The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce:
Recent, Current, and Projected Employment,
Wages, and Unemployment
John F. Sargent Jr.
Specialist in Science and Technology Policy
May 6, 2013
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R43061
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Summary
The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of
Congress for more than 60 years. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to
U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S.
economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs. Congress has enacted many
programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also
undertaken broad efforts to improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to
prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. Some
policymakers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in
the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies.
Many policymakers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts,
economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and
related policy issues. These issues include the question of the existence of a shortage of scientists
and engineers in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few
people with S&E degrees, mismatched skills and needs), and whether the federal government
should undertake policy interventions to address such a putative shortage or to allow market forces
to work in this labor market. Among the key indicators used by labor economists to assess
occupational labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.
In 2011, there were 5.9 million scientists and engineers employed in the United States, accounting
for 4.6% of total U.S. employment. Science and engineering employment was concentrated in
two S&E occupational groups, computer occupations (56%) and engineers (25%), with the rest
accounted for by S&E managers (9%), physical scientists (4%), life scientists (4%), and those in
mathematical occupations (2%). From 2008 to 2011 S&E employment increased by 99,550,
rising to 5.9 million, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 0.6%, while overall U.S.
employment contracted at 1.7% CAGR. Viewed only in aggregate, the overall increase in S&E
employment masks the varied degrees of growth and decline in the detailed S&E occupations.
In 2011, the mean wage for all scientists and engineers was $85,700, while the mean wage for all
other occupations was $43,300. Between 2008 and 2011, the mean wages of each S&E
occupational group grew more slowly (1.5%-2.2% CAGR) than the mean wage for all
occupations (2.3% CAGR).
Compared to the overall workforce, the S&E occupational groups had significantly lower
unemployment rates for the 2008-2011 period. In general, though, the professional occupations
(of which the S&E occupations are a part) historically have had lower unemployment rates than
the workforce as a whole. In 2011, the overall S&E unemployment rate of 3.9% was higher than
for other selected professional occupations, including lawyers (2.1%), physicians and surgeons
(0.6%), dentists (0.7%), and registered nurses (2.0%).
The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects the number of science and engineering jobs (as defined in
this report) will grow by 1.1 million between 2010 and 2020, a growth rate (1.7% CAGR) that is
somewhat faster than that of the overall workforce (1.3%). In addition, BLS projects that a further
1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those projected to exit S&E
occupations. Growth in the S&E occupational groups is projected to range from 1.0%-2.0%
CAGR. The number of scientists and engineers needed to meet growth and net replacement needs
between 2010 and 2020 is 2.4 million, including 1.4 million in the computer occupations and
525,900 engineers.
Congressional Research Service
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Contents
Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 1
Methodology .................................................................................................................................... 2
Occupational Taxonomy ............................................................................................................ 2
Data Sources .............................................................................................................................. 3
Timeframe ................................................................................................................................. 4
Methodological Limitations ...................................................................................................... 4
Selected S&E Occupational Data .................................................................................................... 6
Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment ................................................................... 6
Employment ........................................................................................................................ 6
Wages .................................................................................................................................. 6
Unemployment .................................................................................................................... 9
Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment .................................................. 12
Employment Trends .......................................................................................................... 12
Wage Trends ...................................................................................................................... 18
Unemployment Trends ...................................................................................................... 19
Employment Projections, 2010-2020 ...................................................................................... 20
Scientists and Engineers in Aggregate .............................................................................. 20
Science and Engineering Occupational Groups ................................................................ 20
Detailed Science and Engineering Occupations ................................................................ 23
Concluding Observations............................................................................................................... 27
Figures
Figure 1. Share of S&E Occupational Employment, 2011 .............................................................. 6
Figure 2. Mean Wages of S&E Occupational Groups and Other Selected Professional
Occupations, 2011 ........................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 3. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups and Selected Professional
and Related Occupations, 2011 .................................................................................................. 10
Figure 4. Nominal and Inflation-adjusted Compound Annual Growth Rates of Mean
Wages in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2011 ....................................................................... 18
Figure 5. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups, the Overall Workforce,
and Other Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2008-2011 ..................................... 19
Figure 6. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Growth, 2010-2020, by S&E
Occupational Group .................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 7. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Openings (Job Growth plus Net
Replacement Needs), 2010-2020, by S&E Occupational Group................................................ 22
Tables
Table 1. Mean Wages of S&E Occupations, 2011 ........................................................................... 7
Congressional Research Service
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Table 2. Unemployment Rate for S&E Occupational Groups and Detailed S&E
Occupations, 2011 ...................................................................................................................... 10
Table 3. Employment Change in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2011 ..................................... 12
Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2008-2011.................................................. 14
Table 5. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Growth, 2008-2011 ............................ 16
Table 6. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Losses, 2008-2011 ............................. 16
Table 7. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Growth Rates, 2008-2011 ......................................... 17
Table 8. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Growth Rates, 2008-2011 ....................................... 17
Table 9. 2010-2020 Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups .............................. 21
Table 10. S&E Occupations with the Highest Projected Growth in Jobs and Other
Selected Occupations, 2010-2020 .............................................................................................. 23
Table 11. S&E Occupations with the Smallest Projected Growth in Jobs, 2010-2020.................. 24
Table 12. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Projected Job Growth, 2010-2020 .......................... 24
Table 13. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Projected Job Growth, 2010-2020 ........................ 25
Table 14. S&E Occupations with the Most Projected Job Openings, 2010-2020.......................... 26
Table 15. S&E Occupations with the Fewest Projected Job Openings, 2010-2020 ...................... 26
Appendixes
Appendix. S&E Occupational Descriptions and Entry-Level Education Requirements ............... 32
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 35
Congressional Research Service
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Overview
Many congressional policymakers have maintained an ongoing interest in the adequacy of the
number of U.S. scientists and engineers required to address the needs of U.S. employers, to spur
economic growth and job creation through innovation, to maintain U.S. global technological
leadership and industrial competitiveness, and to help address important national and societal
needs.
To help ensure an adequate S&E workforce, Congress has enacted and appropriated funds for a
variety of federal programs. These programs intend to foster improved science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) skills among students; to incentivize students to pursue
degrees in science and engineering (S&E) through tools such as fellowships, assistantships, and
traineeships; and to provide graduate and post-graduate research experiences at U.S. colleges and
universities through the financing of university-based research. The 113th Congress is considering
legislation to create, reform, and provide funding for STEM education efforts, and may seek to
Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
February 19, 2014
(R43061)
Contents
Tables
- Table 1. Mean Annual Wages of S&E Occupations, 2012
- Table 2. Annual Average Unemployment Rate for S&E Occupational Groups and Detailed S&E Occupations, 2012
- Table 3. Employment Change in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2012
- Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2008-2012
- Table 5. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Growth, 2008-2012
- Table 6. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Losses, 2008-2012
- Table 7. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Growth Rates, 2008-2012
- Table 8. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Growth Rates, 2008-2012
- Table 9. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups, the Overall Workforce, and Other Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2008-2012
- Table 10. 2012-2022 Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups
- Table 11. S&E Occupations with the Highest Projected Growth in Jobs and Other Selected Occupations, 2012-2022
- Table 12. S&E Occupations with the Smallest Projected Growth in Jobs, 2012-2022
- Table 13. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Projected Job Growth Rates, 2012-2022
- Table 14. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Projected Job Growth Rates, 2012-2022
- Table 15. S&E Occupations with the Most Projected Job Openings, 2012-2022
- Table 16. S&E Occupations with the Fewest Projected Job Openings, 2012-2022
Summary
The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs. Congress has enacted many programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also undertaken broad efforts to improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. In addition, some policy makers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies.
Policy makers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts, economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and related policy issues. These issues include whether a shortage of scientists and engineers exists in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E degrees, mismatched skills and needs), and whether the federal government should undertake policy interventions to address such a putative shortage or to allow market forces to work in this labor market. Among the key indicators used by labor economists to assess occupational labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.
In 2012, there were 6.2 million scientists and engineers (as defined in this report) employed in the United States, accounting for 4.8% of total U.S. employment. Science and engineering employment was concentrated in two S&E occupational groups, computer occupations (56%) and engineers (25%), with the rest accounted for by S&E managers (9%), physical scientists (4%), life scientists (4%), and those in mathematical occupations (2%). From 2008 to 2012, S&E employment increased by 352,370, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 1.5%, while overall U.S. employment contracted at 0.9% CAGR. Viewed only in aggregate, the increase in S&E employment masks the varied degrees of growth and decline in detailed S&E occupations.
In 2012, the mean wage for all scientists and engineers was $87,330, while the mean wage for all other occupations was $45,790. Between 2008 and 2012, the nominal mean wages of the S&E occupational groups grew between 1.4% CAGR (life scientists) and 2.2% CAGR (physical scientists, S&E managers, mathematicians). Inflation-adjusted wage growth for each of the S&E occupational groups was less than 0.6% CAGR, and in the case of life scientists was negative. Nominal wage growth for all occupations in the economy was 1.1%; real wages declined 0.5%.
Compared to the overall workforce, the S&E occupational groups had significantly lower unemployment rates for the 2008-2012 period. In general, though, the professional occupations (of which the S&E occupations are a part) historically have had lower unemployment rates than the workforce as a whole. In 2012, the overall S&E unemployment rate of 3.6% was higher than for other selected professional occupations, including lawyers (1.4%), physicians and surgeons (0.8%), dentists (1.5%), and registered nurses (2.6%).
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projects that the number of S&E jobs will grow by 953,200 between 2012 and 2022, a growth rate (1.3% CAGR) that is somewhat faster than that of the overall workforce (1.0%). In addition, BLS projects that 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those projected to exit S&E occupations. The number of scientists and engineers needed to meet growth and net replacement needs between 2012 and 2022 is 2.3 million, including 1.2 million in the computer occupations and 544,300 engineers.
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: Recent, Current, and Projected Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
Overview
Many congressional policy makers have an ongoing interest in whether the number of U.S. scientists and engineers is sufficient to meet the needs of U.S. employers, to spur economic growth and job creation through innovation, to maintain U.S. global technological leadership and industrial competitiveness, and to address other important national and societal needs.
To help ensure an adequate science and engineering (S&E) workforce, Congress has established and funded a variety of federal programs. These programs are intended to foster improved science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) skills among students; to incentivize students to pursue degrees in science and engineering through tools such as fellowships, assistantships, and traineeships; and to provide graduate and post-graduate research experiences at U.S. colleges and universities through the financing of university-based research. The 113th Congress is considering legislation to create, reform, and provide funding for STEM education efforts, and may seek to reauthorize the America COMPETES Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-69) and the America COMPETES
Reauthorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-358
).1).1 In addition, Congress is considering changes to
immigration policies, among them the number
of visas and processes associated with F-1 visas, H-1B
visas, L1 visas, and legal permanent residency (
commonly referred to as “Green Cards”), to
"green cards"), to address U.S. S&E workforce needs.
2
2
As Congress develops policies and programs and makes appropriations to help address the
nation’ nation's needs for scientists and engineers, it may wish to consider past, current, and projected
S&E workforce trends.
In this regard, thisAmong the key factors that labor economists examine for evidence of labor shortages are employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates relative to other occupations.3 This report provides employment, wage, and unemployment
information3 information for the computer occupations, mathematical occupations, engineers, life scientists,
physical scientists, and S&E management occupations,
in three sections:
•
“as follows: The section on "Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
”" provides a statistical snapshot
of of occupational employment, wage, and unemployment data for the S&E workforce in
20112012 (the latest year for which data are available)
with
respect to occupational employment, wage, and unemployment data.
•
“.
The section on "Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
”" provides a
perspective on how S&E employment, wages, and unemployment
have changed
during the 2008-2011 period.
•
“Employment Projections, 2010-2020” during the period 2008-2012.
The section on "Employment Projections, 2012-2022" provides an analysis of
projections by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics
’ occupational projections examining for how the number employed
in S&E occupations
areis expected to change during the
2010-20202012-2022 period, as well
as how many openings will be created by workers exiting each occupation
(replacement needs).
1
For additional information about P.L. 110-69 and P.L. 111-358, see CRS Report R42430, America COMPETES 2010
and the FY2013 Budget, by Heather B. Gonzalez.
2
For additional information, see CRS Report R42530, Immigration of Foreign Nationals with Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Degrees, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
3
Among the key factors that labor economists examine for evidence of labor shortages are employment growth, wage
growth, and unemployment rates relative to other occupations. See, for example, Carolyn M. Veneri, “Can
Occupational Labor Shortages Be Identified Using Available Data?,” Monthly Labor Review, March 1999, p. 18.
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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
(replacement needs).A final section,
“"Concluding Observations
,”," provides
various stakeholder perspectives that
Congress may wish to consider as it seeks to ensure that the United States has an adequate S&E
workforce to meet the demands of the
21st century.
Methodology
Occupational Taxonomy
21st century.
Methodology
Occupational Taxonomy
Most experts agree that there is no authoritative definition of which occupations comprise the
science and engineering (S&E) workforce. Rather, the selection of occupations included in any
particular analysis of the S&E workforce may vary. Some analysts,
policymakers, and
policy makers, and organizations may refer to the group in different ways (e.g., the scientific and technical
workforce, the STEM workforce) and include varying sets of occupations. In 2001, the Bureau of
Labor Statistics (BLS), in defining the STEM occupations for a particular analysis, stated,
“This
"This is only one possible definition of STEM occupations; other definitions exist that may be better
suited for other uses.
”4
"4
The size of the S&E workforce varies substantially depending on which occupations are included
in the definition. In its 2012 Science and Engineering Indicators report, the National Science
Board (NSB) stated,
“"In the most recent estimates, the U.S. S&E workforce (defined by
occupation) totaled between 4.8 million and 6.4 million people.
”5"5 Previously, the NSB asserted
that the S&E workforce could be as large as 21 million people if the definition included those
with either an S&E degree or a degree in an S&E-related field such as health or technology.
6
6
The policy debate about the adequacy of the U.S. S&E workforce has focused largely on the
computer occupations, mathematical occupations, engineers, and physical scientists. For purposes
of this report, these occupations, along with life scientists (a part of the natural sciences, with
physics and chemistry) and S&E management occupations, are collectively referred to as the
S&E workforce. Notably, this group does not include social scientists (e.g., economists, survey
researchers, psychologists, sociologists, urban and regional planners, anthropologists,
archeologists, geographers, historians, political scientists) or S&E-related technicians. As defined
this way, the size of the S&E workforce in
20112012 was approximately
5.9 million.
6.2 million.
This report uses a modified version of the Standard Occupation Classification (SOC)
system7 to
system7 to categorize scientists and engineers. The report taxonomy includes six S&E occupational groups,
each composed of closely related detailed occupations:
4
For purposes of the BLS analysis, the authors defined the STEM occupation group as consisting of 97 occupations,
including computer and math sciences, architecture and engineering, life and physical sciences, managerial and postsecondary teaching occupations associated with these functional areas, and two sales occupations that require scientific
or technical education at the postsecondary level—sales engineers and wholesale and engineering manufacturing sales
representatives of technical and scientific products. Ben Cover, John Jones, and Audrey Watson, “Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Occupations: A Visual Essay,” Monthly Labor Review, May 2011, p. 3.
5
National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2012, January 2012, p. 3-10.
6
National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, January 2008, p. 3-8.
7
The Standard Occupational Classification system is a federal system that defines over 840 detailed occupations, and
groups them into 461 broad occupations, 97 minor groups, and 23 major groups. Detailed occupations in the SOC with
similar job duties, and in some cases skills, education, and/or training, are grouped together. The system is used by
(continued...)
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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
•
computer occupations—including each composed of closely related detailed occupations: Computer occupations—computer and information research scientists;
computer systems analysts; computer programmers; software developers, applications;
software developers, systems software; database administrators; network and computer
systems administrators; computer
user support specialists; computer network support specialists; information security analysts
, web
developers, and; web developers; computer network architects; and computer occupations, all other
;
•
mathematical.
Mathematical occupations—actuaries; mathematicians; operations research analysts;
statisticians; and mathematical science occupations, all other
;
•
engineers—including .
Engineers—aerospace, agricultural, biomedical, chemical, civil, computer
hardware, electrical, electronics (except computer), environmental, health and safety
(except mining safety engineers and inspectors), industrial, materials, mechanical, mining
and geological (including mining safety engineers), nuclear, and petroleum engineers;
engineers, all other; and marine engineers and naval architects
;
•
life scientists—.
Life scientists—animal scientists
,; food scientists and technologists
,; soil and plant
scientists, scientists; biochemists and biophysicists
,; microbiologists
,; zoologists and wildlife
biologists, biologists; biological scientists, all other
,; conservation scientists
,; foresters
,
epidemiologists,; epidemiologists; medical scientists (except epidemiologists)
,; and life scientists, all other.
•
physical scientists—astronomers, physicists,
Physical scientists—astronomers; physicists; atmospheric and space scientists
,; chemists
,
; materials scientists
,; environmental scientists and specialists (including health)
,
; geoscientists (except hydrologists and geographers)
,; hydrologists
,; and physical scientists,
all other; and
•
S&E managers— all other.
Science and engineering managers—computer and information systems managers, architectural and
engineering managers,
88 and natural sciences managers.
A description of the detailed occupations is provided in the
Appendix.
Data Sources
Appendix.
Data Sources
This report relies on federal government employment, wage, and unemployment data from the
following sources:
•
The Occupational Employment
Statistics (OES),9Statistics (OES),9 a survey of non-farm
establishments conducted by the
U.S. Department of Labor
’'s Bureau of Labor
Statistics and state workforce agencies, is the source of employment and wage
data for the 2008-
20112012 period. The survey provides employment and wage
estimates annually for over 800 occupations. According to BLS,
“employees” are
all part-time and full-time workers who are paid a wage or salary. The survey
(...continued)
federal statistical agencies for the purpose of collecting, calculating, and disseminating data. First established in 1977,
the SOC system has been revised periodically; the latest revision is the 2010 SOC.
