sheet: Fixing Our Broken Immigration System So Everyone Plays by the Rules,” press release, January 29, 2013, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/01/29/fact-sheet-fixing-our-broken-immigrationsystem-so-everyone-plays-rules; and Robert D. Atkinson, Eight Ideas for Improving the America COMPETES Act, Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March 2010, http://www.itif.org/files/2010-americacompetes.pdf. 36 See, for example, Ross Eisenbrey, Vice President, Economic Policy Institute, “Op-Ed: America’s Genius Glut,” New York Times, February 7, 2013; Remarks of Brian Keane, Founder and CEO, Ameritas Technologies, and Neeraj Gupta, Founder and CEO, Systems in Motion, at Senate briefing on “Understanding the Impact of the H-1B Program: On the Economy, Employers and Workers,” March 14, 2013, http://www.epi.org/files/2013/Keane_H1B_briefing_14_March_2013.pdf; and Stan Sorscher, Labor Representative, Society of Professional Engineering Employees in Aerospace, Flooding the STEM Labor Market, March 3, 2013, http://www.ifpte.org/downloads/issues/ 2013-3-3%20Flooding%20the%20STEM%20labor%20market.pdf. 37 U.S. Department of Education, “Secretary Arne Duncan’s Remarks at OECD’s Release of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 Results,” press release, December 7, 2010, http://www.ed.gov/news/ speeches/secretary-arne-duncans-remarks-oecds-release-program-international-student-assessment; Paul E. Peterson, Ludger Woessmann, Eric A. Hanushek, and Carlos X. Lastra-Anadon, Globally Challenged: Are U.S. Students Ready to Compete, Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, PEPG Report No. 11-03, August 2011, http://www.hks.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/PEPG11-03_GloballyChallenged.pdf; and Brandon Wright, “What do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance,” Thomas B. Fordham Institute, January 24, 2013, http://www.edexcellence.net/commentary/education-gadfly-weekly/2013/january-24/what-do-international-tests-reallyshow-about-us-performance.html. 38 Martin Carnoy and Richard Rothstein, What Do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance, Economic Policy Institute, January 15, 2013, http://www.epi.org/publication/us-student-performance-testing. Congressional Research Service 30 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce • increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers admitted to the United States; • increasing the number and share of underrepresented minorities and women in science and engineering; • improving K-12 STEM education; and • improving career information and counseling for high school students. As Congress considers approaches to bolstering U.S. competitiveness and scientific, engineering, technological, and industrial leadership, it may wish to consider these perspectives and opinions. Congressional Research Service 31 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Appendix. S&E Occupational Descriptions and Entry-Level Education Requirements Occupation Description Entry-level Education Computer Occupations Computer and Information Research Scientists Computer and information research scientists invent and design new technology and find new uses for existing technology. They study and solve complex problems in computing for business, science, medicine, and other uses. Doctoral or professional degree Computer Programmers Computer programmers write code to create software programs. They turn the program designs created by software developers and engineers into instructions that a computer can follow. Bachelor’s degree Computer Support Specialists Computer support specialists provide help and advice to people and organizations using computer software or equipment. Some, called technical support specialists, support information technology (IT) employees within their organization. Others, called helpdesk technicians, assist non-IT users who are having computer problems. Some college, no degree Computer Systems Analysts Computer systems analysts study an organization's current computer systems and procedures and make recommendations to management to help the organization operate more efficiently and effectively. They bring business and information technology (IT) together by understanding the needs and limitations of both. Bachelor’s degree Database Administrators Database administrators use software to store and organize data, such as financial information and customer shipping records. They make sure that data are available to users and are secure from unauthorized access. Bachelor’s degree Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architects Information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects all use information technology (IT) to advance their organization’s goals. Security analysts ensure a firm’s information stays safe from cyberattacks. Web developers create websites to help firms have a public face. Computer network architects create the internal networks all workers within organizations use. Bachelor’s degree Network and Computer Systems Administrators Network and computer systems administrators are responsible for the day-to-day operation of an organization’s computer networks. They organize, install, and support an organization’s computer systems, including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), network segments, intranets, and other data communication systems. Bachelor’s degree Software Developers Software developers are the creative minds behind computer programs. Some develop the applications that allow people to do specific tasks on a computer or other device. Others develop the underlying systems that run the devices or control networks. Bachelor’s degree Mathematical Occupations Actuaries Actuaries analyze the financial costs of risk and uncertainty. They use mathematics, statistics, and financial theory to assess the risk that an event will occur and to help businesses and clients develop policies that minimize the cost of that risk. Bachelor’s degree Mathematicians Mathematicians use high-level mathematics and technology to develop new mathematical principles, understand relationships between existing principles, and solve real-world problems. Master’s degree Operations Research Analysts Operations research analysts use advanced methods of analysis to help organizations solve problems and make better decisions. Bachelor’s degree Statisticians Statisticians use mathematical techniques to analyze and interpret data and draw conclusions. Master’s degree Congressional Research Service 32 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Occupation Description Entry-level Education Engineers Aerospace Engineers Aerospace engineers design aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, and missiles. In addition, they test prototypes to make sure that they function according to design. Bachelor’s degree Agricultural Engineers Agricultural engineers—also known as biological and agricultural engineers—work on a variety of activities. These activities range from aquaculture (raising food, such as fish, that thrive in water) to land farming to forestry; from developing biofuels to improving conservation; from planning animal environments to finding better ways to process food. Bachelor’s degree Biomedical Engineers Biomedical engineers analyze and design solutions to problems in biology and medicine, with the goal of improving the quality and effectiveness of patient care. Bachelor’s degree Chemical Engineers Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry, biology, and physics to solve problems. These problems involve the production or use of chemicals, fuel, drugs, food, and many other products. They design processes and equipment for large-scale safe and sustainable manufacturing, plan and test methods of manufacturing products and treating byproducts, and supervise production. Bachelor’s degree Civil Engineers Civil engineers design and supervise large construction projects, including roads, buildings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and systems for water supply and sewage treatment. Bachelor’s degree Computer Hardware Engineers Computer hardware engineers research, design, develop, and test computer equipment such as chips, circuit boards, or routers. By solving complex problems in computer hardware, these engineers create rapid advances in computer technology. Bachelor’s degree Electrical and Electronics Engineers Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacturing of electrical equipment such as electric motors, radar and navigation systems, communications systems, and power generation equipment. Electronics engineers design and develop electronic equipment, such as broadcast and communications systems—from portable music players to global positioning systems (GPS). Bachelor’s degree Environmental Engineers Environmental engineers use the principles of engineering, soil science, biology, and chemistry to develop solutions to environmental problems. They are involved in efforts to improve recycling, waste disposal, public health, and control of water and air pollution. Bachelor’s degree Health and Safety Engineers Health and safety engineers develop procedures and design systems to keep people from getting sick or injured and to keep property from being damaged. They combine knowledge of health or safety and of systems engineering to make sure that chemicals, machinery, software, furniture, and other products are not going to cause harm to people or buildings. Bachelor’s degree Industrial Engineers Industrial engineers find ways to eliminate wastefulness in production processes. They devise efficient ways to use workers, machines, materials, information, and energy to make a product or provide a service. Bachelor’s degree Marine Engineers and Naval Architects Marine engineers and naval architects design, build, and maintain ships from aircraft carriers to submarines, from sailboats to tankers. Marine engineers work on the mechanical systems, such as propulsion and steering. Naval architects work on the basic design, including the form and stability of hulls. Bachelor’s degree Materials Engineers Materials engineers develop, process, and test materials used to create a range of products, from computer chips and aircraft wings to golf clubs and snow skis. They also help select materials and develop new ways to use materials. Bachelor’s degree Mechanical Engineers Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Mechanical engineers design, develop, build, and test mechanical devices, including tools, engines, and machines. Bachelor’s degree Congressional Research Service 33 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Occupation Description Entry-level Education Mining and Geological Engineers Mining and geological engineers design mines for the safe and efficient removal of minerals, such as coal and metals, for manufacturing and utilities. Bachelor’s degree Nuclear Engineers Nuclear engineers research and develop the processes, instruments, and systems used to get benefits from nuclear energy and radiation. Many of these engineers find industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials—for example, in equipment used in medical diagnosis and treatment. Bachelor’s degree Petroleum Engineers Petroleum engineers design and develop methods for extracting oil and gas from deposits below the earth’s surface. Petroleum engineers also find new ways to extract oil and gas from older wells. Bachelor’s degree Life Scientists Agricultural and Food Scientists Agricultural and food scientists work to ensure agricultural productivity and food safety. Agricultural and food scientists: at least a bachelor’s degree. Food scientists and soil and plant scientists: typically a bachelor’s degree. Most animal scientists earn a Ph.D. Biochemists and Biophysicists Biochemists and biophysicists study the chemical and physical principles of living things and of biological processes such as cell development, growth, and heredity. Doctoral or professional degree Microbiologists Microbiologists study the growth, development, and other characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, and fungi. Bachelor’s degree Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists Zoologists and wildlife biologists study the characteristics and habitats of animals and wildlife. Bachelor’s degree Conservation Scientists and Foresters Conservation scientists and foresters manage overall land quality of forests, parks, rangelands, and other natural resources. Bachelor’s degree Epidemiologists Epidemiologists investigate the causes of disease and other public health problems to prevent them from spreading or from happening again. They report their findings to public policy officials and to the general public. Master’s degree Medical Scientists Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health. They often use clinical trials and other investigative methods to reach their findings. Doctoral or professional degree Physical Scientists Physicists and Astronomers Physicists and astronomers study the fundamental nature of the universe, ranging from the vastness of space to the smallest of subatomic particles. They develop new technologies, methods, and theories based on the results of their research that deepen our understanding of how things work and contribute to innovative, real-world applications. Congressional Research Service Doctoral or professional degree 34 The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce Occupation Description Entry-level Education Atmospheric Scientists, Including Meteorologists Atmospheric scientists study weather, climate, and other aspects of the atmosphere. They develop reports and forecasts from their analysis of weather and climate data. Bachelor’s degree Chemists and Materials Scientists Chemists and materials scientists study the structures, compositions, reactions, and other properties of substances. They use their knowledge to develop new and improved products, processes, and materials. Bachelor’s degree Environmental Scientists and Specialists Environmental scientists and specialists use their knowledge of the natural sciences to protect the environment. They identify problems and find solutions that minimize hazards to the health of the environment and the population. Bachelor’s degree Geoscientists Geoscientists study the physical aspects of the Earth, such as its composition, structure, and processes, to learn about its past, present, and future. Bachelor’s degree Hydrologists Hydrologists study water and the water cycle. They use their expertise to solve problems in the areas of water quality or availability. Master’s degree S&E Managers Architectural and Engineering Managers Architectural and engineering managers plan, coordinate, and direct activities in architecture and engineering, including research and development in these fields. Bachelor’s degree Computer and Information Systems Managers Computer and information systems managers, often called information technology managers (IT managers or IT project managers), plan, coordinate, and direct computerrelated activities in an organization. They help determine the information technology goals of an organization and are responsible for implementing the appropriate computer systems to meet those goals. Bachelor’s degree Natural Sciences Managers Natural sciences managers supervise the work of scientists, including chemists, physicists, and biologists. They direct research and development projects and coordinate activities such as testing, quality control, and production. Bachelor’s degree Source: Occupational Outlook Handbook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/ ooh/management/home.htm. Author Contact Information John F. Sargent Jr. Specialist in Science and Technology Policy jsargent@crs.loc.gov, 7-9147 Congressional Research Service 35 increasing the number of students pursuing S&E degrees;
  • increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers admitted to the United States;
  • increasing the number and share of underrepresented minorities and women in science and engineering;
  • improving K-12 STEM education; and
  • improving career information and counseling for high school students.
  • As Congress considers approaches to bolstering U.S. competitiveness and scientific, engineering, technological, and industrial leadership, it may wish to consider these perspectives and opinions.