8
Occupational Employment Survey (OES) employment figures for the occupation group “architectural and engineering
managers” are reported as a single number, thus the architectural managers are included in this group, though data on
architect and other architectural-related occupations are not otherwise included in this report.
9
Occupational Employment Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes.
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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
"employees" are all part-time and full-time workers who are paid a wage or salary. The survey does not cover the self-employed, owners and partners in unincorporated firms,
household workers, or unpaid family workers. For this report, the wage statistic
used is the occupational
“"mean wage,
”" an average wage calculated by summing
the wages of all the employees in a given occupation and then dividing the total
wages by the number of employees.
•
The Current Population Survey (CPS)
,10,10 a monthly survey of households
conducted for BLS by the Department of Commerce
’'s Bureau of the Census, is
the source of the unemployment data in this report. CPS data are also used to
supplement OES data in BLS employment projections (discussed below).
•
BLS’s
BLS's Employment Projections
,11,11 a biennial product of BLS,
provides
provide occupational employment and industry employment projection data for
ten10-year
periods. The latest projections, covering the
2010-20202012-2022 period, were published in
January 2012 December 2013. According to BLS, for most industries, the OES survey provides
data for the occupational staffing patterns—the distribution of wage and salary
employment by occupation in each industry—and Current Employment Statistics
(CES)
1212 data provide information on total wage and salary employment in each
non-farm industry. While OES data include only wage and salary, non-farm
employment, the employment data in the projections also include agricultural
industry employment and the self-employed (derived from CPS data) to arrive at
2010 base year employment levels for each occupation.
13
Timeframe
The “13 Timeframe
The "Current Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
”" section provides information
on changes in employment, wages, and unemployment for the period 2008 to
20112012. The
“ "Employment Projections,
2010-2020”2012-2022" section relies entirely on the most recent Bureau of Labor
Statistics biennial employment projections for the
2010-2020 timeframe.
Methodological Limitations
A variety of factors may affect the comparability of OES data over time:
Although the OES survey methodology is designed to create detailed cross-sectional
employment and wage estimates for the U.S., States, metropolitan and nonmetropolitan
areas, across industry and by industry, it is less useful for comparisons of two or more points
in time. Challenges in using OES data as a time series include changes in the occupational,
industrial, and geographical classification systems, changes in the way data are collected,
changes in the survey reference period, and changes in mean wage estimation methodology,
as well as permanent features of the methodology.14
10
Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/cps.
Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/emp.
12
The Current Employment Statistics survey provides industry employment data used by BLS in making its biennial
ten-year projections. The CES survey does not collect occupational information.
13
Telephone conversation with Michael Wolf, economist, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office of Occupational
Statistics and Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, March 4, 2013.
14
BLS website, Occupational Employment Statistics, Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.bls.gov/oes/
(continued...)
11
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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
In its examination of current trends, CRS chose the 2008-2011 time period to enhance
comparability of data across the period by reducing inconsistencies resulting from changes in the
OES occupational classification system. The OES survey used the same occupational categories
throughout the 2008-2011 period.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics makes a number of estimates in developing its employment
projections. These estimates include “the future size and composition of the population, as well as
on the trends in labor force participation rates of different age, gender, race, and ethnic groups, a
total of 136 separate categories,” “the rate of growth and demand composition of real GDP, the
labor productivity growth rate, and the inflation rate,” expectations regarding the federal budget
surplus or deficit, historical staffing patterns, shifts in product mix, changes in technology and
business practices, and retirement rates.15 If these estimates do not accurately reflect future
performance, occupational employment projections may be over- or underestimated. Other
factors may affect occupational projections as well, including changes to immigration laws and
patterns, trade laws and practices, regulatory regimes, and social and educational patterns; wars
and disasters; revolutionary advances in technology; and shifts in consumer tastes. The BLS
evaluates the accuracy of its projections regularly and publishes these evaluations in its Monthly
Labor Review.16
(...continued)
oes_ques.htm.
15
BLS website, Employment Projections, Projections Methodology,
http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_projections_methods.htm.
16
For links to past evaluations of BLS projections, see http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_pub_projections_eval.htm. For the
latest evaluation, see “Evaluating the 1996–2006 employment projections,” by Ian D. Wyatt, Monthly Labor Review,
September 2010, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/09/art3full.pdf.
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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Selected S&E Occupational Data
Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
This section provides a snapshot of the S&E workforce in 2011, using employment, wages, and
unemployment data.
Employment
Figure 1. Share of S&E Occupational Employment, 2011
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, May 2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
2012-2022 timeframe.
Methodological Limitations
It is important to note that a wide range of factors can affect the size and occupational composition of the U.S. S&E workforce. Among these factors are global and domestic economic conditions; the development and market adoption of new technologies; capital cost and availability; the level of public and private funding for research and development; changes in scientific, technological, and market opportunities; the size, knowledge, and skills of the U.S.-born labor force; the size, knowledge, and skills of the foreign-born labor force in the United States; and changes in business practices regarding the use of foreign-based science and engineering capabilities. This report does not attempt to attribute changes in the U.S. S&E workforce to any of these factors specifically.
In addition, a variety of factors may affect the comparability of OES data over time:
Although the OES survey methodology is designed to create detailed cross-sectional employment and wage estimates for the U.S., States, metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, across industry and by industry, it is less useful for comparisons of two or more points in time. Challenges in using OES data as a time series include changes in the occupational, industrial, and geographical classification systems, changes in the way data are collected, changes in the survey reference period, and changes in mean wage estimation methodology, as well as permanent features of the methodology.14
In its examination of current trends, CRS chose the 2008-2012 time period to enhance comparability of data across the period by reducing inconsistencies resulting from changes in the OES occupational classification system. The OES survey used the same occupational categories throughout the 2008-2012 period.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics makes a number of estimates in developing its employment projections. These estimates include "the future size and composition of the population, as well as on the trends in labor force participation rates of different age, gender, race, and ethnic groups, a total of 136 separate categories," "the rate of growth and demand composition of real GDP, the labor productivity growth rate, and the inflation rate," expectations regarding the federal budget surplus or deficit, historical staffing patterns, shifts in product mix, changes in technology and business practices, and retirement rates.15 If these estimates do not accurately reflect future performance, occupational employment projections may be over- or underestimated. Other factors may affect occupational projections as well, including changes to immigration laws and patterns, trade laws and practices, regulatory regimes, and social and educational patterns; wars and disasters; revolutionary advances in technology; and shifts in consumer tastes. The BLS evaluates the accuracy of its projections regularly and publishes these evaluations in its Monthly Labor Review.16
Selected S&E Occupational Data
Current Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
This section provides a snapshot of the S&E workforce in 2012, using employment, wages, and unemployment data.
Employment
Figure 1. Compilation of S&E Occupational Employment, 2012
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, May 2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm
.
.
Notes: Chart does not include social scientists or S&E-related technicians.
In 2011 For additional information about which detailed occupations are included, see "Occupational Taxonomy."
In 2012, the latest year for which Occupational Employment
SurveyStatistics survey data are available,
5.9
6.2 million people were employed in the United States as scientists and engineers, accounting for
4.6 4.7% of total U.S. employment. Science and engineering employment was concentrated in two
occupational groups—computer occupations and engineers—which together accounted for 81%
of S&E jobs, with 56% and 25%, respectively. The remainder of S&E employment was
accounted for by science and engineering managers (9%), physical scientists (4%), life scientists
(4%), and mathematical occupations (2%). Employment totals and share of S&E occupational
employment are presented in
Figure 1.
(See Table 4 for more detailed 2012 employment data on specific S&E occupations.)
Wages
Scientists and engineers have a mean annual wage that exceeds the mean annual wage for all Figure 1.
Table 4 provides 2011 employment data for each of the individual S&E occupations, organized
by S&E group.
Wages
Scientists and engineers, in general, have mean wages that exceed the mean wage for all
occupations in the United States. In
2011, the mean 2012, the mean annual wage for all scientists and engineers was $87,330; the mean annual wage for all occupations—professional and
non-professional—was $45,
230790. S&E managers had the highest mean
annual wage of all S&E
occupational groups at $
127,200130,660, followed by engineers, $
89,00090,960; mathematical occupations,
Congressional Research Service
6
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
$81,400 $84,940; physical scientists, $83,360; computer occupations, $
78,60080,020; and life scientists, $
76,80077,620. Scientists and engineers
earn less have lower mean annual wages than some other professionals, such as physicians and surgeons ($190,
100060), dentists
($166,
900910), and lawyers ($130,
900880). (See Figure 2
.)
.)
Figure 2. Mean
Annual Wages of S&E Occupational Groups and Other Selected Professional
Occupations,
2011
2012
Source: CRS analysis of
Occupational Employment
SurveyStatistics survey data, May
2011,2012 Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm
.
Table 1 provides the 2011 mean wages for each of the .
Table 1 shows the 2012 mean annual wage for each of the S&E occupational groups and individual S&E occupations, organized by
S&E group.
Table 1. Mean Wages of S&E Occupations, 2011
Occupational Group
Mean Wage
Science and Engineering Managers
Computer and Information Systems Managers
$125,660
Architectural and Engineering Managers
129,350
Natural Sciences Managers
128,230
Computer Occupations
Computer and Information Research Scientists
$103,160
Computer Systems Analysts
82,320
Computer Programmers
76,010
Software Developers, Applications
92,080
Software Developers, Systems Software
100,420
Database Administrators
77,350
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
74,270
Congressional Research Service
7
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Occupational Group
Mean Wage
Computer Support Specialists
51,820
Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer
Network Architects
81,670
Computer Occupations, All Other
80,500
Mathematical Occupations
Actuaries
Mathematicians
$103,000
101,320
Operations Research Analysts
78,840
Statisticians
77,280
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
63,170
Engineers
Aerospace Engineers
$103,870
Agricultural Engineers
78,400
Biomedical Engineers
88,360
Chemical Engineers
99,440
Civil Engineers
82,710
Computer Hardware Engineers
101,360
Electrical Engineers
89,200
Electronics Engineers, except Computer
94,670
Environmental Engineers
83,340
Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and
Inspectors
78,540
Industrial Engineers
79,840
Marine Engineers and Naval Architects
91,730
Materials Engineers
86,790
Mechanical Engineers
83,550
Mining and Geological Engineers, Including Mining Safety
Engineers
90,070
Nuclear Engineers
105,160
Petroleum Engineers
138,980
Engineers, All Other
92,260
Life Scientists
Animal Scientists
$74,170
Food Scientists and Technologists
64,170
Soil and Plant Scientists
63,890
Biochemists and Biophysicists
87,640
Microbiologists
71,720
Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists
61,880
Congressional Research Service
8
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Occupational Group
Mean Wage
Biological Scientists, All Other
73,050
Conservation Scientists
62,290
Foresters
56,130
Epidemiologists
69,660
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
87,640
Life Scientists, All Other
74,220
Physical Scientists
Astronomers
Physicists
$101,630
112,090
Atmospheric and Space Scientists
90,860
Chemists
74,780
Materials Scientists
86,600
Environmental Scientists and Specialists, Including Health
68,810
Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers
97,700
Hydrologists
79,070
Physical Scientists, All Other
96,290
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, May 2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Unemployment
The 2011 S&E occupational group.
Table 1. Mean Annual Wages of S&E Occupations, 2012
Occupational Group
|
Mean Annual Wage
|
Science and Engineering Managers
|
$130,660
|
Computer and Information Systems Managers
|
129,130
|
Architectural and Engineering Managers
|
133,240
|
Natural Sciences Managers
|
130,400
|
Computer Occupations
|
$80,020
|
Computer and Information Research Scientists
|
103,670
|
Computer Systems Analysts
|
83,800
|
Information Security Analysts
|
89,290
|
Computer Programmers
|
78,260
|
Software Developers, Applications
|
93,280
|
Software Developers, Systems Software
|
102,550
|
Web Developers
|
66,100
|
Database Administrators
|
79,120
|
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
|
76,320
|
Computer Network Architects
|
94,000
|
Computer User Support Specialists
|
50,130
|
Computer Network Support Specialists
|
62,690
|
Computer Occupations, All Other
|
81,860
|
Mathematical Occupations
|
$84,940
|
Actuaries
|
106,680
|
Mathematicians
|
101,280
|
Operations Research Analysts
|
79,830
|
Statisticians
|
79,570
|
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
|
63,250
|
Engineers
|
$90,690
|
Aerospace Engineers
|
104,810
|
Agricultural Engineers
|
77,370
|
Biomedical Engineers
|
91,200
|
Chemical Engineers
|
102,270
|
Civil Engineers
|
84,140
|
Computer Hardware Engineers
|
103,980
|
Electrical Engineers
|
91,810
|
Electronics Engineers, except Computer
|
95,250
|
Environmental Engineers
|
85,140
|
Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors
|
79,760
|
Industrial Engineers
|
82,100
|
Marine Engineers and Naval Architects
|
96,140
|
Materials Engineers
|
87,490
|
Mechanical Engineers
|
84,770
|
Mining and Geological Engineers, Including Mining Safety Engineers
|
91,250
|
Nuclear Engineers
|
107,140
|
Petroleum Engineers
|
147,470
|
Engineers, All Other
|
93,330
|
Life Scientists
|
$77,620
|
Animal Scientists
|
73,400
|
Food Scientists and Technologists
|
64,140
|
Soil and Plant Scientists
|
63,290
|
Biochemists and Biophysicists
|
89,470
|
Microbiologists
|
73,250
|
Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists
|
62,500
|
Biological Scientists, All Other
|
76,220
|
Conservation Scientists
|
63,590
|
Foresters
|
57,140
|
Epidemiologists
|
71,400
|
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
|
87,830
|
Life Scientists, All Other
|
74,740
|
Physical Scientists
|
$83,360
|
Astronomers
|
102,550
|
Physicists
|
114,150
|
Atmospheric and Space Scientists
|
90,010
|
Chemists
|
76,870
|
Materials Scientists
|
89,740
|
Environmental Scientists and Specialists, Including Health
|
68,970
|
Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers
|
106,780
|
Hydrologists
|
78,920
|
Physical Scientists, All Other
|
93,720
|
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, May 2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Unemployment
The 2012 annual average unemployment rates for S&E occupational groups are shown in Figure 3, together with
the the annual average unemployment rates of other selected professional and related occupations.
17 The
17 The annual average unemployment rates for the S&E occupations overall (3.
96%) and for each
individual S&E
of the S&E occupational groups (which range from
21.3% to
5.33.8%) were lower than the overall
unemployment
annual average unemployment rate for those 16 and over (
8.9%), and generally 7.3%) and lower than the
annual average unemployment rate for the
professional and related occupations group (4.
3%).182%).18 However, the
annual average unemployment rates for
the
most of the S&E occupational groups were higher than the rates for some other professional occupations
,
—including lawyers (
2.1%), secondary school teachers (3.01.4%), physicians and surgeons (0.
68%),
dentists (
0.71.5%), and registered nurses (2.
0%).
17
Science and engineering occupations are part of the larger category of “Professional and Related Occupations” used
in the Current Population Survey.
18
Mathematical occupations was the only S&E occupational group with a higher unemployment rate (5.3%) than the
professional and related occupations group (4.3%).
Congressional Research Service
9
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Figure 3.6%)—but lower in general than some, such as accountants and auditors (4.2%).
Figure 3. Annual Average Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups and Selected
Professional and Related Occupations,
2011
2012
Source: CRS analysis of unpublished
20112012 data from the Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The unemployment rate for each detailed S&E occupation is provided in Table 2
.19 The
.19 The unemployment rates for S&E occupations
rangesrange from
1.2% for environmental scientists and
geoscientists to 7.3% for computer support specialists.20
Table 2. 0.3% for astronomers and physicists to 18.5% for mining and geological engineers (including mine safety engineers). The unemployment rate for mining and geological engineers is more than twice the rate of any other detailed S&E occupation.20
Table 2. Annual Average Unemployment Rate for S&E Occupational Groups and Detailed S&E
Occupations,
2011
Occupation
Unemployment Rate
(Percentage)
Total, all occupations, 16 years and over
8.9
Science and Engineering Managers
Computer and information systems managers
Architectural and engineering managers
Natural sciences managers
Computer Occupations
Computer and information research scientists
Computer systems analysts
Information security analysts
Computer programmers
Software developers, applications and systems software
Web developers
Computer support specialists
Database administrators
2.3
2.9
1.6
n/a
4.1
n/a
2.5
n/a
3.7
4.0
4.7
7.3
1.3
19
The occupational classification system used in the Current Population Survey is based on the 2010 Standard
Occupational Classification System but differs somewhat from those used by in the Occupational Employment Survey.
20
CPS does not publish unemployment rates for occupations with an employment base of less than 50,000.
Congressional Research Service
10
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Occupation
Network and computer systems administrators
Computer network architects
Computer occupations, all other
Mathematical Occupations
Actuaries
Mathematicians
Operations research analysts
Statisticians
Miscellaneous mathematical science occupations
Engineers
Aerospace engineers
Agricultural engineers
Biomedical engineers
Chemical engineers
Civil engineers
Computer hardware engineers
Electrical and electronics engineers
Environmental engineers
Industrial engineers, including health and safety
Marine engineers and naval architects
Materials engineers
Mechanical engineers
Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety
Nuclear engineers
Petroleum engineers
Engineers, all other
Life Scientists
Agricultural and food scientists
Biological scientists
Conservation scientists and foresters
Medical scientists
Life scientists, all other
Physical Scientists
Astronomers and physicists
Atmospheric and space scientists
Chemists and materials scientists
Environmental scientists and geoscientists
Physical scientists, all other
Unemployment Rate
(Percentage)
3.9
0.4
4.7
5.3
n/a
n/a
6.5
n/a
n/a
3.6
1.9
n/a
n/a
3.6
4.8
2.3
3.4
n/a
5.5
n/a
n/a
2.4
n/a
n/a
n/a
2.9
3.4
n/a
2.9
n/a
3.4
n/a
3.7
n/a
n/a
6.1
1.2
4.0
Source: Current Population Survey, 2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Notes: Unemployment for occupations refers to the experienced unemployed (those with prior work
experience), classified according to their last job. For occupations in which the total number of employed and
unemployed totals less than 50,000 the unemployment rate is not shown; n/a indicate data are not available.