    Appendix. S&E Occupational Descriptions and Entry-Level Education Requirements

    Occupation

    Description

    Entry-level Education

    Computer Occupations

    Computer and Information Research Scientists

    Conduct research into fundamental computer and information science as theorists, designers, or inventors. Develop solutions to problems in the field of computer hardware and software.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Computer Programmers

    Create, modify, and test the code, forms, and script that allow computer applications to run. Work from specifications drawn up by software developers or other individuals. May assist software developers by analyzing user needs and designing software solutions. May develop and write computer programs to store, locate, and retrieve specific documents, data, and information.

    Bachelor's degree

    Computer User Support Specialists

    Provide technical assistance to computer users. Answer questions or resolve computer problems for clients in person, or via telephone or electronically. May provide assistance concerning the use of computer hardware and software, including printing, installation, word processing, electronic mail, and operating systems.

    Some college, no degree

    Computer Network Support Specialists

    Analyze, test, troubleshoot, and evaluate existing network systems, such as local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), and Internet systems or a segment of a network system. Perform network maintenance to ensure networks operate correctly with minimal interruption.

    Associate's degree

    Computer Systems Analysts

    Analyze science, engineering, business, and other data processing problems to implement and improve computer systems. Analyze user requirements, procedures, and problems to automate or improve existing systems and review computer system capabilities, workflow, and scheduling limitations. May analyze or recommend commercially available software.

    Bachelor's degree

    Database Administrators

    Administer, test, and implement computer databases, applying knowledge of database management systems. Coordinate changes to computer databases. May plan, coordinate, and implement security measures to safeguard computer databases.

    Bachelor's degree

    Information Security Analysts

    Plan, implement, upgrade, or monitor security measures for the protection of computer networks and information. May ensure appropriate security controls are in place that will safeguard digital files and vital electronic infrastructure. May respond to computer security breaches and viruses.

    Bachelor's degree

    Web Developers

    Design, create, and modify websites. Analyze user needs to implement website content, graphics, performance, and capacity. May integrate Web sites with other computer applications. May convert written, graphic, audio, and video components to compatible Web formats by using software designed to facilitate the creation of Web and multimedia content.

    Associate's degree

    Computer Network Architects

    Design and implement computer and information networks, such as local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN), intranets, extranets, and other data communications networks. Perform network modeling, analysis, and planning. May also design network and computer security measures. May research and recommend network and data communications hardware and software.

    Bachelor's degree

    Network and Computer Systems Administrators

    Install, configure, and support an organization's local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), and Internet systems or a segment of a network system. Monitor network to ensure network availability to all system users and may perform necessary maintenance to support network availability. May monitor and test website performance to ensure Web sites operate correctly and without interruption. May assist in network modeling, analysis, planning, and coordination between network and data communications hardware and software. May supervise computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists. May administer network security measures.

    Bachelor's degree

    Software Developers, Applications

    Develop, create, and modify general computer applications software or specialized utility programs. Analyze user needs and develop software solutions. Design software or customize software for client use with the aim of optimizing operational efficiency. May analyze and design databases within an application area, working individually or coordinating database development as part of a team. May supervise computer programmers.

    Bachelor's degree

    Software Developers, Systems Software

    Research, design, develop, and test operating systems-level software, compilers, and network distribution software for medical, industrial, military, communications, aerospace, business, scientific, and general computing applications. Set operational specifications and formulate and analyze software requirements. May design embedded systems software. Apply principles and techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis.

    Bachelor's degree

    Computer Occupations, All Other

    All computer occupations not listed separately. Excludes Computer and Information Systems Managers; Computer Hardware Engineers; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Computer Science Teachers, Postsecondary; Multimedia Artists and Animators; Graphic Designers; Computer Operators; and Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairs.

    Bachelor's degree

    Mathematical Occupations

    Actuaries

    Analyze statistical data, such as mortality, accident, sickness, disability, and retirement rates and construct probability tables to forecast risk and liability for payment of future benefits. May ascertain insurance rates required and cash reserves necessary to ensure payment of future benefits.

    Bachelor's degree

    Mathematicians

    Conduct research in fundamental mathematics or in application of mathematical techniques to science, management, and other fields. Solve problems in various fields using mathematical methods.

    Master's degree

    Operations Research Analysts

    Formulate and apply mathematical modeling and other optimizing methods to develop and interpret information that assists management with decision making, policy formulation, or other managerial functions. May collect and analyze data and develop decision support software, service, or products. May develop and supply optimal time, cost, or logistics networks for program evaluation, review, or implementation.

    Bachelor's degree

    Statisticians

    Develop or apply mathematical or statistical theory and methods to collect, organize, interpret, and summarize numerical data to provide usable information. May specialize in fields such as bio-statistics, agricultural statistics, business statistics, or economic statistics. Includes mathematical and survey statisticians.

    Master's degree

    Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other

    All mathematical scientists not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    Engineers

    Aerospace Engineers

    Perform engineering duties in designing, constructing, and testing aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. May conduct basic and applied research to evaluate adaptability of materials and equipment to aircraft design and manufacture. May recommend improvements in testing equipment and techniques.  

    Bachelor's degree

    Agricultural Engineers

    Apply knowledge of engineering technology and biological science to agricultural problems concerned with power and machinery, electrification, structures, soil and water conservation, and processing of agricultural products.

    Bachelor's degree

    Biomedical Engineers

    Apply knowledge of engineering, biology, and biomechanical principles to the design, development, and evaluation of biological and health systems and products, such as artificial organs, prostheses, instrumentation, medical information systems, and heath management and care delivery systems.

    Bachelor's degree

    Chemical Engineers

    Design chemical plant equipment and devise processes for manufacturing chemicals and products, such as gasoline, synthetic rubber, plastics, detergents, cement, paper, and pulp, by applying principles and technology of chemistry, physics, and engineering.