Congressional Research Service
11
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
This section provides information on changes in employment, wages, and unemployment for the
period 2008 to 2011.
Employment Trends
Aggregate S&E Employment
During the 2008-2011 period, aggregate S&E employment increased by 99,550 jobs, rising from
5.8 million to 5.9 million, a compound annual growth rate of 0.6%.21 The growth in the S&E
occupations ran counter to overall U.S. employment which contracted at 1.7% CAGR during this
same period. Growth rates for the S&E occupational groups and detailed occupations are
provided in the following sections.
Science and Engineering Occupational Groups
Table 3 provides employment data—2008 employment, 2011 employment, and changes in
number employed and the compound annual growth rates during the 2008 to 2011 period—for
each S&E occupational group. The fastest growth rate among S&E occupational groups during
this period was in science and engineering managers which grew at 2.0% CAGR, while the
largest increase in the number employed was in computer occupations which added 94,970 jobs.
Among the S&E occupational groups, only engineers experienced a decline in employment,
losing a total of 40,620 jobs during this period (-0.9% CAGR).
Table 3. Employment Change in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2011
Employment
Change,
Number
Employment
Change,
Compound
Annual Growth
Rate
Employment,
2008
Employment,
2011
135,185,230
128,278,550
-6,906,680
-1.7%
5,835,390
5,934,940
99,550
0.6%
502,180
532,870
30,690
2.0%
3,198,050
3,293,020
94,970
1.0%
109,130
112,630
3,500
1.1%
1,516,230
1,475,610
-40,620
-0.9%
Life scientists
250,250
256,600
6,350
0.8%
Physical scientists
259,550
264,210
4,660
0.6%
Occupation
All occupations
All S&E occupations
S&E managers
Computer occupations
Mathematical occupations
Engineers
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
21
A compound annual growth rate (CAGR) is a calculated growth rate which, if applied year after year to a beginning
amount reaches a specified final amount.
Congressional Research Service
12
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Detailed S&E Occupations
Table 4 provides 2008-2011 employment data for each of the S&E occupations, organized by
S&E group. The data indicate that there was substantial variation in the number of jobs gained
and lost among the S&E occupations, as well as in their growth rates. With respect to the number
employed, the occupation with the largest gain was computer support specialists which added
86,970 jobs, while the occupation experiencing the largest decrease was computer programmers
which lost 74,130 jobs. The S&E occupation with the fastest growth rate was astronomers with a
17.6% CAGR (though the number of new jobs (800) was small compared to other S&E
occupations), while the occupation with the fastest decline was mathematical science
occupations, all other, which experienced a -42.4% CAGR.
Among the computer occupations, those with the fastest growth rates were information security
analysts, web developers, and computer network architects (5.8% CAGR); computer support
specialists (5.1% CAGR); and computer software developers, applications (3.0% CAGR). These
occupations also accounted for the vast majority of the job growth in the computer occupations
group. These gains offset losses in other computer occupations, including computer programmers
(-74,130, -6.7% CAGR); computer occupations, all other (-14,150, -2.5% CAGR); and database
administrators (-7,270, -2.1% CAGR).
Several engineering occupations increased employment during this period, including aerospace
engineers (11,600, 5.4% CAGR), petroleum engineers (10,000, 13.9% CAGR), nuclear engineers
(1,790, 3.5%), mechanical engineers (4,650, 0.7% CAGR), and biomedical engineers (1,370,
2.9% CAGR). Employment gains in these engineering occupations were offset by declines in
twelve engineering occupations, including engineers, all other (-43,650, -9.5% CAGR); civil
engineers (-7,230, -0.9% CAGR); electronics engineers (-3,620, -0.9% CAGR); industrial
engineers (-3,090, -0.5%), and chemical engineers (-3,110, -3.5% CAGR).
Growth in the mathematical occupations was led by operations research analysts (4,170, 2.2%
CAGR), statisticians (3,090, 4.8%), and actuaries (1,370, 2.4% CAGR). Mathematicians grew
somewhat (210, 2.5% CAGR), while mathematical science occupations, all other declined
(-5,340, -42.4% CAGR).
Among life scientists, the occupation biological scientists, all other, had the largest employment
growth (3,260, 3.7% CAGR), while conservation scientists had the fastest growth rate (3,080,
6.1% CAGR). Employment declined in four life science occupations: medical scientists (-4,530,
-1.5% CAGR); life scientists, all other (-2,010, -5.9% CAGR); foresters (-1,160, -4.0% CAGR);
and animal scientists (-570, -7.4% CAGR).
The physical sciences occupations with the largest growth were environmental scientists and
specialists (2,970, 1.2% CAGR); physical scientists, all other (2,890, 4.0% CAGR); physicists
(1,410, 3.1% CAGR); and geoscientists (1,230, 1.3%). Employment in three physical sciences
occupations declined: chemists (-3,040, -1.2% CAGR), material scientists (-1,750, 6.5% CAGR),
and hydrologists (-630, -2.8% CAGR).
Employment grew in each of the S&E managers occupations. The largest growth was in computer
and information systems managers (24,010, 2.8%). Natural science managers had the fastest
growth rate (4,450, 3.3%). Architectural and engineering managers grew by 2,230, with a growth
rate of 0.4%.
Congressional Research Service
13
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2008-2011
Occupational Group
Employment,
2008
Employment,
2011
Employment
Change,
Number
Employment
Change,
Compound
Annual
Growth Rate
Science and Engineering Managers
Computer and Information Systems Managers
276,820
300,830
24,010
2.80%
Architectural and Engineering Managers
182,300
184,530
2,230
0.40%
43,060
47,510
4,450
3.30%
26,610
25,160
-1,450
-1.90%
Computer Systems Analysts
489,890
487,740
-2,150
-0.10%
Computer Programmers
394,230
320,100
-74,130
-6.70%
Software Developers, Applications
494,160
539,880
45,720
3.00%
Software Developers, Systems Software
381,830
387,050
5,220
0.50%
Database Administrators
115,770
108,500
-7,270
-2.10%
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
327,850
341,800
13,950
1.40%
Computer Support Specialists
545,520
632,490
86,970
5.10%
Information Security Analysts, Web Developers,
and Computer Network Architects
230,410
272,670
42,260
5.80%
Computer Occupations, All Other
191,780
177,630
-14,150
-2.50%
18,220
19,590
1,370
2.40%
2,770
2,980
210
2.50%
Operations Research Analysts
60,860
65,030
4,170
2.20%
Statisticians
20,680
23,770
3,090
4.80%
6,600
1,260
-5,340
-42.40%
Aerospace Engineers
67,800
79,400
11,600
5.40%
Agricultural Engineers
2,640
2,650
10
0.10%
Biomedical Engineers
15,220
16,590
1,370
2.90%
Chemical Engineers
30,970
27,860
-3,110
-3.50%
261,360
254,130
-7,230
-0.90%
73,370
71,990
-1,380
-0.60%
Electrical Engineers
154,670
154,250
-420
-0.10%
Electronics Engineers, except Computer
139,930
136,310
-3,620
-0.90%
Environmental Engineers
52,590
50,350
-2,240
-1.40%
Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining
Safety Engineers and Inspectors
25,190
23,170
-2,020
-2.70%
Natural Sciences Managers
Computer Occupations
Computer and Information Research Scientists
Mathematical Occupations
Actuaries
Mathematicians
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
Engineers
Civil Engineers
Computer Hardware Engineers
Congressional Research Service
14
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Industrial Engineers
214,580
211,490
-3,090
-0.50%
6,480
5,470
-1,010
-5.50%
24,160
22,160
-2,000
-2.80%
233,610
238,260
4,650
0.70%
6,900
6,630
-270
-1.30%
Nuclear Engineers
16,640
18,430
1,790
3.50%
Petroleum Engineers
20,880
30,880
10,000
13.90%
Engineers, All Other
169,240
125,590
-43,650
-9.50%
2,760
2,190
-570
-7.40%
Food Scientists and Technologists
10,510
12,040
1,530
4.60%
Soil and Plant Scientists
10,790
11,860
1,070
3.20%
Biochemists and Biophysicists
22,230
25,160
2,930
4.20%
Microbiologists
15,750
17,660
1,910
3.90%
Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists
17,780
18,380
600
1.10%
Biological Scientists, All Other
28,290
31,550
3,260
3.70%
Conservation Scientists
15,830
18,910
3,080
6.10%
Foresters
10,160
9,000
-1,160
-4.00%
4,370
4,610
240
1.80%
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
99,750
95,220
-4,530
-1.50%
Life Scientists, All Other
12,030
10,020
-2,010
-5.90%
1,280
2,080
800
17.60%
14,810
16,220
1,410
3.10%
8,860
9,640
780
2.90%
83,080
80,040
-3,040
-1.20%
9,650
7,900
-1,750
-6.50%
Environmental Scientists and Specialists,
including Health
80,120
83,090
2,970
1.20%
Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and
Geographers
31,260
32,490
1,230
1.30%
7,590
6,960
-630
-2.80%
22,900
25,790
2,890
4.00%
Marine Engineers and Naval Architects
Materials Engineers
Mechanical Engineers
Mining and Geological Engineers, incl. Mining
Safety Engineers
Life Scientists
Animal Scientists
Epidemiologists
Physical Scientists
Astronomers
Physicists
Atmospheric and Space Scientists
Chemists
Materials Scientists
Hydrologists
Physical Scientists, All Other
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Congressional Research Service
15
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Table 5 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment growth. The top five
occupations are computer occupations, followed by aerospace engineers and petroleum engineers.
Table 5. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Growth, 2008-2011
Rank
S&E Occupation
Employment
Growth
1
Computer Support Specialists
86,970
2
Software Developers, Applications
45,720
3
Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architects
42,260
4
Computer and Information Systems Managers
24,010
5
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
13,950
6
Aerospace Engineers
11,600
7
Petroleum Engineers
10,000
8
Software Developers, Systems Software
5,220
9
Mechanical Engineers
4,650
10
Natural Sciences Managers
4,450
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.
Table 6 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment losses. The occupation with
the greatest employment loss is computer programmers. Some have speculated that some of the
losses in computer programmers may be due to reclassification of these positions as other
computer occupations (e.g., software developers).
Table 6. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Losses, 2008-2011
Rank
S&E Occupation
Employment
Growth
1
Computer Programmers
-74,130
2
Engineers, All Other
-43,650
3
Computer Occupations, All Other
-14,150
4
Database Administrators
-7,270
5
Civil Engineers
-7,230
6
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
-5,340
7
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
-4,530
8
Electronics Engineers, except Computer
-3,620
9
Chemical Engineers
-3,110
10
Industrial Engineers
-3,090
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Congressional Research Service
16
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Table 7 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest growth rates. The occupation with the
fastest growth rate was astronomers, though the growth in the number of jobs (800) was small
compared to some S&E occupations. In contrast, petroleum engineers, the second fastest growing
S&E occupation, was also the seventh ranked occupation in terms of job growth (10,000).
Table 7. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Growth Rates, 2008-2011
Rank
S&E Occupation
Employment
Growth rate
1
Astronomers
17.60%
2
Petroleum Engineers
13.90%
3
5.80%
5
Conservation Scientists
Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network
Architects
Aerospace Engineers
6
Computer Support Specialists
5.10%
7
Statisticians
4.80%
8
Food Scientists and Technologists
4.60%
9
Biochemists and Biophysicists
4.20%
10
Physical Scientists, All Other
4.00%
4
6.10%
5.40%
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Table 8 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest growth rates. This group includes at least
one occupation from each of the engineering, physical sciences, life sciences, mathematics, and
computer occupational groups.
Table 8. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Growth Rates, 2008-2011
Rank
S&E Occupation
Employment
Growth Rate
1
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
-42.40%
2
Engineers, All Other
-9.50%
3
Animal Scientists
-7.40%
4
Computer Programmers
-6.70%
5
Materials Scientists
-6.50%
6
Life Scientists, All Other
-5.90%
7
Marine Engineers and Naval Architects
-5.50%
8
Foresters
-4.00%
9
Chemical Engineers
-3.50%
10
Materials Engineers
-2.80%
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Survey data, 2008-2011, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S.
Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Congressional Research Service
17
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Wage Trends
Between 2008 and 2011, mean wages for each S&E occupational group grew at slower
compound annual growth rates than the overall mean wage growth rate for all occupations, and
2012
Occupation
|
Unemployment Rate (Percentage)
|
Total, all occupations, 16 years and over
|
7.3
|
3.0
|
Science and Engineering Managers
|
3.0
|
Computer and information systems managers
|
3.2
|
Architectural and engineering managers
|
2.3
|
Natural sciences managers
|
2.1
|
Computer Occupations
|
3.8
|
Computer and information research scientists
|
2.2
|
Computer systems analysts
|
3.6
|
Information security analysts
|
0.9
|
Computer programmers
|
4.5
|
Software developers, applications and systems software
|
2.8
|
Web developers
|
4.2
|
Computer support specialists
|
6.6
|
Database administrators
|
3.6
|
Network and computer systems administrators
|
4.1
|
Computer network architects
|
2.2
|
Computer occupations, all other
|
3.2
|
Mathematical Occupations
|
1.3
Actuaries
|
—
|
Mathematicians
|
—
|
Operations research analysts
|
1.3
|
Statisticians
|
—
|
Miscellaneous mathematical science occupations
|
1.3
|
Engineers
|
3.3
|
Aerospace engineers
|
3.7
|
Agricultural engineers
|
—
|
Biomedical engineers
|
0.4
|
Chemical engineers
|
2.7
|
Civil engineers
|
3.4
|
Computer hardware engineers
|
1.9
|
Electrical and electronics engineers
|
3.4
|
Environmental engineers
|
2.7
|
Industrial engineers, including health and safety
|
2.7
|
Marine engineers and naval architects
|
8.2
|
Materials engineers
|
4.4
|
Mechanical engineers
|
3.1
|
Mining and geological engineers, incl. mining safety engineers
|
18.5
|
Nuclear engineers
|
1.7
|
Petroleum engineers
|
0.6
|
Engineers, all other
|
3.4
|
Life Scientists
|
2.9
|
Agricultural and food scientists
|
3.7
|
Biological scientists
|
3.0
|
Conservation scientists and foresters
|
2.1
|
Medical scientists
|
2.2
|
Life scientists, all other
|
—
Physical Scientists
|
3.3
|
Astronomers and physicists
|
0.3
|
Atmospheric and space scientists
|
—
|
Chemists and materials scientists
|
5.5
|
Environmental scientists and geoscientists
|
2.6
|
Physical scientists, all other
|
3.1
|
Source: Current Population Survey, 2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Notes: Unemployment for occupations refers to the experienced unemployed (those with prior work experience), classified according to their last job. For occupations in which the total number of employed and unemployed totals less than 50,000 the unemployment rate is not shown;— indicate data are not available.
Recent Trends in Employment, Wages, and Unemployment
This section provides information on changes in employment, wages, and unemployment for the period 2008 to 2012.
Employment Trends
Aggregate S&E Employment
During the 2008-2012 period, aggregate S&E employment increased by 353,520 jobs, rising from 5.8 million to 6.2 million, a compound annual growth rate of 1.5%.21 The growth in the S&E occupations ran counter to overall U.S. employment, which contracted at 0.9% CAGR during this same period. Growth rates for the S&E occupational groups and detailed occupations are provided in the following sections.
Science and Engineering Occupational Groups
Figure 4 illustrates the aggregate size and occupational composition of the S&E workforce from 2008 to 2012. Aggregate employment decreased somewhat from 2008 to 2010, led by reductions in the number of engineers employed. Modest growth in aggregate S&E employment returned in 2011 and 2012, led by increases in computer occupations.
Figure 4. Aggregate S&E Employment, 2008-2012
by S&E Occupational Group Composition
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Table 3 provides employment data—2008 employment, 2012 employment, and changes in number employed and the compound annual growth rates during the 2008 to 2012 period—for each S&E occupational group. The fastest growth rate among S&E occupational groups during this period was in mathematical occupations which grew at 2.8%% CAGR, while the largest increase in the number employed was in computer occupations which added 258,450 jobs. The slowest growth rate among S&E occupational groups during this period was in engineers which grew at 0.2% CAGR.
Table 3. Employment Change in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-2012
Occupation
|
Employment, 2008
|
Employment, 2012
|
Employment Change, Number
Employment Change,Compound Annual Growth Rate
All occupations
|
135,185,230
|
130,287,700
|
-4,897,530
|
-0.9%
|
All S&E occupations
|
5,835,390
|
6,188,910
|
353,520
|
1.5%
|
S&E managers
|
502,180
|
545,940
|
43,760
|
2.1%
|
Computer occupations
|
3,198,050
|
3,456,500
|
258,450
|
2.0%
|
Mathematical occupations
|
109,130
|
121,710
|
12,580
|
2.8%
|
Engineers
|
1,516,230
|
1,530,110
|
13,880
|
0.2%
|
Life scientists
|
250,250
|
260,040
|
9,790
|
1.0%
|
Physical scientists
|
259,550
|
274,610
|
15,060
|
1.4%
|
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
Detailed S&E Occupations
Table 4 provides 2008-2012 employment data for each of the S&E occupations, organized by S&E group. The data indicate that there was substantial variation in the number of jobs gained and lost among the S&E occupations, as well as in their growth rates. With respect to the number employed, the occupation with the largest gain was software developers, applications, which added 92,180 jobs, while the occupation experiencing the largest decrease was computer programmers, which lost 77,440 jobs. Some have speculated that some of the losses in computer programmers may be due to reclassification of these positions as other computer occupations (e.g., software developers). The S&E occupation with the fastest growth rate was petroleum engineers with a 14.9% CAGR, adding 15,530 new jobs, while the occupation with the fastest decline was mathematical science occupations, all other, which experienced a -34.43% CAGR and a loss of 5,380 jobs. The three fastest declining occupations were all "other" categories—mathematical science occupations, all other; engineers, all other; and life scientists, all other. These declines may be due, in part, to assignation by employers of jobs previously classified in these residual classifications to other detailed and specific S&E occupations; if so, consequentially, some growth in the detailed occupations may be due, in part, to such re-assignations.