    Bachelor's degree

    Civil Engineers

    Perform engineering duties in planning, designing, and overseeing construction and maintenance of building structures, and facilities, such as roads, railroads, airports, bridges, harbors, channels, dams, irrigation projects, pipelines, power plants, and water and sewage systems. Includes architectural, structural, traffic, ocean, and geo-technical engineers.

    Bachelor's degree

    Computer Hardware Engineers

    Research, design, develop, or test computer or computer-related equipment for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use. May supervise the manufacturing and installation of computer or computer-related equipment and components.

    Bachelor's degree

    Electrical Engineers

    Research, design, develop, test, or supervise the manufacturing and installation of electrical equipment, components, or systems for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use.

    Bachelor's degree

    Electronics Engineers, Except Computers

    Research, design, develop, or test electronic components and systems for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use employing knowledge of electronic theory and materials properties. Design electronic circuits and components for use in fields such as telecommunications, aerospace guidance and propulsion control, acoustics, or instruments and controls.

    Bachelor's degree

    Environmental Engineers

    Research, design, plan, or perform engineering duties in the prevention, control, and remediation of environmental hazards using various engineering disciplines. Work may include waste treatment, site remediation, or pollution control technology.

    Bachelor's degree

    Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors

    Promote worksite or product safety by applying knowledge of industrial processes, mechanics, chemistry, psychology, and industrial health and safety laws. Includes industrial product safety engineers.

    Bachelor's degree

    Industrial Engineers

    Design, develop, test, and evaluate integrated systems for managing industrial production processes, including human work factors, quality control, inventory control, logistics and material flow, cost analysis, and production coordination.

    Bachelor's degree

    Marine Engineers and Naval Architects

    Design, develop, and evaluate the operation of marine vessels, ship machinery, and related equipment, such as power supply and propulsion systems.

    Bachelor's degree

    Materials Engineers

    Evaluate materials and develop machinery and processes to manufacture materials for use in products that must meet specialized design and performance specifications. Develop new uses for known materials. Includes those engineers working with composite materials or specializing in one type of material, such as graphite, metal and metal alloys, ceramics and glass, plastics and polymers, and naturally occurring materials. Includes metallurgists and metallurgical engineers, ceramic engineers, and welding engineers.

    Bachelor's degree

    Mechanical Engineers

    Perform engineering duties in planning and designing tools, engines, machines, and other mechanically functioning equipment. Oversee installation, operation, maintenance, and repair of equipment such as centralized heat, gas, water, and steam systems.

    Bachelor's degree

    Mining and Geological Engineers

    Conduct sub-surface surveys to identify the characteristics of potential land or mining development sites. May specify the ground support systems, processes and equipment for safe, economical, and environmentally sound extraction or underground construction activities. May inspect areas for unsafe geological conditions, equipment, and working conditions. May design, implement, and coordinate mine safety programs.

    Bachelor's degree

    Nuclear Engineers

    Conduct research on nuclear engineering projects or apply principles and theory of nuclear science to problems concerned with release, control, and use of nuclear energy and nuclear waste disposal.

    Bachelor's degree

    Petroleum Engineers

    Devise methods to improve oil and gas extraction and production and determine the need for new or modified tool designs. Oversee drilling and offer technical advice.

    Bachelor's degree

    Engineers, All Other

    All engineers not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    Life Scientists

    Animal Scientists

    Conduct research in the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Food Scientists and Technologists

    Use chemistry, microbiology, engineering, and other sciences to study the principles underlying the processing and deterioration of foods; analyze food content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, and protein; discover new food sources; research ways to make processed foods safe, palatable, and healthful; and apply food science knowledge to determine best ways to process, package, preserve, store, and distribute food.

    Bachelor's degree

    Soil and Plant Scientists

    Conduct research in breeding, physiology, production, yield, and management of crops and agricultural plants or trees, shrubs, and nursery stock, their growth in soils, and control of pests; or study the chemical, physical, biological, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to plant or crop growth. May classify and map soils and investigate effects of alternative practices on soil and crop productivity.

    Bachelor's degree

    Biochemists and Biophysicists

    Study the chemical composition or physical principles of living cells and organisms, their electrical and mechanical energy, and related phenomena. May conduct research to further understanding of the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. May determine the effects of foods, drugs, serums, hormones, and other substances on tissues and vital processes of living organisms.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Microbiologists

    Investigate the growth, structure, development, and other characteristics of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Includes medical microbiologists who study the relationship between organisms and disease or the effects of antibiotics on microorganisms.

    Bachelor's degree

    Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists

    Study the origins, behavior, diseases, genetics, and life processes of animals and wildlife. May specialize in wildlife research and management. May collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of present and potential use of land and water habitats.

    Bachelor's degree

    Biological Scientists, All Other

    All biological scientists not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    Conservation Scientists

    Manage, improve, and protect natural resources to maximize their use without damaging the environment. May conduct soil surveys and develop plans to eliminate soil erosion or to protect rangelands. May instruct farmers, agricultural production managers, or ranchers in best ways to use crop rotation, contour plowing, or terracing to conserve soil and water; in the number and kind of livestock and forage plants best suited to particular ranges; and in range and farm improvements, such as fencing and reservoirs for stock watering.

    Bachelor's degree

    Foresters

    Manage public and private forested lands for economic, recreational, and conservation purposes. May inventory the type, amount, and location of standing timber, appraise the timber's worth, negotiate the purchase, and draw up contracts for procurement. May determine how to conserve wildlife habitats, creek beds, water quality, and soil stability, and how best to comply with environmental regulations. May devise plans for planting and growing new trees, monitor trees for healthy growth, and determine optimal harvesting schedules.

    Bachelor's degree

    Epidemiologists

    Investigate and describe the determinants and distribution of disease, disability, or health outcomes. May develop the means for prevention and control.

    Master's degree

    Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists

    Conduct research dealing with the understanding of human diseases and the improvement of human health. Engage in clinical investigation, research and development, or other related activities. Includes physicians, dentists, public health specialists, pharmacologists, and medical pathologists who primarily conduct research.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Life Scientists, All Other

    All life scientists not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    Physical Scientists

    Astronomers

    Observe, research, and interpret astronomical phenomena to increase basic knowledge or apply such information to practical problems.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Physicists

    Conduct research into physical phenomena, develop theories on the basis of observation and experiments, and devise methods to apply physical laws and theories.

    Doctoral or professional degree

    Atmospheric and Space Scientists

    Investigate atmospheric phenomena and interpret meteorological data, gathered by surface and air stations, satellites, and radar to prepare reports and forecasts for public and other uses. Includes weather analysts and forecasters whose functions require the detailed knowledge of meteorology.

    Bachelor's degree

    Chemists

    Conduct qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses or experiments in laboratories for quality or process control or to develop new products or knowledge.

    Bachelor's degree

    Materials Scientists

    Research and study the structures and chemical properties of various natural and synthetic or composite materials, including metals, alloys, rubber, ceramics, semiconductors, polymers, and glass. Determine ways to strengthen or combine materials or develop new materials with new or specific properties for use in a variety of products and applications. Includes glass scientists, ceramic scientists, metallurgical scientists, and polymer scientists.

    Bachelor's degree

    Environmental Scientists and Specialists, including Health

    Conduct research or perform investigation for the purpose of identifying, abating, or eliminating sources of pollutants or hazards that affect either the environment or the health of the population. Using knowledge of various scientific disciplines, may collect, synthesize, study, report, and recommend action based on data derived from measurements or observations of air, food, soil, water, and other sources.

    Bachelor's degree

    Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers

    Study the composition, structure, and other physical aspects of the Earth. May use geological, physics, and mathematics knowledge in exploration for oil, gas, minerals, or underground water; or in waste disposal, land reclamation, or other environmental problems. May study the Earth's internal composition, atmospheres, oceans, and its magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces. Includes mineralogists, crystallographers, paleontologists, stratigraphers, geodesists, and seismologists.

    Bachelor's degree

    Hydrologists

    Research the distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and surface waters; and study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, movement through the earth, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere.

    Master's degree

    Physical Scientists, All Other

    All physical scientists not listed separately.

    Bachelor's degree

    S&E Managers

    Architectural and Engineering Managers

    Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as architecture and engineering or research and development in these fields.

    Bachelor's degree

    Computer and Information Systems Managers

    Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as electronic data processing, information systems, systems analysis, and computer programming.

    Bachelor's degree

    Natural Sciences Managers

    Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as life sciences, physical sciences, mathematics, statistics, and research and development in these fields.

    Bachelor's degree

    Source: Occupational Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_stru.htm; Employment Projections, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor, http://data.bls.gov/projections/occupationProj.

    Footnotes

    1.

    For additional information about P.L. 110-69 and P.L. 111-358, see CRS Report R42430, America COMPETES 2010 and the FY2013 Budget, by [author name scrubbed].

    2.

    For additional information, see CRS Report R42530, Immigration of Foreign Nationals with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Degrees , by [author name scrubbed].

    3.

    See, for example, Carolyn M. Veneri, "Can Occupational Labor Shortages Be Identified Using Available Data?," Monthly Labor Review, March 1999, p. 18.