Among the computer occupations with comparable data across the 2008-2012 period,22 those with the fastest growth rates were software developers, applications (4.4% CAGR); network and computer systems administrators (1.7% CAGR); and software developers, systems software (0.6% CAGR). Nevertheless, it appears that the vast majority of job growth occurred in the occupational areas that were separated into more detailed occupational classifications in the 2012 survey. Comparing the aggregate of two 2012 detailed occupations—computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists—to the previously used classification, "computer support specialists," shows job growth of 148,090 (6.2% CAGR).23 Similarly, comparing three 2012 detailed occupations—information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects—to the previously used classification, "information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects," shows job growth of 148,090 (8.0% CAGR).24 Within the computer occupations group, these gains offset losses in other computer occupations, including computer programmers (-77,440, -5.3% CAGR); database administrators (4,180, -0.9% CAGR); and computer occupations, all other (-6,050, -0.8% CAGR).
Eleven engineering occupations increased employment during this period, with the largest growth in mechanical engineers (18,930, 2.0% CAGR), petroleum engineers (15,530, 14.9% CAGR), and aerospace engineers (12,620, 4.4% CAGR). Employment gains in these engineering occupations were offset by declines in seven engineering occupations, including engineers, all other (-46,830, -7.8% CAGR); electronics engineers (-4,970, -0.9% CAGR); and civil engineers (-3,260, -0.3% CAGR).
Growth in the mathematical occupations was led by operations research analysts (8,320, 3.3% CAGR), statisticians (4,890, 5.4%), actuaries (3,120, 4.0% CAGR), and mathematicians (480, 4.1% CAGR). Mathematical science occupations, all other, declined (-5,380, -34.4% CAGR).
Among life scientists, the occupation biochemists and biophysicists had the largest employment growth (4,180, 4.4% CAGR), followed by food scientists and technologists (3,170, 6.8% CAGR), which also had the fastest growth rate. Employment declined in four life science occupations: medical scientists (-4,330, -1.1% CAGR); life scientists, all other (-3,090, -7.2% CAGR); foresters (-690, -1.7% CAGR); and animal scientists (-640, -6.4% CAGR).
The physical sciences occupations with the largest growth were environmental scientists and specialists (4,120, 1.3% CAGR); geoscientists (3,920, 3.0% CAGR), and physicists (3,010, 4.7% CAGR). Employment in two physical sciences occupations declined: material scientists (-1,680, ˗4.7% CAGR), and hydrologists (-710, -2.4% CAGR).
Employment grew in each of the S&E managers occupations. The largest growth was in computer and information systems managers (32,920, 2.8% CAGR). Natural science managers had the fastest growth rate (3.1%), adding 5,500 jobs. Architectural and engineering managers grew by 5,340, with a growth rate of 0.7%.
Table 4. Employment in Detailed S&E Occupations, 2008-2012
Occupational Group
|
Employ-ment,2008
Employ-ment,2012
Employ-ment Change, Number
|
Employ-ment Change, CAGR
|
Science and Engineering Managers
|
Computer and Information Systems Managers
|
276,820
|
309,740
|
32,920
|
2.8%
|
Architectural and Engineering Managers
|
182,300
|
187,640
|
5,340
|
0.7%
|
Natural Sciences Managers
|
43,060
|
48,560
|
5,500
|
3.1%
|
Computer Occupations
|
Computer and Information Research Scientists
|
26,610
|
24,880
|
-1,730
|
-1.7%
|
Computer Systems Analysts
|
489,890
|
482,040
|
-7,850
|
-0.4%
|
Computer Programmers
|
394,230
|
316,790
|
-77,440
|
-5.3%
|
Software Developers, Applications
|
494,160
|
586,340
|
92,180
|
4.4%
|
Software Developers, Systems Software
|
381,830
|
391,700
|
9,870
|
0.6%
|
Database Administrators
|
115,770
|
111,590
|
-4,180
|
-0.9%
|
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
|
327,850
|
350,320
|
22,470
|
1.7%
|
Computer Support Specialistsa
545,520
|
Computer User Support Specialists
|
525,630
|
Computer Network Support Specialists
|
167,980
|
Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and Computer Network Architectsb
230,410
|
Information Security Analysts
|
72,670
|
Web Developers
|
102,940
|
Computer Network Architects
|
137,890
|
Computer Occupations, All Other
|
191,780
|
185,730
|
-6,050
|
-0.8%
|
Mathematical Occupations
|
Actuaries
|
18,220
|
21,340
|
3,120
|
4.0%
|
Mathematicians
|
2,770
|
3,250
|
480
|
4.1%
|
Operations Research Analysts
|
60,860
|
69,180
|
8,320
|
3.3%
|
Statisticians
|
20,680
|
25,570
|
4,890
|
5.4%
|
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
|
6,600
|
1,220
|
-5,380
|
-34.4%
|
Engineers
|
Aerospace Engineers
|
67,800
|
80,420
|
12,620
|
4.4%
|
Agricultural Engineers
|
2,640
|
2,470
|
-170
|
-1.7%
|
Biomedical Engineers
|
15,220
|
18,810
|
3,590
|
5.4%
|
Chemical Engineers
|
30,970
|
32,190
|
1,220
|
1.0%
|
Civil Engineers
|
261,360
|
258,100
|
-3,260
|
-0.3%
|
Computer Hardware Engineers
|
73,370
|
79,580
|
6,210
|
2.1%
|
Electrical Engineers
|
154,670
|
160,560
|
5,890
|
0.9%
|
Electronics Engineers, except Computer
|
139,930
|
134,960
|
-4,970
|
-0.9%
|
Environmental Engineers
|
52,590
|
50,850
|
-1,740
|
-0.8%
|
Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors
|
25,190
|
23,490
|
-1,700
|
-1.7%
|
Industrial Engineers
|
214,580
|
220,130
|
5,550
|
0.6%
|
Marine Engineers and Naval Architects
|
6,480
|
6,880
|
400
|
1.5%
|
Materials Engineers
|
24,160
|
22,740
|
-1,420
|
-1.5%
|
Mechanical Engineers
|
233,610
|
252,540
|
18,930
|
2.0%
|
Mining and Geological Engrs., incl. Mining Safety Engrs.
|
6,900
|
7,640
|
740
|
2.6%
|
Nuclear Engineers
|
16,640
|
19,930
|
3,290
|
4.6%
|
Petroleum Engineers
|
20,880
|
36,410
|
15,530
|
14.9%
|
Engineers, All Other
|
169,240
|
122,410
|
-46,830
|
-7.8%
|
Life Scientists
|
Animal Scientists
|
2,760
|
2,120
|
-640
|
-6.4%
|
Food Scientists and Technologists
|
10,510
|
13,680
|
3,170
|
6.8%
|
Soil and Plant Scientists
|
10,790
|
12,410
|
1,620
|
3.6%
|
Biochemists and Biophysicists
|
22,230
|
26,410
|
4,180
|
4.4%
|
Microbiologists
|
15,750
|
18,550
|
2,800
|
4.2%
|
Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists
|
17,780
|
18,650
|
870
|
1.2%
|
Biological Scientists, All Other
|
28,290
|
31,080
|
2,790
|
2.4%
|
Conservation Scientists
|
15,830
|
18,460
|
2,630
|
3.9%
|
Foresters
|
10,160
|
9,470
|
-690
|
-1.7%
|
Epidemiologists
|
4,370
|
4,850
|
480
|
2.6%
|
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
|
99,750
|
95,420
|
-4,330
|
-1.1%
|
Life Scientists, All Other
|
12,030
|
8,940
|
-3,090
|
-7.2%
|
Physical Scientists
|
Astronomers
|
1,280
|
2,150
|
870
|
13.8%
|
Physicists
|
14,810
|
17,820
|
3,010
|
4.7%
|
Atmospheric and Space Scientists
|
8,860
|
10,190
|
1,330
|
3.6%
|
Chemists
|
83,080
|
84,950
|
1,870
|
0.6%
|
Materials Scientists
|
9,650
|
7,970
|
-1,680
|
-4.7%
|
Environmental Scientists and Specialists, including Health
|
80,120
|
84,240
|
4,120
|
1.3%
|
Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers
|
31,260
|
35,180
|
3,920
|
3.0%
|
Hydrologists
|
7,590
|
6,880
|
-710
|
-2.4%
|
Physical Scientists, All Other
|
22,900
|
25,230
|
2,330
|
2.5%
|
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/tables.htm.
a. See footnote 23.
b. See footnote 24.
Table 5 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment growth from 2008 to 2012. The list includes six engineering occupations, three computer occupations, and one mathematics occupation.
Table 5. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Growth, 2008-2012
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Employment Growth
|
1
|
Software Developers, Applications
|
92,180
|
2
|
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
|
22,470
|
3
|
Mechanical Engineers
|
18,930
|
4
|
Petroleum Engineers
|
15,530
|
5
|
Aerospace Engineers
|
12,620
|
6
|
Software Developers, Systems Software
|
9,870
|
7
|
Operations Research Analysts
|
8,320
|
8
|
Computer Hardware Engineers
|
6,210
|
9
|
Electrical Engineers
|
5,890
|
10
|
Industrial Engineers
|
5,550
|
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.
Table 6 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the largest employment losses. The occupation with the greatest employment loss is computer programmers. As mentioned earlier, some have speculated that some of the losses in computer programmers may be due to reclassification of these positions as other computer occupations (e.g., software developers).
Table 6. S&E Occupations with the Largest Employment Losses, 2008-2012
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Employment Growth
|
1
|
Computer Programmers
|
-77,440
|
2
|
Engineers, All Other
|
-46,830
|
3
|
Computer Systems Analysts
|
-7,850
|
4
|
Computer Occupations, All Other
|
-6,050
|
5
|
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
|
-5,380
|
6
|
Electronics Engineers, except Computer
|
-4,970
|
7
|
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
|
-4,330
|
8
|
Database Administrators
|
-4,180
|
9
|
Civil Engineers
|
-3,260
|
10
|
Life Scientists, All Other
|
-3,090
|
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.
Table 7 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest growth rates. The occupation with the fastest growth rate was petroleum engineers (14.9% CAGR), adding 15,530 jobs from 2008 to 2012, followed by astronomers (13.8% CAGR), and food scientists and technologists (6.8% CAGR).
Table 7. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Growth Rates, 2008-2012
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Employment Growth rate
|
1
|
Petroleum Engineers
|
14.9%
|
2
|
Astronomers
|
13.8%
|
3
|
Food Scientists and Technologists
|
6.8%
|
4
|
Statisticians
|
5.4%
|
5
|
Biomedical Engineers
|
5.4%
|
6
|
Physicists
|
4.7%
|
7
|
Nuclear Engineers
|
4.6%
|
8
|
Biochemists and Biophysicists
|
4.4%
|
9
|
Software Developers, Applications
|
4.4%
|
10
|
Aerospace Engineers
|
4.4%
|
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor.
Table 8 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest growth rates. All 10 of these occupations have negative growth rates. This group includes at least one occupation from each of the engineering, physical sciences, life sciences, mathematics, and computer occupational groups.
Table 8. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Growth Rates, 2008-2012
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Employment Growth Rate
|
1
|
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
|
-34.4
|
2
|
Engineers, All Other
|
-7.8
|
3
|
Life Scientists, All Other
|
-7.2
|
4
|
Animal Scientists
|
-6.4
|
5
|
Computer Programmers
|
-5.3
|
6
|
Materials Scientists
|
-4.7
|
7
|
Hydrologists
|
-2.4
|
8
|
Foresters
|
-1.7
|
9
|
Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors
|
-1.7
|
10
|
Computer and Information Research Scientists
|
-1.7
|
Source: CRS analysis of Occupational Employment Statistics survey data, 2008-2012, BLS, Department of Labor.
Wage Trends
Between 2008 and 2012, mean wages for each S&E occupational group grew at about the same pace as the overall mean wage for all occupations, and only somewhat faster than inflation. Figure
45 illustrates the nominal and inflation-adjusted
compound annual growth rates for each S&E occupational group, as well as for all occupations.
The nominal growth rate of mean wages for all occupations during this period was 2.
3%0% CAGR, while
the fastest growth rate in the S&E occupational groups was for physical scientists (2.
2%) and
mathematical occupations (2.2%), followed by engineers (2.1%), S&E managers (2.0%),
computer occupations (1.8%), and life scientists (1.5%). Life scientists experienced nearly no real
(inflation-adjusted) growth in mean wages between 2008 and 2011, while the other S&E
occupational categories grew by less than 1% in inflation-adjusted terms, below the overall
growth rate for all occupations.
Figure 423% CAGR), followed by S&E managers (2.20% CAGR), and mathematical occupations (2.16% CAGR), engineers (2.12% CAGR), computer occupations (1.84% CAGR), and life scientists (1.4% CAGR). Adjusting for inflation, life scientists experienced a small decline (-0.2% CAGR) in mean wages between 2008 and 2012, while the other S&E occupational categories grew by less than 1%.
Figure 5. Nominal and Inflation-adjusted Compound Annual Growth Rates
of Mean Wages in S&E Occupational Groups, 2008-
2011
2012
Source: CRS analysis of
Occupational Employment
SurveyStatistics survey data, 2008-
2011, 2012, http://www.bls.gov/oes/
tables.htm, using BLStables.htm,
using Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Price Index Inflation Calculator, http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/
cpicalc.pl.
Unemployment Trends
Table 9 provides unemployment rates for cpicalc.pl.
Congressional Research Service
18
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Unemployment Trends
Figure 5 illustrates unemployment rates for
the S&E occupational groups, as well as all
for all workers (16 years and over) and
selected professional and related occupations
(e.g., lawyers, dentists, physicians and
surgeons, registered nurses) for the years
2008-2011. This figure for the years 2008-2012. This table provides a perspective
on how the unemployment rates of S&E
occupational groups compare to the overall
unemployment rate and other selected
professional and related occupations, as well
as how these rates changed during this period.
Figure 5. Unemployment Rates for S&E
Occupational Groups, the Overall
Workforce, and Other Selected
Professional and Related Occupations,
2008-2011
Compared to the overall workforce, S&E
occupational groups had significantly lower
unemployment rates for the 2008-2011
period. In general, though, the professional
as how these rates changed during this period.
Professional occupations (of which the S&E occupations
are a part) historically have had
a lower
lower unemployment
rate than the workforce as a
whole.22 As shown in Figure 5, the S&E
occupational groups generally had
unemployment rates that were comparable or
higher than the rates for selected professional
occupations during the 2008-2011 period.
Also, the unemployment rates for the S&E
occupational groups grew more than did the
unemployment rates for the other selected
professional occupations included in Figure 5
(e.g., lawyers, dentists, physicians and
surgeons, registered nurses). Consequently,
the separation between the unemployment
rates of the S&E occupational groups and the
other selected professional occupations grew
during this period. In 2008, the
unemployment rates for each S&E
occupational group and each selected
professional occupation were below 3%. In
2011, the unemployment rates for each of the
Source: CRS analysis of unpublished 2011data from
selected professional occupations remained
the Current Population Survey, BLS.
below 3% while the unemployment rates for
each of the S&E occupational groups were above 3%.
22
For example, between 2000 and 2011, the unemployment rate for the overall workforce (age 16 years and over) was
generally twice as high as that of professional and related occupations. In 2000, the unemployment rate for the overall
workforce was 4.0%, while the unemployment rate for professional and related occupations was 1.9%; in 2011, the
rates were 8.9% and 4.3%, respectively.
Congressional Research Service
19
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Employment Projections, 2010-2020
This section provides an analysis of the Bureau of Labor Statistics occupational employment
projections data for the 2010-2020 period.
Scientists and Engineers in Aggregate
An analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics employment projections indicates that the science and
engineering workforce will grow by 1.1 million (18.0%) jobs between 2010 and 2020, a CAGR
of 1.7%. This growth rate is somewhat higher than the growth rate projected for all occupations
(1.3%) during this period.23
In addition to the job openings created by growth in the number of jobs in S&E occupations, BLS
projects that an additional 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those who
are expected to exit the S&E occupations during this period due to retirement, death, career
change, etc. (i.e., net replacements). BLS projects a total of 2.4 million job openings in S&E
occupations due to growth and net replacements during this period.
Science and Engineering Occupational Groups
Projection data for science and engineering occupational groups is provided in Table 9, which
includes the following data for each group: 2010 actual employment, 2020 projected
employment, the change in the number of jobs between 2010 and 2020, the total percentage
increase in the number of jobs, the compound annual growth rate in the number of jobs, and the
total job openings due to growth and net replacements.
Among the S&E occupational groups, computer occupations are projected to see the fastest
employment growth (2.0% CAGR), the largest increase in the number employed (758,900), and
the largest number of job openings (1,336,400). Computer occupations, which accounted for
57.5% of all S&E jobs in 2010, are projected to account for 68.5% of the total growth in S&E
occupations between 2010 and 2020. (See Figure 6.) As a result, the share of all S&E jobs
accounted for by computer occupations is projected to rise from 55.6% in 2010 to 57.5% in 2020.
Life scientists is the only other S&E occupational group projected to account for a greater share
(5.3%) of total S&E job growth than its share of total 2010 S&E employment (4.6%). As a result,
life scientists’ share of S&E employment is projected to increase slightly to 4.7% in 2020. The
mathematical occupations group is projected to account for 1.8% of S&E job growth during this
period, approximately the same as its 1.9% share of S&E occupational employment in 2010.
The occupational groups that are projected to have growth slower than their share of total 2010
S&E employment are:
•
23
engineers—projected to account for 14.5% of total S&E job growth during the
2010-2020 period, below its 24.6% share of S&E employment in 2010, thus
reducing its projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 23.1%;
CRS analysis of BLS 2010-2020 employment projections, http://www.bls.gov/emp.
Congressional Research Service
20
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
•
physical scientists—projected to account for 3.2% of total S&E job growth
during the 2010-2020 period, below its 4.6% share of S&E employment in 2010,
thus reducing its projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 4.4%; and
•
S&E managers—projected to account for 6.8% of total S&E job growth during
the 2010-2020 period, below its 8.7% share of S&E employment in 2010, thus
reducing its projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 8.4%.