    4.

    For purposes of the BLS analysis, the authors defined the STEM occupation group as consisting of 97 occupations, including computer and math sciences, architecture and engineering, life and physical sciences, managerial and post-secondary teaching occupations associated with these functional areas, and two sales occupations that require scientific or technical education at the postsecondary level—sales engineers and wholesale and engineering manufacturing sales representatives of technical and scientific products. Ben Cover, John Jones, and Audrey Watson, "Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Occupations: A Visual Essay," Monthly Labor Review, May 2011, p. 3.

    5.

    National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2012, January 2012, p. 3-10.

    6.

    National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, January 2008, p. 3-8.

    7.

    The Standard Occupational Classification system is a federal system that defines over 840 detailed occupations, and groups them into 461 broad occupations, 97 minor groups, and 23 major groups. Detailed occupations in the SOC with similar job duties, and in some cases skills, education, and/or training, are grouped together. The system is used by federal statistical agencies for the purpose of collecting, calculating, and disseminating data. First established in 1977, the SOC system has been revised periodically; the latest revision is the 2010 SOC.

    8.

    Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) employment figures for the occupation group "architectural and engineering managers" are reported as a single number, thus the architectural managers are included in this group, though data on architect and other architectural-related occupations are not otherwise included in this report.

    9.

    Occupational Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes.

    10.

    Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/cps.

    11.

    Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/emp.

    12.

    The Current Employment Statistics survey provides industry employment data used by BLS in making its biennial 10-year projections. The CES survey does not collect occupational information.

    13.

    Telephone conversation with Michael Wolf, economist, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, March 4, 2013.

    14.

    BLS website, Occupational Employment Statistics, Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.bls.gov/oes/oes_ques.htm.

    15.

    BLS website, Employment Projections, Projections Methodology, http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_projections_methods.htm.

    16.

    For links to past evaluations of BLS projections, see http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_pub_projections_eval.htm. For the latest evaluation, see "Evaluating the 1996–2006 employment projections," by Ian D. Wyatt, Monthly Labor Review, September 2010, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/09/art3full.pdf.

    17.

    Science and engineering occupations are part of the larger category of "Professional and Related Occupations" used in the Current Population Survey.

    18.

    Mathematical occupations was the only S&E occupational group with a higher unemployment rate (5.3%) than the professional and related occupations group (4.3%).

    19.

    The occupational classification system used in the Current Population Survey is based on the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification System but differs somewhat from those used by in the Occupational Employment Statistics survey.

    20.

    CPS does not publish unemployment rates for occupations with an employment base of less than 50,000.

    21.

    A compound annual growth rate (CAGR) is a calculated growth rate which, if applied year after year to a beginning amount reaches a specified final amount.

    22.

    Several changes were made in the occupational classifications used in the Occupational Employment Statistics survey over the 2008-2012 period in the computer occupations. For the most part, these changes involved minor changes in titles and definitions, and the splitting of some occupations into two or more occupations. According to BLS, these changes could have both direct and indirect effects on the way that employers classify particular jobs. For a more detailed explanation of these effects, please contact the author of this report.

    23.

    The definitions for computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists are broadly comparable to the previously used occupational classification "computer support specialists."

    24.

    The definitions for information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects are broadly comparable to the previously used occupational classification "information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects."

    25.

    CRS analysis of BLS 2012-2022 employment projections, http://www.bls.gov/emp.

    26.

    See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11463; U.S. Department of Energy, Secretary Chu, Intel President Discuss Need for More U.S. Engineers, September 1, 2011, http://energy.gov/articles/secretary-chu-intel-president-discuss-need-more-us-engineers; Shirley Ann Jackson, President, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, The Quite Crisis: Falling Short in Producing American Scientific and Technical Talent, Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST), 2002; and Vinton G. Cerf, "How to Fire Up U.S. Innovation," Wall Street Journal, April 12, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704461304576216911954533514.html; and Rodney C. Atkins, Senior Vice President, Systems and Technology Group, IBM, "America Desperately Needs More STEM Students. Here's How to Get Them," Forbes, July 9, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/2012/07/09/america-desperately-needs-more-stem-students-heres-how-to-get-them.

    27.

    See, for example, testimony of Ralph Gomory, President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part I, 110th Cong., June 12, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); testimony of Michael Teitelbaum, Vice President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and Harold Salzman, Senior Research Associate, The Urban Institute, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); Robert J. Samuelson, "Sputnik Scare, Updated" Washington Post, August 26, 2005, p. A27, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/25/AR2005052501812.html; and Michael Teitelbaum, "The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: An Unconventional Portrait," Pan-Organizational Summit on the U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce, Government-Industry-University Research Roundtable, National Research Council, 2003, pp. 1-7, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10727.