Table 9. 2010-2020 Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups
Numbers in thousands, except percent and CAGR
Employment
Occupations
2010
Computer Occupations
Change, 2010-2020
2020
Number
%
CAGR
Job Openings
Due to Growth
and Net
Replacements
3,425.9
4,184.6
758.9
22.1
2.0
1,366.4
116.9
136.4
19.5
16.7
1.6
71.6
1,519.0
1,679.6
160.3
10.6
1.0
525.9
Life Scientists
286.0
344.3
58.2
20.4
1.9
106.1
Physical Scientists
282.0
317.6
35.7
12.6
1.2
121.8
S&E Managers
534.0
608.8
74.8
14.0
1.3
186.0
6,163.8
7,271.3
1,107.4
18.0
1.7
2,377.8
Lawyers
728.2
801.8
73.6
10.1
1.0
212
Dentists
155.7
187.9
32.2
20.7
1.9
78.4
Physicians and Surgeons
691.0
859.3
168.3
24.4
2.2
305.1
Registered Nurses
2,737.4
3,449.3
711.9
26.0
2.3
1,207.4
Post-Secondary Teachers
1,756.0
2061.7
305.7
17.4
1.6
586.1
Total, All Occupations
143,068.2
163,537.1
20,468.9
14.3
1.3
54,787.4
Mathematical Occupations
Engineers
S&E Occupations, Total
Other Selected Occupations
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Notes: Numbers for S&E occupational groups may not add due to rounding of component occupations.
Congressional Research Service
21
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Figure 6. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Growth,
2010-2020, by S&E Occupational Group
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Notes: Numbers are rounded and may not add to 100%.
For some S&E occupational groups, the number of openings resulting from growth in the number
employed is comparable to the number of openings resulting from those exiting the occupations
(net replacements). For example, BLS projects an increase of 758,900 jobs in the computer
occupations between 2010 and 2020. During the same period, BLS projects that there will be
607,500 job openings in computer occupations due to net replacement needs. For other S&E
occupational groups, net replacement needs greatly exceed the number of projected new jobs in
the occupation. For example, BLS projects 365,600 job openings due to net replacement needs in
the engineering occupations between 2010 and 2020, and job growth of 160,300. Figure 7
illustrates the composition of total projected S&E job openings (due to growth and net
replacements) by S&E occupational group.
Figure 7. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Openings (Job Growth plus
Net Replacement Needs), 2010-2020, by S&E Occupational Group
Mathematical
Occupations
3.0%
Engineers
22.1%
Computer
Occupations
57.5%
Life Scientists
4.5%
Physical
Scientists
5.1%
S&E Managers
7.8%
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Congressional Research Service
22
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Detailed Science and Engineering Occupations
The Bureau of Labor Statistics’ projected job growth and projected total job openings (job growth
plus net replacements) for the S&E occupations vary substantially during the 2010-2020
projection period. Tables 12-17 show the top ten S&E occupations in terms of job growth, job
losses, and job openings.
Table 10 shows the ten S&E occupations with the highest projected growth in jobs. Seven of the
10 S&E occupations on this list are in the computer occupations. One of the remaining three
occupations is computer and information systems managers. The only non-IT occupations in the
top ten are civil engineers and medical scientists.
Table 10. S&E Occupations with the Highest Projected Growth in Jobs and Other
Selected Occupations, 2010-2020
Rank
S&E Occupation
Projected
Average
Annual Job
Growtha
1
Software Developers, Applications
14,380
2
Software Developers, Systems Software
12,720
3
Computer Systems Analysts
12,040
4
Computer Support Specialists
11,000
5
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
9,660
6
Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and
Computer Network Architects
6,570
7
Computer and Information Systems Managers
5,580
8
Civil Engineers
5,110
9
Computer Programmers
4,370
10
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
3,640
Other Selected Occupations with High Projected Growth
Registered Nurses
71,190
Retail Salespersons
70,680
Home Health Aides
70,630
Personal Care Aides
60,700
Office Clerks, General
48,950
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a.
The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection
period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Congressional Research Service
23
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Table 11 shows the ten S&E occupations with the smallest projected growth in jobs. The list
includes occupations from physical and life sciences, mathematics, and engineering occupations.
The number of new jobs projected to be created in these ten occupations total an average of less
than 600 per year.
Table 11. S&E Occupations with the Smallest Projected Growth in Jobs, 2010-2020
Rank
1
Projected
Average
Annual Job
Growtha
S&E Occupation
Agricultural Engineers
20
2
Astronomers
20
3
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
30
4
Animal Scientists
40
5
Mathematicians
50
6
Foresters
50
7
Mining and Geological Engineers, incl. Mining Safety Engineers
60
8
Materials Scientists
90
9
Marine Engineers and Naval Architects
100
10
Atmospheric and Space Scientists
100
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a.
The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection
period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Table 12 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest projected job growth. Biomedical
engineers (4.9% CAGR) and medical scientists (3.2% CAGR) are the fastest growing S&E
occupations. The remaining occupations on the list range from 2.0%-2.8% CAGR, faster than the
overall projected job growth rate for all occupations (1.3% CAGR). The list includes five
computer occupations.
Table 12. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Projected Job Growth, 2010-2020
Rank
S&E Occupation
Projected Job
Growth Rate
(CAGR)
Projected
Average
Annual Job
Growtha
1
Biomedical Engineers
4.9%
970
2
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
3.2%
3,640
3
Software Developers, Systems Software
2.8%
12,720
4
Biochemists and Biophysicists
2.7%
770
5
Database Administrators
2.7%
3,390
6
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
2.5%
9,660
7
Software Developers, Applications
2.5%
14,380
8
Actuaries
2.4%
580
9
Epidemiologists
2.0%
120
10
Computer Systems Analysts
2.0%
12,040
Congressional Research Service
24
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Rank
S&E Occupation
Projected Job
Growth Rate
(CAGR)
Projected
Average
Annual Job
Growtha
Other Occupations with the Fastest Projected Growth
Personal Care Aides
5.5%
60,700
Home Health Aides
5.4%
70,630
Helpers, Brickmasons, Blockmasons, Stonemasons, and Tile and
Marble Setters
4.9%
1,760
Helpers, Carpenters
4.5%
2,590
Veterinary technologists and technicians
4.3%
4,170
1.3%
2,046,890
All Occupations
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a.
The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection
period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Table 13 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest projected job growth, ranging between
0.4%-0.6% CAGR, well below the overall projected job growth rate of 1.3% CAGR. The list
includes five engineering occupations.
Table 13. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Projected Job Growth, 2010-2020
Rank
S&E Occupation
Projected Job
Growth Rate
(CAGR)
Projected
Average Annual
Job Growtha
1
Chemists
0.4%
320
2
Foresters
0.4%
50
3
Aerospace Engineers
0.5%
400
4
Electronics Engineers, except Computer
0.5%
680
5
Conservation Scientists
0.5%
120
6
Computer Occupations, All Other
0.6%
1,230
7
Chemical Engineers
0.6%
180
8
Biological Scientists, All Other
0.6%
220
9
Industrial Engineers
0.6%
1,310
10
Engineers, All Other
0.6%
1,030
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a.
The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection
period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Congressional Research Service
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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Table 14 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the most projected job openings (jobs growth plus
net replacements). This category shows where the most job opportunities are projected to be. The
top seven occupations are computer occupations, with computer and information systems
managers in the ninth spot. The other two occupations on the list are engineering occupations,
civil engineering and mechanical engineering.
Table 14. S&E Occupations with the Most Projected Job Openings, 2010-2020
Rank
S&E Occupation
Projected
Average
Annual Job
Growtha
1
Computer Support Specialists
26,950
2
Computer Systems Analysts
22,250
3
Software Developers, Applications
19,790
4
Software Developers, Systems Software
16,800
5
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
15,530
6
Computer Programmers
12,800
7
Information Security Analysts, Web Developers, and
11,030
8
Civil Engineers
10,440
9
Computer and Information Systems Managers
10,280
10
Mechanical Engineers
9,960
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a.
The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2010-2020 projection
period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Table 15 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fewest projected job openings. This list
includes occupations from the life sciences, engineering, physical sciences, and mathematics
occupations.
Table 15. S&E Occupations with the Fewest Projected Job Openings, 2010-2020
Rank
1
S&E Occupation
Agricultural Engineers
Projected
Average
Annual Job
Growtha
80
2
Astronomers
3
Epidemiologists
90
4
Miscellaneous Mathematical Science Occupations
170
5
Animal Scientists
180
6
Foresters
190
7
Mining and Geological Engineers, incl. Mining Safety Engineers
200
8
Life Scientists, All Other
210
9
Atmospheric and Space Scientists
210
10
Marine Engineers and Naval Architects
230
150
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2010-2020, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Congressional Research Service
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The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Concluding Observations
The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of
Congress for more than 60 years. Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to
U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S.
economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs. Congress has enacted many
programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also
undertaken broad efforts improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to
prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. Some
policymakers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in
the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies.
Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership,
innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national
defense, and other societal needs (e.g., treating and preventing diseases, ensuring access to
affordable energy, protecting and restoring the environment). However, there are varying
perspectives with respect to the question of the existence of a shortage of scientists and engineers
in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E
degrees, a mismatch of worker skills and employer needs), and whether the federal government
should undertake policy interventions to address a putative shortage or allow market forces to
work in this labor market.
Many policymakers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts,
economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce
and related policy issues. Here are some general characterizations of those views:
•
There is a shortage. There is a shortage (or a looming shortage) of scientists and
engineers (or, alternatively, an inadequate supply of workers with degrees in
science and engineering fields), potentially resulting in the loss of U.S. scientific,
engineering, technological, and industrial leadership and consequent effects on
areas such as economic growth, job creation, standard of living, and national
security.24
•
There is not a shortage. Assertions of a broad shortage of scientists and
engineers are not supported by the data when considering indicators such as
employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.25
24
See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing
America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11463; U.S. Department of
Energy, Secretary Chu, Intel President Discuss Need for More U.S. Engineers, September 1, 2011, http://energy.gov/
articles/secretary-chu-intel-president-discuss-need-more-us-engineers; Shirley Ann Jackson, President, Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, The Quite Crisis: Falling Short in Producing American Scientific and Technical Talent, Building
Engineering and Science Talent (BEST), 2002; and Vinton G. Cerf, “How to Fire Up U.S. Innovation,” Wall Street
Journal, April 12, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704461304576216911954533514.html; and
Rodney C. Atkins, Senior Vice President, Systems and Technology Group, IBM, “America Desperately Needs More
STEM Students. Here’s How to Get Them,” Forbes, July 9, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/
2012/07/09/america-desperately-needs-more-stem-students-heres-how-to-get-them.
25
See, for example, testimony of Ralph Gomory, President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, before the U.S. Congress,
House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part I, 110th Cong., June 12,
2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); testimony of Michael Teitelbaum, Vice President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and
Harold Salzman, Senior Research Associate, The Urban Institute, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
27
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
•
More scientists and engineers are needed regardless of the existence of a
shortage. Regardless of whether demand currently exceeds supply, increasing
the number of U.S. scientists and engineers will increase U.S. innovation,
economic performance, and job creation. Even if there is not a shortage of
scientists and engineers, jobs in many occupations require a higher level of
STEM knowledge than ever before.26 Students who earn S&E degrees gain
thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and STEM knowledge that will enable
them to be successful not only in S&E occupations, but also in S&E-related
careers or to apply their S&E knowledge and skills in non-S&E fields.27
Historically, federal policies, programs, and investments have contributed to the
development of the United States’ scientific and engineering workforce.
•
rates than the overall workforce. As shown in Table 9, S&E occupational groups had significantly lower unemployment rates than those of the overall workforce for the 2008-2012 period. Nevertheless, during this period the S&E occupational groups generally had unemployment rates that were comparable or higher than the rates for many other selected professional occupations (e.g., lawyers, dentists, physicians and surgeons, registered nurses, accountants and auditors).
In 2008, the unemployment rates for each S&E occupational group and each selected professional occupation were below 3%. However, from 2008 to 2011, the unemployment rates for the S&E occupational groups grew faster than did the other selected professional occupations. Consequently, the separation between the unemployment rates of the S&E occupational groups and the other selected professional occupations grew during this period (see Table 9). In 2011, the unemployment rates for each of the selected professional occupations remained around or below 2% while the unemployment rates for each of the S&E occupational groups were above 3%. In 2012, the unemployment rate for all of the S&E occupational groups fell, some dropping below 3%.
Table 9. Unemployment Rates for S&E Occupational Groups, the Overall Workforce, and Other Selected Professional and Related Occupations, 2008-2012
2008
|
2009
|
2010
|
2011
|
2012
|
S&E Occupations
|
Computer Occupations
|
2.6%
|
5.3%
|
5.4%
|
4.1%
|
3.8%
|
Mathematical Occupations
|
1.6%
|
2.6%
|
1.4%
|
5.3%
|
1.3%
|
Engineers
|
2.6%
|
5.1%
|
4.5%
|
3.6%
|
3.3%
|
Life Scientists
|
1.0%
|
3.9%
|
4.2%
|
3.4%
|
2.9%
|
Physical Scientists
|
2.1%
|
3.3%
|
2.3%
|
3.7%
|
3.3%
|
Selected Non-S&E Occupations
|
Lawyers
|
1.9%
|
2.3%
|
1.5%
|
2.1%
|
1.4%
|
Dentists
|
0.4%
|
1.2%
|
0.8%
|
0.7%
|
1.5%
|
Physicians and surgeons
|
0.8%
|
0.8%
|
0.9%
|
0.6%
|
0.8%
|
Registered nurses
|
1.2%
|
2.1%
|
2.1%
|
2.0%
|
2.6%
|
Accountants and auditors
|
2.5%
|
5.0%
|
5.0%
|
4.2%
|
4.2%
|
Source: CRS analysis of unpublished data from the Current Population Survey, BLS.
Employment Projections, 2012-2022
This section provides an analysis of the Bureau of Labor Statistics occupational employment projections for the 2012-2022 period.
Scientists and Engineers in Aggregate
An analysis of Bureau of Labor Statistics employment projections indicates that the science and engineering workforce will grow by 953,200 (14.3%) jobs between 2012 and 2022, a CAGR of 1.3%. This growth rate is somewhat higher than the growth rate projected for all occupations (1.0%) during this period.25
In addition to the job openings created by growth in the number of jobs in S&E occupations, BLS projects that an additional 1.3 million scientists and engineers will be needed to replace those who are expected to exit the S&E occupations during this period due to retirement, death, career change, etc. (i.e., net replacements). BLS projects a total of 2.3 million job openings in S&E occupations due to growth and net replacements during this period.
Science and Engineering Occupational Groups
Employment projections for science and engineering occupational groups are provided in Table 10, which includes the following for each group: 2012 actual employment, 2022 projected employment, the change in the number of jobs between 2012 and 2022, the total percentage increase in the number of jobs, the compound annual growth rate in the number of jobs, and the total job openings due to growth and net replacements.
Among the S&E occupational groups, computer occupations are projected to see the largest increase in the number employed (651,500) and the largest number of job openings (1,240,100). Computer occupations, which accounted for 55.2% of all S&E jobs in 2012, are projected to account for 68.3% of the total growth in S&E occupations between 2012 and 2022. (See Figure 6.) As a result, the share of all S&E jobs accounted for by computer occupations is projected to rise from 55.2% in 2012 to 56.9% in 2022.
Mathematical occupations are projected to have the fastest employment growth (2.4% CAGR), increasing their projected share of total S&E employment slightly to 2.2% in 2022.
The occupational groups that are projected to account for a smaller share of total S&E job growth than their share of total 2012 S&E employment are:
Engineers—projected to account for 14.4% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 23.8% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2020 S&E employment to 22.7%;
Physical scientists—projected to account for 3.8% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 5.9% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 5.6%; and
Life scientists—projected to account for 2.9% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 4.4% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 4.2%; and
S&E managers—projected to account for 7.0% of total S&E job growth during the 2012-2022 period, below their 8.7% share of S&E employment in 2012, thus reducing their projected share of 2022 S&E employment to 8.5%.
Table 10. 2012-2022 Employment Projections for S&E Occupational Groups
Numbers in thousands, except percent and CAGR
Occupations
|
Employment
|
Change, 2012-2022
|
Job Openings Due to Growth and Net Replacements
|
2012
|
2022
|
Number
|
%
|
CAGR
|
Computer Occupations
|
3,682.1
|
4,333.6
|
651.5
|
17.7%
|
1.6%
|
1,240.1
|
Mathematical Occupations
|
130.5
|
164.7
|
34.2
|
26.2%
|
2.4%
|
67.7
|
Engineers
|
1,589.6
|
1,726.4
|
136.8
|
8.6%
|
0.8%
|
544.3
|
Life Scientists
|
294.3
|
322.0
|
27.7
|
9.4%
|
0.9%
|
104.7
|
Physical Scientists
|
393.6
|
429.7
|
36.1
|
9.2%
|
0.9%
|
140.9
|
S&E Managers
|
578.1
|
645.0
|
66.9
|
11.6%
|
1.1%
|
171.4
|
S&E Occupations, Total
|
6,668.2
|
7,621.4
|
953.2
|
14.3%
|
1.3%
|
2,269.1
|
Selected Other Professional and Related Occupations
Lawyers
|
759.8
|
834.7
|
74.8
|
9.8%
|
0.9%
|
196.5
|
Dentists
|
146.8
|
170.2
|
23.3
|
15.9%
|
1.5%
|
59.1
|
Physicians and Surgeons
|
691.4
|
814.7
|
123.3
|
17.8%
|
1.7%
|
296.4
|
Registered Nurses
|
2,711.5
|
3,238.4
|
526.8
|
19.4%
|
1.8%
|
1,052.6
|
Accountants and auditors
|
1,275.4
|
1,442.2
|
166.7
|
13.1%
|
1.2%
|
544.2
|
Total, All Occupations
|
145,355.8
|
160,983.7
|
15,628.0
|
10.8%
|
1.0%
|
50,557.3
|
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Notes: Numbers for S&E occupational groups may not add due to rounding of component occupations.
Figure 6. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Growth,2012-2022, by S&E Occupational Group
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Notes: Numbers are rounded and may not add to 100%.
|
Across all occupations (not just S&E occupations) the number needed to replace those exiting the workforce (34.9 million) is expected to be more than twice the number of new jobs created (15.6 million). For certain S&E occupational groups, in contrast, the number of openings resulting from growth in the number employed is expected to exceed the number of openings resulting from those exiting the occupations (net replacements). For example, BLS projects an increase of 651,500 jobs in the computer occupations between 2012 and 2022. During the same period, BLS projects that there will be 588,600 job openings in computer occupations due to net replacement needs. Similarly, for the mathematics occupations, the increase in jobs (34,200) exceeds the number needed to replace those exiting the field (33,500). For certain other S&E occupational groups, however, net replacement needs greatly exceed the number of projected new jobs in the occupation as for the workforce as a whole. For engineering occupations, BLS projects that 75% of job openings in the 2012 to 2022 period will result from the need to replace those exiting the occupations (407,500 job openings due to net replacement needs and 136,800 due to increases in the number of engineering jobs). Figure 7 illustrates the composition of total projected S&E job openings (due to growth and net replacements) by S&E occupational group.
Figure 7. Share of Total Projected S&E Occupational Job Openings (Job Growth plus Net Replacement Needs), 2012-2022, by S&E Occupational Group
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
Notes: Numbers are rounded and may not add to 100%.
|
Detailed Science and Engineering Occupations
The Bureau of Labor Statistics' projected job growth and projected total job openings (job growth plus net replacements) for the S&E occupations vary substantially during the 2012-2022 projection period. Table 11-Table 16 show the top 10 S&E occupations in terms of job growth, job losses, and job openings.
Table 11 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the highest projected growth in jobs. Eight of the ten S&E occupations on this list are in the computer occupations. One of the remaining two occupations is computer and information systems managers. The only non-IT occupation in the top 10 is civil engineers.
Table 11. S&E Occupations with the Highest Projected Growth in Jobs and Other Selected Occupations, 2012-2022
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Projected Average Annual Job Growtha
1
|
Software developers, applications
|
13,990
|
2
|
Computer systems analysts
|
12,770
|
3
|
Computer user support specialists
|
11,080
|
4
|
Software developers, systems software
|
8,280
|
5
|
Civil engineers
|
5,370
|
6
|
Computer and information systems managers
|
5,090
|
7
|
Network and computer systems administrators
|
4,290
|
8
|
Web developers
|
2,850
|
9
|
Computer programmers
|
2,840
|
10
|
Information security analysts
|
2,740
|
Non S&E Selected Occupations with Highest Projected Growth
|
Personal Care Aides
|
58,080
|
Registered Nurses
|
52,680
|
Retail Salespersons
|
43,470
|
Home Health Aides
|
42,420
|
Combined food preparation/serving workers, incl. fast food
|
42,190
|
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Table 12 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the smallest projected growth in jobs. The list includes occupations from physical and life sciences, mathematics, and engineering occupations. The number of new jobs projected to be created in these 10 occupations total less than 300 per year.
Table 12. S&E Occupations with the Smallest Projected Growth in Jobs, 2012-2022
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Projected Average Annual Job Growtha
1
|
Biological scientists, all other
|
-20
|
2
|
Conservation scientists
|
10
|
3
|
Agricultural engineers
|
10
|
4
|
Animal scientists
|
20
|
5
|
Materials engineers
|
20
|
6
|
Astronomers
|
30
|
7
|
Mathematical science occupations, all other
|
30
|
8
|
Materials scientists
|
40
|
9
|
Epidemiologists
|
50
|
10
|
Foresters
|
70
|
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Table 13 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fastest projected job growth rates. Information security analysts (3.2%) and biomedical engineers (2.4% CAGR) are the fastest growing S&E occupations. The remaining occupations on the list range from 1.9% to 2.4% CAGR, faster than the overall projected job growth rate for all occupations (1.0% CAGR). The list includes four computer occupations, four mathematical occupations, and two engineering occupations.
Table 13. S&E Occupations with the Fastest Projected Job Growth Rates, 2012-2022
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR)
|
Projected Average Annual Job Growtha
1
|
Information security analysts
|
3.2%
|
2,740
|
2
|
Biomedical engineers
|
2.4%
|
520
|
3
|
Operation research analysts
|
2.4%
|
1,950
|
4
|
Statisticians
|
2.4%
|
740
|
5
|
Actuaries
|
2.3%
|
630
|
6
|
Petroleum engineers
|
2.3%
|
980
|
7
|
Computer systems analysts
|
2.2%
|
12,770
|
8
|
Mathematicians
|
2.1%
|
80
|
9
|
Software developers, applications
|
2.1%
|
13,990
|
10
|
Software developers, systems software
|
1.9%
|
8,280
|
Non S&E Occupations with Fastest Projected Growth
|
Industrial-organizational psychologists
|
4.6%
|
90
|
Personal care aides
|
4.1%
|
58,080
|
Home health aides
|
4.0%
|
42,420
|
Insulation workers, mechanical
|
3.9%
|
1,350
|
Interpreters and translators
|
3.9%
|
2,930
|
All Occupations
|
1.0%
|
1,562,800
|
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Table 14 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the slowest projected job growth rates, ranging from -0.1% to 0.4% CAGR, well below the overall projected job growth rate of 1.0% CAGR. The list includes seven engineering occupations, two biological sciences occupations, and one computer occupation.
Table 14. S&E Occupations with the Slowest Projected Job Growth Rates, 2012-2022
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Projected Job Growth Rate (CAGR)
|
Projected Average Annual Job Growtha
1
|
Biological scientists, all other
|
-0.1%
|
-20
|
2
|
Materials engineers
|
0.1%
|
20
|
3
|
Conservation scientists
|
0.1%
|
10
|
4
|
Electronics engineers, except computer
|
0.3%
|
480
|
5
|
Computer occupations, all others
|
0.4%
|
780
|
6
|
Engineers, all others
|
0.4%
|
510
|
7
|
Agricultural engineers
|
0.4%
|
10
|
8
|
Mechanical engineers
|
0.4%
|
1,160
|
9
|
Chemical engineers
|
0.4%
|
150
|
10
|
Industrial engineers
|
0.4%
|
1,010
|
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Table 15 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the most projected job openings (jobs growth plus net replacements). This category shows where the most job opportunities are projected to be. Six of the ten occupations are computer occupations and another is computer and information systems managers. The other three occupations on the list are engineering occupations—civil, mechanical, and industrial engineering.
Table 15. S&E Occupations with the Most Projected Job Openings, 2012-2022
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Projected Average Annual Job Openingsa
1
|
Software developers, applications
|
21,850
|
2
|
Computer systems analysts
|
20,960
|
3
|
Computer user support specialists
|
19,690
|
4
|
Software developers, systems software
|
13,470
|
5
|
Civil engineers
|
12,010
|
6
|
Computer programmers
|
11,810
|
7
|
Network and computer systems administrators
|
10,050
|
8
|
Mechanical engineers
|
9,970
|
9
|
Computer and information systems managers
|
9,710
|
10
|
Industrial engineers
|
7,540
|
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Table 16 shows the 10 S&E occupations with the fewest projected job openings. This list includes occupations from the life sciences, engineering, physical sciences, and mathematical fields.
Table 16. S&E Occupations with the Fewest Projected Job Openings, 2012-2022
Rank
|
S&E Occupation
|
Projected Average Annual Job Openingsa
1
|
Mathematical science occupations, all other
|
70
|
2
|
Agricultural engineers
|
80
|
3
|
Astronomers
|
90
|
4
|
Animal scientists
|
120
|
5
|
Epidemiologists
|
160
|
6
|
Mathematicians
|
170
|
7
|
Materials scientists
|
260
|
8
|
Marine engineers and naval architects
|
260
|
9
|
Hydrologists
|
290
|
10
|
Mining and geological engineers, incl. mining safety engineers
|
300
|
Source: CRS analysis of Employment Projections, 2012-2022, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
a. The numbers in this column are derived by dividing the net job creation during the 2012-2022 projection period for each occupation by 10 to get the average annual number of net new jobs created.
Concluding Observations
Scientists and engineers are widely believed to be essential to U.S. technological leadership, innovation, manufacturing, and services, and thus vital to U.S. economic strength, national defense, and other societal needs (e.g., treating and preventing diseases, ensuring access to affordable energy, protecting and restoring the environment). The adequacy of the U.S. science and engineering workforce has been an ongoing concern of Congress for more than 60 years. Congress has enacted many programs to support the education and development of scientists and engineers. Congress has also undertaken broad efforts improve science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) skills to prepare a greater number of students to pursue science and engineering (S&E) degrees. Some policy makers have sought to increase the number of foreign scientists and engineers working in the United States through changes in visa and immigration policies.
While there is a broad consensus on the important role of scientists and engineers to the United States, policy makers, business leaders, academicians, S&E professional society analysts, economists, and others hold diverse views with respect to the adequacy of the S&E workforce and related policy issues. In particular, there are varying perspectives about whether a shortage of scientists and engineers exists in the United States, what the nature of such a shortage might be (e.g., too few people with S&E degrees, a mismatch of worker skills and employer needs), and whether the federal government should undertake policy interventions to address a putative shortage or allow market forces to work in this labor market.
Perspectives on the Adequacy of the U.S. S&E Workforce
Here are some general ways in which their views may be expressed:
There is a shortage. There is a shortage (or a looming shortage) of scientists and engineers (or alternatively, an inadequate supply of workers with degrees in science and engineering fields), and this may result in the loss of U.S. scientific, engineering, technological, and industrial leadership, with consequent effects on areas such as economic growth, job creation, standard of living, and national security.26
There is not a shortage. Assertions of a broad shortage of scientists and engineers are not supported by the data when considering indicators such as employment growth, wage growth, and unemployment rates.27
More scientists and engineers are needed regardless of the existence of a shortage. Historically, federal policies, programs, and investments have contributed to the development of the United States' scientific and engineering workforce. Regardless of whether demand currently exceeds supply, increasing the number of U.S. scientists and engineers will increase U.S. innovation, economic performance, and job creation. Even if there is not a shortage of scientists and engineers, jobs in many occupations require a higher level of STEM knowledge than ever before.28 Students who earn S&E degrees gain thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and STEM knowledge that will enable them to be successful not only in S&E occupations, but also in S&E-related careers and in non-S&E fields where they can apply their S&E knowledge and skills.29
Government interventions in the S&E labor market to address perceived
shortages
may introduce inefficiencies.may introduce inefficiencies. Federal government efforts to increase
the number of scientists and engineers by incentivizing the pursuit of degrees in
S&E disciplines and/or increasing immigration quotas may result in less efficient
operation of the S&E labor market
(e.g.. For example, too many students
may be educated in S&E for
the number of jobs available
; lower salaries for and graduates who find S&E jobs
).28
•
may receive lower salaries.30
Workforce projections are unreliable for predicting shortages
. . Long-term
projections for S&E occupations are unreliable.
2931 Relying on such projections
could possibly may result in the preparation of too many or too few students with
S&E degrees or in mismatches between the students
’' education and market
needs. Among the difficulties in making long
-term projections are unexpected
changes in
: the mix of industrial output or employment due to technological or
market changes
; the use of, factor substitution (e.g.,
substitution of capital for labor)
resulting from
changes in factor prices;due to changes in prices, changes in retirement behavior
;, the availability of foreign labor
sources;, labor market demographics
; and government policies.30
(...continued)
Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007
(Washington: GPO, 2008); Robert J. Samuelson, “Sputnik Scare, Updated” Washington Post, August 26, 2005, p. A27,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/25/AR2005052501812.html; and Michael
Teitelbaum, “The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: An Unconventional Portrait,” Pan-Organizational Summit
on the U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce, Government-Industry-University Research Roundtable, National
Research Council, 2003, pp. 1-7, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10727.
26
See, for example, U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee, Chairman’s Staff, STEM Education: Preparing for the
Jobs of the Future, April 2012, http://www.jec.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?a=Files.Serve&File_id=6aaa7e1f-958647be-82e7-326f47658320.
27
See, for example, Vern Ehlers, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The
Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008).
28
See, for example, Leonard Lynn, Case Western Reserve University, and Hal Salzman, Rutgers University,
“Dynamics of Engineering Labor Markets: Petroleum Engineering and Responsive Supply,” presentation at “U.S.
Engineering in the Global Economy,” sponsored by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Cambridge, MA, September 26,
2011, http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/salzman/dynamics.pdf.
29
See, for example, Office of Technology Assessment, Demographic Trends and the Scientific and Engineering
Workforce, OTA-TM-SET-35, December 1985, http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk2/1985/8507/8507.PDF.
30
See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Is a Great Labor Shortage Coming? Replacement Demand in the Global
Economy, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 12541, Cambridge, MA, September 2006,
http://www.nber.org/papers/w12541.
Congressional Research Service
28
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
•
, and government policies.32
There may be shortages in certain
industriesindustries, occupations, or fields.
Shortages may exist in some S&E occupations or for certain employers, for
example in new and emerging S&E fields (e.g., nanotechnology)
,; cyclical
industries (e.g., aerospace); in fields where foreign scientists and engineers may
not be employed due to export control laws; and for employers otherwise limited,
in general or for specific purposes, to using only U.S. citizens.
•
The
The labor market will resolve such needs
. . If markets are allowed to
operate freely (i.e., without government interventions), any short-term
“shortages” "shortages" will be resolved as wages equilibrate demand and supply,
labor
as the labor supply increases (
i.ee.g., as more students earn S&E degrees) in response to
market signals, or through substitution of alternative inputs.
31
•
33
The potential adverse consequences of even discrete shortages require
government interventions. These shortages should be met with federal
efforts to increase supply or the United States may face the loss of
technological leadership in new and emerging fields, lower economic
performance, and diminished national security.
32
•
34
Industry assertions of shortages are driven by a desire to reduce costs
,
and/or increase current knowledge
. . Industry assertions of S&E shortages are driven
primarily by a desire to lower their labor costs through increased supply
and by
by providing a continuous stream of young, lower-cost recent college graduates
(i.e.,
through education
and, training
, and immigration. These new hires can and by increases in immigrant visas) who can be
hired to replace older, higher-cost workers with less current knowledge.
33
•
The real35
The real issue is a skills mismatch, not a shortage of people. The difficulty
employers have in meeting their S&E workforce needs (in particular their
information technology workforce needs) results primarily from a mismatch
between the specific skills—or combinations of knowledge, skills, and
experience—needed by employers and those held by S&E workers.
34
•
Expanding immigration36
Expanding immigration can help address the shortage. Immigration policies
directed at increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers in the United
States puts the creativity of the world
’'s best and brightest to work for the U.S.
economy and
preventsreduces the loss of U.S.-educated foreign nationals with S&E
degrees (i.e., returning to their countries of origin, working in countries other
than the United States).35
31
See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Does Globalization of the Scientific/Engineering Workforce Threaten U.S.
Economic Leadership?, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 11457, Cambridge, MA, June 2005,
http://www.nber.org/papers/w11457.pdf.
32
See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing
America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007.
33
See, for example, various writings of Norm Matloff, Professor of Computer Science, University of California at
Davis, http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/matloff.html.
34
See, for example, Tom Kucharvy, Solutions to STEM Skills Mismatch, Beyond IT, February 25, 2012, http://beyondit-inc.com/GKEblog/solutions-to-stem-skills-mismatch.html; and “Statistic of the Month: Investigating the Skills
Mismatch,” Center on International Education Benchmarking, July 31, 2012, http://www.ncee.org/2012/07/statistic-ofthe-month-investigating-the-skills-mismatch.
35
See, for example, Vivek Wadhwa, Anna Lee Saxenian, Richard Freeman, and Alex Salever, Losing the World’s Best
and Brightest: America’s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, March 2009,
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
29
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
•
Expanding immigration than the United States or their countries of origin).37
Expanding immigration will dampen the market signals that would
otherwise drive more U.S. students into science and engineering. Visa and
immigration policies directed at increasing the number of foreign scientists and
engineers in the United States may, by increasing the overall supply of scientists
and engineers, depress wages, increase unemployment, and reduce career
opportunities for U.S. scientists and engineers; discourage American students
from pursuing S&E degrees and careers; and cloud labor market signals (e.g.,
wage increases, lower unemployment wage growth, unemployment rates) to students considering pursing S&E
degrees and careers.
36
•
38
U.S. students lag those of other nations in STEM knowledge; federal efforts
to improve STEM education are needed
. . U.S. students lag foreign students in
STEM knowledge
possibly resulting, and this may result in fewer and/or less-talented U.S. scientists
and engineers, lower economic growth, and reduced economic competitiveness.
37
39 Federal policies and programs can help to build a stronger K-12 STEM education
system.
•
International assessments do not reflect the adequacy of U.S. student STEM
knowledge. Standardized tests used to compare the STEM knowledge of U.S.
K12K-12 students to those of other nations
doesdo not appropriately reflect the STEM
knowledge of U.S. students, the adequacy of their preparation to pursue S&E
degrees and occupations, or their future capabilities as scientists and engineers.
38
40Perspectives on Ways to Foster Development of the S&E Workforce
These disparate perspectives contribute to a variety of opinions on the
role(s)roles the federal
government should play in fostering the development of the S&E workforce
, including the merits
of federal policies focused on:
•
increasing the number of students pursuing S&E degrees;
(...continued)
http://www.kauffman.org/uploadedFiles/ResearchAndPolicy/Losing_the_World%27s_Best_and_Brightest.pdf; The
White House, “Fact Sheet: Fixing Our Broken Immigration System So Everyone Plays by the Rules,” press release,
January 29, 2013, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/01/29/fact-sheet-fixing-our-broken-immigrationsystem-so-everyone-plays-rules; and Robert D. Atkinson, Eight Ideas for Improving the America COMPETES Act,
Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March 2010, http://www.itif.org/files/2010-americacompetes.pdf.