    28.

    See, for example, U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee, Chairman's Staff, STEM Education: Preparing for the Jobs of the Future, April 2012, http://www.jec.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?a=Files.Serve&File_id=6aaa7e1f-9586-47be-82e7-326f47658320.

    29.

    See, for example, Vern Ehlers, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008).

    30.

    See, for example, Leonard Lynn, Case Western Reserve University, and Hal Salzman, Rutgers University, "Dynamics of Engineering Labor Markets: Petroleum Engineering and Responsive Supply," presentation at "U.S. Engineering in the Global Economy," sponsored by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Cambridge, MA, September 26, 2011, http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/salzman/dynamics.pdf.

    31.

    See, for example, Office of Technology Assessment, Demographic Trends and the Scientific and Engineering Workforce, OTA-TM-SET-35, December 1985, http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk2/1985/8507/8507.PDF.

    32.

    See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Is a Great Labor Shortage Coming? Replacement Demand in the Global Economy, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 12541, Cambridge, MA, September 2006, http://www.nber.org/papers/w12541.

    33.

    See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Does Globalization of the Scientific/Engineering Workforce Threaten U.S. Economic Leadership?, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 11457, Cambridge, MA, June 2005, http://www.nber.org/papers/w11457.pdf.

    34.

    See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007.

    35.

    See, for example, various writings of Norm Matloff, Professor of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/matloff.html.

    36.

    See, for example, Tom Kucharvy, Solutions to STEM Skills Mismatch, Beyond IT, February 25, 2012, http://beyond-it-inc.com/GKEblog/solutions-to-stem-skills-mismatch.html; and "Statistic of the Month: Investigating the Skills Mismatch," Center on International Education Benchmarking, July 31, 2012, http://www.ncee.org/2012/07/statistic-of-the-month-investigating-the-skills-mismatch.

    37.

    See, for example, Vivek Wadhwa, Anna Lee Saxenian, Richard Freeman, and Alex Salever, Losing the World's Best and Brightest: America's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, March 2009, http://www.kauffman.org/uploadedFiles/ResearchAndPolicy/Losing_the_World%27s_Best_and_Brightest.pdf; The White House, "Fact Sheet: Fixing Our Broken Immigration System So Everyone Plays by the Rules," press release, January 29, 2013, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/01/29/fact-sheet-fixing-our-broken-immigration-system-so-everyone-plays-rules; and Robert D. Atkinson, Eight Ideas for Improving the America COMPETES Act, Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March 2010, http://www.itif.org/files/2010-america-competes.pdf.

    38.

    See, for example, Ross Eisenbrey, Vice President, Economic Policy Institute, "Op-Ed: America's Genius Glut," New York Times, February 7, 2013; Remarks of Brian Keane, Founder and CEO, Ameritas Technologies, and Neeraj Gupta, Founder and CEO, Systems in Motion, at Senate briefing on "Understanding the Impact of the H-1B Program: On the Economy, Employers and Workers," March 14, 2013, http://www.epi.org/files/2013/Keane_H-1B_briefing_14_March_2013.pdf; and Stan Sorscher, Labor Representative, Society of Professional Engineering Employees in Aerospace, Flooding the STEM Labor Market, March 3, 2013, http://www.ifpte.org/downloads/issues/2013-3-3%20Flooding%20the%20STEM%20labor%20market.pdf.

    39.

    U.S. Department of Education, "Secretary Arne Duncan's Remarks at OECD's Release of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 Results," press release, December 7, 2010, http://www.ed.gov/news/speeches/secretary-arne-duncans-remarks-oecds-release-program-international-student-assessment; Paul E. Peterson, Ludger Woessmann, Eric A. Hanushek, and Carlos X. Lastra-Anadon, Globally Challenged: Are U.S. Students Ready to Compete, Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, PEPG Report No. 11-03, August 2011, http://www.hks.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/PEPG11-03_GloballyChallenged.pdf; and Brandon Wright, "What do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance," Thomas B. Fordham Institute, January 24, 2013, http://www.edexcellence.net/commentary/education-gadfly-weekly/2013/january-24/what-do-international-tests-really-show-about-us-performance.html.

    40.

    Martin Carnoy and Richard Rothstein, What Do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance, Economic Policy Institute, January 15, 2013, http://www.epi.org/publication/us-student-performance-testing.