36
See, for example, Ross Eisenbrey, Vice President, Economic Policy Institute, “Op-Ed: America’s Genius Glut,” New
York Times, February 7, 2013; Remarks of Brian Keane, Founder and CEO, Ameritas Technologies, and Neeraj Gupta,
Founder and CEO, Systems in Motion, at Senate briefing on “Understanding the Impact of the H-1B Program: On the
Economy, Employers and Workers,” March 14, 2013, http://www.epi.org/files/2013/Keane_H1B_briefing_14_March_2013.pdf; and Stan Sorscher, Labor Representative, Society of Professional Engineering
Employees in Aerospace, Flooding the STEM Labor Market, March 3, 2013, http://www.ifpte.org/downloads/issues/
2013-3-3%20Flooding%20the%20STEM%20labor%20market.pdf.
37
U.S. Department of Education, “Secretary Arne Duncan’s Remarks at OECD’s Release of the Program for
International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 Results,” press release, December 7, 2010, http://www.ed.gov/news/
speeches/secretary-arne-duncans-remarks-oecds-release-program-international-student-assessment; Paul E. Peterson,
Ludger Woessmann, Eric A. Hanushek, and Carlos X. Lastra-Anadon, Globally Challenged: Are U.S. Students Ready
to Compete, Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, PEPG Report No. 11-03, August 2011,
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/PEPG11-03_GloballyChallenged.pdf; and Brandon Wright, “What do
International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance,” Thomas B. Fordham Institute, January 24, 2013,
http://www.edexcellence.net/commentary/education-gadfly-weekly/2013/january-24/what-do-international-tests-reallyshow-about-us-performance.html.
38
Martin Carnoy and Richard Rothstein, What Do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance,
Economic Policy Institute, January 15, 2013, http://www.epi.org/publication/us-student-performance-testing.
Congressional Research Service
30
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
•
increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers admitted to the United
States;
•
increasing the number and share of underrepresented minorities and women in
science and engineering;
•
improving K-12 STEM education; and
•
improving career information and counseling for high school students.
As Congress considers approaches to bolstering U.S. competitiveness and scientific, engineering,
technological, and industrial leadership, it may wish to consider these perspectives and opinions.
Congressional Research Service
31
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Appendix. S&E Occupational Descriptions and
Entry-Level Education Requirements
Occupation
Description
Entry-level
Education
Computer Occupations
Computer and
Information
Research Scientists
Computer and information research scientists invent and design new technology and
find new uses for existing technology. They study and solve complex problems in
computing for business, science, medicine, and other uses.
Doctoral or
professional
degree
Computer
Programmers
Computer programmers write code to create software programs. They turn the
program designs created by software developers and engineers into instructions that a
computer can follow.
Bachelor’s
degree
Computer Support
Specialists
Computer support specialists provide help and advice to people and organizations using
computer software or equipment. Some, called technical support specialists, support
information technology (IT) employees within their organization. Others, called helpdesk technicians, assist non-IT users who are having computer problems.
Some college,
no degree
Computer Systems
Analysts
Computer systems analysts study an organization's current computer systems and
procedures and make recommendations to management to help the organization
operate more efficiently and effectively. They bring business and information technology
(IT) together by understanding the needs and limitations of both.
Bachelor’s
degree
Database
Administrators
Database administrators use software to store and organize data, such as financial
information and customer shipping records. They make sure that data are available to
users and are secure from unauthorized access.
Bachelor’s
degree
Information Security
Analysts, Web
Developers, and
Computer Network
Architects
Information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects all use
information technology (IT) to advance their organization’s goals. Security analysts
ensure a firm’s information stays safe from cyberattacks. Web developers create
websites to help firms have a public face. Computer network architects create the
internal networks all workers within organizations use.
Bachelor’s
degree
Network and
Computer Systems
Administrators
Network and computer systems administrators are responsible for the day-to-day
operation of an organization’s computer networks. They organize, install, and support
an organization’s computer systems, including local area networks (LANs), wide area
networks (WANs), network segments, intranets, and other data communication
systems.
Bachelor’s
degree
Software Developers
Software developers are the creative minds behind computer programs. Some develop
the applications that allow people to do specific tasks on a computer or other device.
Others develop the underlying systems that run the devices or control networks.
Bachelor’s
degree
Mathematical Occupations
Actuaries
Actuaries analyze the financial costs of risk and uncertainty. They use mathematics,
statistics, and financial theory to assess the risk that an event will occur and to help
businesses and clients develop policies that minimize the cost of that risk.
Bachelor’s
degree
Mathematicians
Mathematicians use high-level mathematics and technology to develop new
mathematical principles, understand relationships between existing principles, and solve
real-world problems.
Master’s
degree
Operations
Research Analysts
Operations research analysts use advanced methods of analysis to help organizations
solve problems and make better decisions.
Bachelor’s
degree
Statisticians
Statisticians use mathematical techniques to analyze and interpret data and draw
conclusions.
Master’s
degree
Congressional Research Service
32
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Occupation
Description
Entry-level
Education
Engineers
Aerospace Engineers
Aerospace engineers design aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, and missiles. In addition, they
test prototypes to make sure that they function according to design.
Bachelor’s
degree
Agricultural
Engineers
Agricultural engineers—also known as biological and agricultural engineers—work on a
variety of activities. These activities range from aquaculture (raising food, such as fish,
that thrive in water) to land farming to forestry; from developing biofuels to improving
conservation; from planning animal environments to finding better ways to process
food.
Bachelor’s
degree
Biomedical Engineers
Biomedical engineers analyze and design solutions to problems in biology and medicine,
with the goal of improving the quality and effectiveness of patient care.
Bachelor’s
degree
Chemical Engineers
Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry, biology, and physics to solve
problems. These problems involve the production or use of chemicals, fuel, drugs, food,
and many other products. They design processes and equipment for large-scale safe and
sustainable manufacturing, plan and test methods of manufacturing products and
treating byproducts, and supervise production.
Bachelor’s
degree
Civil Engineers
Civil engineers design and supervise large construction projects, including roads,
buildings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and systems for water supply and sewage
treatment.
Bachelor’s
degree
Computer
Hardware Engineers
Computer hardware engineers research, design, develop, and test computer equipment
such as chips, circuit boards, or routers. By solving complex problems in computer
hardware, these engineers create rapid advances in computer technology.
Bachelor’s
degree
Electrical and
Electronics
Engineers
Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacturing of electrical
equipment such as electric motors, radar and navigation systems, communications
systems, and power generation equipment. Electronics engineers design and develop
electronic equipment, such as broadcast and communications systems—from portable
music players to global positioning systems (GPS).
Bachelor’s
degree
Environmental
Engineers
Environmental engineers use the principles of engineering, soil science, biology, and
chemistry to develop solutions to environmental problems. They are involved in efforts
to improve recycling, waste disposal, public health, and control of water and air
pollution.
Bachelor’s
degree
Health and Safety
Engineers
Health and safety engineers develop procedures and design systems to keep people
from getting sick or injured and to keep property from being damaged. They combine
knowledge of health or safety and of systems engineering to make sure that chemicals,
machinery, software, furniture, and other products are not going to cause harm to
people or buildings.
Bachelor’s
degree
Industrial Engineers
Industrial engineers find ways to eliminate wastefulness in production processes. They
devise efficient ways to use workers, machines, materials, information, and energy to
make a product or provide a service.
Bachelor’s
degree
Marine Engineers
and Naval Architects
Marine engineers and naval architects design, build, and maintain ships from aircraft
carriers to submarines, from sailboats to tankers. Marine engineers work on the
mechanical systems, such as propulsion and steering. Naval architects work on the basic
design, including the form and stability of hulls.
Bachelor’s
degree
Materials Engineers
Materials engineers develop, process, and test materials used to create a range of
products, from computer chips and aircraft wings to golf clubs and snow skis. They also
help select materials and develop new ways to use materials.
Bachelor’s
degree
Mechanical
Engineers
Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Mechanical
engineers design, develop, build, and test mechanical devices, including tools, engines,
and machines.
Bachelor’s
degree
Congressional Research Service
33
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Occupation
Description
Entry-level
Education
Mining and
Geological Engineers
Mining and geological engineers design mines for the safe and efficient removal of
minerals, such as coal and metals, for manufacturing and utilities.
Bachelor’s
degree
Nuclear Engineers
Nuclear engineers research and develop the processes, instruments, and systems used
to get benefits from nuclear energy and radiation. Many of these engineers find
industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials—for example, in equipment used in
medical diagnosis and treatment.
Bachelor’s
degree
Petroleum Engineers
Petroleum engineers design and develop methods for extracting oil and gas from
deposits below the earth’s surface. Petroleum engineers also find new ways to extract
oil and gas from older wells.
Bachelor’s
degree
Life Scientists
Agricultural and
Food Scientists
Agricultural and food scientists work to ensure agricultural productivity and food
safety.
Agricultural
and food
scientists: at
least a
bachelor’s
degree.
Food scientists
and soil and
plant
scientists:
typically a
bachelor’s
degree.
Most animal
scientists earn
a Ph.D.
Biochemists and
Biophysicists
Biochemists and biophysicists study the chemical and physical principles of living things
and of biological processes such as cell development, growth, and heredity.
Doctoral or
professional
degree
Microbiologists
Microbiologists study the growth, development, and other characteristics of
microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, and fungi.
Bachelor’s
degree
Zoologists and
Wildlife Biologists
Zoologists and wildlife biologists study the characteristics and habitats of animals and
wildlife.
Bachelor’s
degree
Conservation
Scientists and
Foresters
Conservation scientists and foresters manage overall land quality of forests, parks,
rangelands, and other natural resources.
Bachelor’s
degree
Epidemiologists
Epidemiologists investigate the causes of disease and other public health problems to
prevent them from spreading or from happening again. They report their findings to
public policy officials and to the general public.
Master’s
degree
Medical Scientists
Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health. They
often use clinical trials and other investigative methods to reach their findings.
Doctoral or
professional
degree
Physical Scientists
Physicists and
Astronomers
Physicists and astronomers study the fundamental nature of the universe, ranging from
the vastness of space to the smallest of subatomic particles. They develop new
technologies, methods, and theories based on the results of their research that deepen
our understanding of how things work and contribute to innovative, real-world
applications.
Congressional Research Service
Doctoral or
professional
degree
34
The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce
Occupation
Description
Entry-level
Education
Atmospheric
Scientists, Including
Meteorologists
Atmospheric scientists study weather, climate, and other aspects of the atmosphere.
They develop reports and forecasts from their analysis of weather and climate data.
Bachelor’s
degree
Chemists and
Materials Scientists
Chemists and materials scientists study the structures, compositions, reactions, and
other properties of substances. They use their knowledge to develop new and
improved products, processes, and materials.
Bachelor’s
degree
Environmental
Scientists and
Specialists
Environmental scientists and specialists use their knowledge of the natural sciences to
protect the environment. They identify problems and find solutions that minimize
hazards to the health of the environment and the population.
Bachelor’s
degree
Geoscientists
Geoscientists study the physical aspects of the Earth, such as its composition, structure,
and processes, to learn about its past, present, and future.
Bachelor’s
degree
Hydrologists
Hydrologists study water and the water cycle. They use their expertise to solve
problems in the areas of water quality or availability.
Master’s
degree
S&E Managers
Architectural and
Engineering
Managers
Architectural and engineering managers plan, coordinate, and direct activities in
architecture and engineering, including research and development in these fields.
Bachelor’s
degree
Computer and
Information Systems
Managers
Computer and information systems managers, often called information technology
managers (IT managers or IT project managers), plan, coordinate, and direct computerrelated activities in an organization. They help determine the information technology
goals of an organization and are responsible for implementing the appropriate computer
systems to meet those goals.
Bachelor’s
degree
Natural Sciences
Managers
Natural sciences managers supervise the work of scientists, including chemists,
physicists, and biologists. They direct research and development projects and
coordinate activities such as testing, quality control, and production.
Bachelor’s
degree
Source: Occupational Outlook Handbook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/
ooh/management/home.htm.
Author Contact Information
John F. Sargent Jr.
Specialist in Science and Technology Policy
jsargent@crs.loc.gov, 7-9147
Congressional Research Service
35
increasing the number of students pursuing S&E degrees;
increasing the number of foreign scientists and engineers admitted to the United States;
increasing the number and share of underrepresented minorities and women in science and engineering;
improving K-12 STEM education; and
improving career information and counseling for high school students.As Congress considers approaches to bolstering U.S. competitiveness and scientific, engineering, technological, and industrial leadership, it may wish to consider these perspectives and opinions.
Appendix. S&E Occupational Descriptions and Entry-Level Education Requirements
Occupation
|
Description
|
Entry-level Education
|
Computer Occupations
|
Computer and Information Research Scientists
|
Conduct research into fundamental computer and information science as theorists, designers, or inventors. Develop solutions to problems in the field of computer hardware and software.
|
Doctoral or professional degree
|
Computer Programmers
|
Create, modify, and test the code, forms, and script that allow computer applications to run. Work from specifications drawn up by software developers or other individuals. May assist software developers by analyzing user needs and designing software solutions. May develop and write computer programs to store, locate, and retrieve specific documents, data, and information.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Computer User Support Specialists
|
Provide technical assistance to computer users. Answer questions or resolve computer problems for clients in person, or via telephone or electronically. May provide assistance concerning the use of computer hardware and software, including printing, installation, word processing, electronic mail, and operating systems.
|
Some college, no degree
|
Computer Network Support Specialists
|
Analyze, test, troubleshoot, and evaluate existing network systems, such as local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), and Internet systems or a segment of a network system. Perform network maintenance to ensure networks operate correctly with minimal interruption.
|
Associate's degree
|
Computer Systems Analysts
|
Analyze science, engineering, business, and other data processing problems to implement and improve computer systems. Analyze user requirements, procedures, and problems to automate or improve existing systems and review computer system capabilities, workflow, and scheduling limitations. May analyze or recommend commercially available software.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Database Administrators
|
Administer, test, and implement computer databases, applying knowledge of database management systems. Coordinate changes to computer databases. May plan, coordinate, and implement security measures to safeguard computer databases.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Information Security Analysts
|
Plan, implement, upgrade, or monitor security measures for the protection of computer networks and information. May ensure appropriate security controls are in place that will safeguard digital files and vital electronic infrastructure. May respond to computer security breaches and viruses.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Web Developers
|
Design, create, and modify websites. Analyze user needs to implement website content, graphics, performance, and capacity. May integrate Web sites with other computer applications. May convert written, graphic, audio, and video components to compatible Web formats by using software designed to facilitate the creation of Web and multimedia content.
|
Associate's degree
|
Computer Network Architects
|
Design and implement computer and information networks, such as local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN), intranets, extranets, and other data communications networks. Perform network modeling, analysis, and planning. May also design network and computer security measures. May research and recommend network and data communications hardware and software.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
|
Install, configure, and support an organization's local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), and Internet systems or a segment of a network system. Monitor network to ensure network availability to all system users and may perform necessary maintenance to support network availability. May monitor and test website performance to ensure Web sites operate correctly and without interruption. May assist in network modeling, analysis, planning, and coordination between network and data communications hardware and software. May supervise computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists. May administer network security measures.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Software Developers, Applications
|
Develop, create, and modify general computer applications software or specialized utility programs. Analyze user needs and develop software solutions. Design software or customize software for client use with the aim of optimizing operational efficiency. May analyze and design databases within an application area, working individually or coordinating database development as part of a team. May supervise computer programmers.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Software Developers, Systems Software
|
Research, design, develop, and test operating systems-level software, compilers, and network distribution software for medical, industrial, military, communications, aerospace, business, scientific, and general computing applications. Set operational specifications and formulate and analyze software requirements. May design embedded systems software. Apply principles and techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Computer Occupations, All Other
|
All computer occupations not listed separately. Excludes Computer and Information Systems Managers; Computer Hardware Engineers; Electrical and Electronics Engineers; Computer Science Teachers, Postsecondary; Multimedia Artists and Animators; Graphic Designers; Computer Operators; and Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairs.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Mathematical Occupations
|
Actuaries
|
Analyze statistical data, such as mortality, accident, sickness, disability, and retirement rates and construct probability tables to forecast risk and liability for payment of future benefits. May ascertain insurance rates required and cash reserves necessary to ensure payment of future benefits.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Mathematicians
|
Conduct research in fundamental mathematics or in application of mathematical techniques to science, management, and other fields. Solve problems in various fields using mathematical methods.
|
Master's degree
|
Operations Research Analysts
|
Formulate and apply mathematical modeling and other optimizing methods to develop and interpret information that assists management with decision making, policy formulation, or other managerial functions. May collect and analyze data and develop decision support software, service, or products. May develop and supply optimal time, cost, or logistics networks for program evaluation, review, or implementation.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Statisticians
|
Develop or apply mathematical or statistical theory and methods to collect, organize, interpret, and summarize numerical data to provide usable information. May specialize in fields such as bio-statistics, agricultural statistics, business statistics, or economic statistics. Includes mathematical and survey statisticians.
|
Master's degree
|
Mathematical Science Occupations, All Other
|
All mathematical scientists not listed separately.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Engineers
|
Aerospace Engineers
|
Perform engineering duties in designing, constructing, and testing aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. May conduct basic and applied research to evaluate adaptability of materials and equipment to aircraft design and manufacture. May recommend improvements in testing equipment and techniques.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Agricultural Engineers
|
Apply knowledge of engineering technology and biological science to agricultural problems concerned with power and machinery, electrification, structures, soil and water conservation, and processing of agricultural products.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Biomedical Engineers
|
Apply knowledge of engineering, biology, and biomechanical principles to the design, development, and evaluation of biological and health systems and products, such as artificial organs, prostheses, instrumentation, medical information systems, and heath management and care delivery systems.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Chemical Engineers
|
Design chemical plant equipment and devise processes for manufacturing chemicals and products, such as gasoline, synthetic rubber, plastics, detergents, cement, paper, and pulp, by applying principles and technology of chemistry, physics, and engineering.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Civil Engineers
|
Perform engineering duties in planning, designing, and overseeing construction and maintenance of building structures, and facilities, such as roads, railroads, airports, bridges, harbors, channels, dams, irrigation projects, pipelines, power plants, and water and sewage systems. Includes architectural, structural, traffic, ocean, and geo-technical engineers.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Computer Hardware Engineers
|
Research, design, develop, or test computer or computer-related equipment for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use. May supervise the manufacturing and installation of computer or computer-related equipment and components.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Electrical Engineers
|
Research, design, develop, test, or supervise the manufacturing and installation of electrical equipment, components, or systems for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Electronics Engineers, Except Computers
|
Research, design, develop, or test electronic components and systems for commercial, industrial, military, or scientific use employing knowledge of electronic theory and materials properties. Design electronic circuits and components for use in fields such as telecommunications, aerospace guidance and propulsion control, acoustics, or instruments and controls.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Environmental Engineers
|
Research, design, plan, or perform engineering duties in the prevention, control, and remediation of environmental hazards using various engineering disciplines. Work may include waste treatment, site remediation, or pollution control technology.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Health and Safety Engineers, except Mining Safety Engineers and Inspectors
|
Promote worksite or product safety by applying knowledge of industrial processes, mechanics, chemistry, psychology, and industrial health and safety laws. Includes industrial product safety engineers.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Industrial Engineers
|
Design, develop, test, and evaluate integrated systems for managing industrial production processes, including human work factors, quality control, inventory control, logistics and material flow, cost analysis, and production coordination.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Marine Engineers and Naval Architects
|
Design, develop, and evaluate the operation of marine vessels, ship machinery, and related equipment, such as power supply and propulsion systems.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Materials Engineers
|
Evaluate materials and develop machinery and processes to manufacture materials for use in products that must meet specialized design and performance specifications. Develop new uses for known materials. Includes those engineers working with composite materials or specializing in one type of material, such as graphite, metal and metal alloys, ceramics and glass, plastics and polymers, and naturally occurring materials. Includes metallurgists and metallurgical engineers, ceramic engineers, and welding engineers.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Mechanical Engineers
|
Perform engineering duties in planning and designing tools, engines, machines, and other mechanically functioning equipment. Oversee installation, operation, maintenance, and repair of equipment such as centralized heat, gas, water, and steam systems.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Mining and Geological Engineers
|
Conduct sub-surface surveys to identify the characteristics of potential land or mining development sites. May specify the ground support systems, processes and equipment for safe, economical, and environmentally sound extraction or underground construction activities. May inspect areas for unsafe geological conditions, equipment, and working conditions. May design, implement, and coordinate mine safety programs.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Nuclear Engineers
|
Conduct research on nuclear engineering projects or apply principles and theory of nuclear science to problems concerned with release, control, and use of nuclear energy and nuclear waste disposal.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Petroleum Engineers
|
Devise methods to improve oil and gas extraction and production and determine the need for new or modified tool designs. Oversee drilling and offer technical advice.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Engineers, All Other
|
All engineers not listed separately.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Life Scientists
|
Animal Scientists
|
Conduct research in the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals.
|
Doctoral or professional degree
|
Food Scientists and Technologists
|
Use chemistry, microbiology, engineering, and other sciences to study the principles underlying the processing and deterioration of foods; analyze food content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, and protein; discover new food sources; research ways to make processed foods safe, palatable, and healthful; and apply food science knowledge to determine best ways to process, package, preserve, store, and distribute food.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Soil and Plant Scientists
|
Conduct research in breeding, physiology, production, yield, and management of crops and agricultural plants or trees, shrubs, and nursery stock, their growth in soils, and control of pests; or study the chemical, physical, biological, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to plant or crop growth. May classify and map soils and investigate effects of alternative practices on soil and crop productivity.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Biochemists and Biophysicists
|
Study the chemical composition or physical principles of living cells and organisms, their electrical and mechanical energy, and related phenomena. May conduct research to further understanding of the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. May determine the effects of foods, drugs, serums, hormones, and other substances on tissues and vital processes of living organisms.
|
Doctoral or professional degree
|
Microbiologists
|
Investigate the growth, structure, development, and other characteristics of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Includes medical microbiologists who study the relationship between organisms and disease or the effects of antibiotics on microorganisms.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists
|
Study the origins, behavior, diseases, genetics, and life processes of animals and wildlife. May specialize in wildlife research and management. May collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of present and potential use of land and water habitats.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Biological Scientists, All Other
|
All biological scientists not listed separately.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Conservation Scientists
|
Manage, improve, and protect natural resources to maximize their use without damaging the environment. May conduct soil surveys and develop plans to eliminate soil erosion or to protect rangelands. May instruct farmers, agricultural production managers, or ranchers in best ways to use crop rotation, contour plowing, or terracing to conserve soil and water; in the number and kind of livestock and forage plants best suited to particular ranges; and in range and farm improvements, such as fencing and reservoirs for stock watering.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Foresters
|
Manage public and private forested lands for economic, recreational, and conservation purposes. May inventory the type, amount, and location of standing timber, appraise the timber's worth, negotiate the purchase, and draw up contracts for procurement. May determine how to conserve wildlife habitats, creek beds, water quality, and soil stability, and how best to comply with environmental regulations. May devise plans for planting and growing new trees, monitor trees for healthy growth, and determine optimal harvesting schedules.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Epidemiologists
|
Investigate and describe the determinants and distribution of disease, disability, or health outcomes. May develop the means for prevention and control.
|
Master's degree
|
Medical Scientists, except Epidemiologists
|
Conduct research dealing with the understanding of human diseases and the improvement of human health. Engage in clinical investigation, research and development, or other related activities. Includes physicians, dentists, public health specialists, pharmacologists, and medical pathologists who primarily conduct research.
|
Doctoral or professional degree
|
Life Scientists, All Other
|
All life scientists not listed separately.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Physical Scientists
|
Astronomers
|
Observe, research, and interpret astronomical phenomena to increase basic knowledge or apply such information to practical problems.
|
Doctoral or professional degree
|
Physicists
|
Conduct research into physical phenomena, develop theories on the basis of observation and experiments, and devise methods to apply physical laws and theories.
|
Doctoral or professional degree
|
Atmospheric and Space Scientists
|
Investigate atmospheric phenomena and interpret meteorological data, gathered by surface and air stations, satellites, and radar to prepare reports and forecasts for public and other uses. Includes weather analysts and forecasters whose functions require the detailed knowledge of meteorology.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Chemists
|
Conduct qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses or experiments in laboratories for quality or process control or to develop new products or knowledge.
|
Bachelor's degree
|
Materials Scientists
|
Research and study the structures and chemical properties of various natural and synthetic or composite materials, including metals, alloys, rubber, ceramics, semiconductors, polymers, and glass. Determine ways to strengthen or combine materials or develop new materials with new or specific properties for use in a variety of products and applications. Includes glass scientists, ceramic scientists, metallurgical scientists, and polymer scientists.
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Bachelor's degree
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Environmental Scientists and Specialists, including Health
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Conduct research or perform investigation for the purpose of identifying, abating, or eliminating sources of pollutants or hazards that affect either the environment or the health of the population. Using knowledge of various scientific disciplines, may collect, synthesize, study, report, and recommend action based on data derived from measurements or observations of air, food, soil, water, and other sources.
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Bachelor's degree
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Geoscientists, except Hydrologists and Geographers
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Study the composition, structure, and other physical aspects of the Earth. May use geological, physics, and mathematics knowledge in exploration for oil, gas, minerals, or underground water; or in waste disposal, land reclamation, or other environmental problems. May study the Earth's internal composition, atmospheres, oceans, and its magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces. Includes mineralogists, crystallographers, paleontologists, stratigraphers, geodesists, and seismologists.
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Bachelor's degree
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Hydrologists
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Research the distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and surface waters; and study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, movement through the earth, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere.
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Master's degree
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Physical Scientists, All Other
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All physical scientists not listed separately.
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Bachelor's degree
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S&E Managers
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Architectural and Engineering Managers
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Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as architecture and engineering or research and development in these fields.
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Bachelor's degree
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Computer and Information Systems Managers
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Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as electronic data processing, information systems, systems analysis, and computer programming.
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Bachelor's degree
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Natural Sciences Managers
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Plan, direct, or coordinate activities in such fields as life sciences, physical sciences, mathematics, statistics, and research and development in these fields.
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Bachelor's degree
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Source: Occupational Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_stru.htm; Employment Projections, BLS, U.S. Department of Labor, http://data.bls.gov/projections/occupationProj.
Footnotes
1.
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For additional information about P.L. 110-69 and P.L. 111-358, see CRS Report R42430, America COMPETES 2010 and the FY2013 Budget, by [author name scrubbed].
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2.
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For additional information, see CRS Report R42530, Immigration of Foreign Nationals with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Degrees , by [author name scrubbed].
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3.
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See, for example, Carolyn M. Veneri, "Can Occupational Labor Shortages Be Identified Using Available Data?," Monthly Labor Review, March 1999, p. 18.
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4.
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For purposes of the BLS analysis, the authors defined the STEM occupation group as consisting of 97 occupations, including computer and math sciences, architecture and engineering, life and physical sciences, managerial and post-secondary teaching occupations associated with these functional areas, and two sales occupations that require scientific or technical education at the postsecondary level—sales engineers and wholesale and engineering manufacturing sales representatives of technical and scientific products. Ben Cover, John Jones, and Audrey Watson, "Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Occupations: A Visual Essay," Monthly Labor Review, May 2011, p. 3.
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5.
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National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2012, January 2012, p. 3-10.
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6.
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National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, January 2008, p. 3-8.
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7.
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The Standard Occupational Classification system is a federal system that defines over 840 detailed occupations, and groups them into 461 broad occupations, 97 minor groups, and 23 major groups. Detailed occupations in the SOC with similar job duties, and in some cases skills, education, and/or training, are grouped together. The system is used by federal statistical agencies for the purpose of collecting, calculating, and disseminating data. First established in 1977, the SOC system has been revised periodically; the latest revision is the 2010 SOC.
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8.
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Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) employment figures for the occupation group "architectural and engineering managers" are reported as a single number, thus the architectural managers are included in this group, though data on architect and other architectural-related occupations are not otherwise included in this report.
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9.
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Occupational Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/oes.
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10.
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Current Population Survey, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/cps.
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11.
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Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/emp.
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12.
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The Current Employment Statistics survey provides industry employment data used by BLS in making its biennial 10-year projections. The CES survey does not collect occupational information.
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13.
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Telephone conversation with Michael Wolf, economist, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, March 4, 2013.
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14.
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BLS website, Occupational Employment Statistics, Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.bls.gov/oes/oes_ques.htm.
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15.
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BLS website, Employment Projections, Projections Methodology, http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_projections_methods.htm.
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16.
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For links to past evaluations of BLS projections, see http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_pub_projections_eval.htm. For the latest evaluation, see "Evaluating the 1996–2006 employment projections," by Ian D. Wyatt, Monthly Labor Review, September 2010, http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2010/09/art3full.pdf.
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17.
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Science and engineering occupations are part of the larger category of "Professional and Related Occupations" used in the Current Population Survey.
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18.
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Mathematical occupations was the only S&E occupational group with a higher unemployment rate (5.3%) than the professional and related occupations group (4.3%).
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19.
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The occupational classification system used in the Current Population Survey is based on the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification System but differs somewhat from those used by in the Occupational Employment Statistics survey.
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20.
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CPS does not publish unemployment rates for occupations with an employment base of less than 50,000.
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21.
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A compound annual growth rate (CAGR) is a calculated growth rate which, if applied year after year to a beginning amount reaches a specified final amount.
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22.
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Several changes were made in the occupational classifications used in the Occupational Employment Statistics survey over the 2008-2012 period in the computer occupations. For the most part, these changes involved minor changes in titles and definitions, and the splitting of some occupations into two or more occupations. According to BLS, these changes could have both direct and indirect effects on the way that employers classify particular jobs. For a more detailed explanation of these effects, please contact the author of this report.
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23.
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The definitions for computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists are broadly comparable to the previously used occupational classification "computer support specialists."
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24.
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The definitions for information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects are broadly comparable to the previously used occupational classification "information security analysts, web developers, and computer network architects."
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25.
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CRS analysis of BLS 2012-2022 employment projections, http://www.bls.gov/emp.
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26.
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See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11463; U.S. Department of Energy, Secretary Chu, Intel President Discuss Need for More U.S. Engineers, September 1, 2011, http://energy.gov/articles/secretary-chu-intel-president-discuss-need-more-us-engineers; Shirley Ann Jackson, President, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, The Quite Crisis: Falling Short in Producing American Scientific and Technical Talent, Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST), 2002; and Vinton G. Cerf, "How to Fire Up U.S. Innovation," Wall Street Journal, April 12, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704461304576216911954533514.html; and Rodney C. Atkins, Senior Vice President, Systems and Technology Group, IBM, "America Desperately Needs More STEM Students. Here's How to Get Them," Forbes, July 9, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/2012/07/09/america-desperately-needs-more-stem-students-heres-how-to-get-them.
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27.
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See, for example, testimony of Ralph Gomory, President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part I, 110th Cong., June 12, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); testimony of Michael Teitelbaum, Vice President, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and Harold Salzman, Senior Research Associate, The Urban Institute, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008); Robert J. Samuelson, "Sputnik Scare, Updated" Washington Post, August 26, 2005, p. A27, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/25/AR2005052501812.html; and Michael Teitelbaum, "The U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce: An Unconventional Portrait," Pan-Organizational Summit on the U.S. Science and Engineering Workforce, Government-Industry-University Research Roundtable, National Research Council, 2003, pp. 1-7, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10727.
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28.
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See, for example, U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee, Chairman's Staff, STEM Education: Preparing for the Jobs of the Future, April 2012, http://www.jec.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?a=Files.Serve&File_id=6aaa7e1f-9586-47be-82e7-326f47658320.
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29.
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See, for example, Vern Ehlers, before the U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Technology, The Globalization of R&D and Innovation, Part IV, 110th Cong., November 6, 2007 (Washington: GPO, 2008).
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30.
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See, for example, Leonard Lynn, Case Western Reserve University, and Hal Salzman, Rutgers University, "Dynamics of Engineering Labor Markets: Petroleum Engineering and Responsive Supply," presentation at "U.S. Engineering in the Global Economy," sponsored by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Cambridge, MA, September 26, 2011, http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/salzman/dynamics.pdf.
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31.
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See, for example, Office of Technology Assessment, Demographic Trends and the Scientific and Engineering Workforce, OTA-TM-SET-35, December 1985, http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk2/1985/8507/8507.PDF.
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32.
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See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Is a Great Labor Shortage Coming? Replacement Demand in the Global Economy, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 12541, Cambridge, MA, September 2006, http://www.nber.org/papers/w12541.
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33.
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See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Does Globalization of the Scientific/Engineering Workforce Threaten U.S. Economic Leadership?, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 11457, Cambridge, MA, June 2005, http://www.nber.org/papers/w11457.pdf.
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34.
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See, for example, National Research Council, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future, 2007.
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35.
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See, for example, various writings of Norm Matloff, Professor of Computer Science, University of California at Davis, http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/matloff.html.
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36.
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See, for example, Tom Kucharvy, Solutions to STEM Skills Mismatch, Beyond IT, February 25, 2012, http://beyond-it-inc.com/GKEblog/solutions-to-stem-skills-mismatch.html; and "Statistic of the Month: Investigating the Skills Mismatch," Center on International Education Benchmarking, July 31, 2012, http://www.ncee.org/2012/07/statistic-of-the-month-investigating-the-skills-mismatch.
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37.
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See, for example, Vivek Wadhwa, Anna Lee Saxenian, Richard Freeman, and Alex Salever, Losing the World's Best and Brightest: America's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, March 2009, http://www.kauffman.org/uploadedFiles/ResearchAndPolicy/Losing_the_World%27s_Best_and_Brightest.pdf; The White House, "Fact Sheet: Fixing Our Broken Immigration System So Everyone Plays by the Rules," press release, January 29, 2013, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/01/29/fact-sheet-fixing-our-broken-immigration-system-so-everyone-plays-rules; and Robert D. Atkinson, Eight Ideas for Improving the America COMPETES Act, Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, March 2010, http://www.itif.org/files/2010-america-competes.pdf.
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38.
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See, for example, Ross Eisenbrey, Vice President, Economic Policy Institute, "Op-Ed: America's Genius Glut," New York Times, February 7, 2013; Remarks of Brian Keane, Founder and CEO, Ameritas Technologies, and Neeraj Gupta, Founder and CEO, Systems in Motion, at Senate briefing on "Understanding the Impact of the H-1B Program: On the Economy, Employers and Workers," March 14, 2013, http://www.epi.org/files/2013/Keane_H-1B_briefing_14_March_2013.pdf; and Stan Sorscher, Labor Representative, Society of Professional Engineering Employees in Aerospace, Flooding the STEM Labor Market, March 3, 2013, http://www.ifpte.org/downloads/issues/2013-3-3%20Flooding%20the%20STEM%20labor%20market.pdf.
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39.
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U.S. Department of Education, "Secretary Arne Duncan's Remarks at OECD's Release of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 Results," press release, December 7, 2010, http://www.ed.gov/news/speeches/secretary-arne-duncans-remarks-oecds-release-program-international-student-assessment; Paul E. Peterson, Ludger Woessmann, Eric A. Hanushek, and Carlos X. Lastra-Anadon, Globally Challenged: Are U.S. Students Ready to Compete, Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, PEPG Report No. 11-03, August 2011, http://www.hks.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/PEPG11-03_GloballyChallenged.pdf; and Brandon Wright, "What do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance," Thomas B. Fordham Institute, January 24, 2013, http://www.edexcellence.net/commentary/education-gadfly-weekly/2013/january-24/what-do-international-tests-really-show-about-us-performance.html.
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40.
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Martin Carnoy and Richard Rothstein, What Do International Tests Really Show About U.S. Student Performance, Economic Policy Institute, January 15, 2013, http://www.epi.org/publication/us-student-performance-testing.
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