Order Code RS21372
Updated July 3, 2008
The European Union: Questions and Answers
Kristin Archick
Specialist in European Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Summary
This report describes the European Union (EU), its evolution, governing
institutions, trade policy, and efforts to forge common foreign and defense policies. The
report also addresses the EU-U.S. and EU-NATO relationships, which may be of
interest to the second session of the 110th Congress. It will be updated as events warrant.
For more information, see CRS Report RS21344, European Union Enlargement, by
Kristin Archick, and CRS Report RL34381, European Union-U.S. Trade and Investment
Relations: Key Issues, coordinated by Raymond Ahearn.
What Is the EU?
The EU is a treaty-based, institutional framework that defines and manages
economic and political cooperation among its 27 member states (Austria, Belgium,
Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United
Kingdom). The Union is the latest stage in a process of European integration begun after
World War II to promote peace and economic prosperity in Europe. Its founders hoped
that by creating communities of shared sovereignty — initially in areas of coal and steel
production, trade, and nuclear energy — another war in Europe would be unthinkable.
Since the 1950s, this European integration project has expanded to encompass other
economic sectors, a customs union, a single market in which goods, people, and capital
move freely, a common agricultural policy, and a common currency (the euro). Over the
last decade, EU member states have taken significant steps toward political integration
as well, with decisions to develop a common foreign policy and closer police and judicial
cooperation.
How Does the EU Work?
The EU represents a unique form of cooperation among sovereign states; it has been
built through a series of binding treaties. EU members work together through common
institutions (see next question). The EU is divided into three “pillars;” subjects and
decision-making processes differ in each. Pillar One is the European Community, which
encompasses economic, trade, and social policies ranging from agriculture to education.
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In Pillar One areas, by far the most developed and far-reaching, members have largely
pooled their national sovereignty and work together in EU institutions to set policy and
promote their collective interests. Decisions in Pillar One often have a supranational
character because most are made by a majority voting system. Pillar Two aims to
establish a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) to permit joint action in foreign
and security affairs. Pillar Three seeks to create a Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) policy
to foster common internal security measures and closer police and judicial coordination.
Under Pillars Two and Three, members have agreed to cooperate but decision-making is
intergovernmental and by consensus. Thus, members retain more discretion and the right
to veto certain measures.
How Is the EU Governed?
The EU is governed by several institutions. They do not correspond exactly to the
traditional division of power in democratic governments. Rather, they embody the EU’s
dual supranational and intergovernmental character:
!
The European Commission is essentially the EU’s executive and has the
sole right of legislative initiative. It upholds the interests of the Union as
a whole and ensures that the provisions of the EU treaties are carried out
properly. The 27 Commissioners are appointed by the member states for
five-year terms. Each Commissioner holds a distinct portfolio (e.g.,
agriculture). The Commission represents the EU internationally and
negotiates with third countries primarily in areas falling under Pillar
One. However, the Commission is primarily an administrative entity that
serves the Council of Ministers.
!
The Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers) is comprised
of ministers from the national governments. As the main decisionmaking body, the Council enacts legislation based on proposals put
forward by the Commission. Different ministers participate depending
on the subject under consideration (e.g., economics ministers could
convene to discuss unemployment policy). Most decisions are made by
majority vote, but some areas — such as CFSP and taxation — require
unanimity. The Presidency of the Council rotates among the member
states for a period of six months.
!
The European Council brings together the Heads of State or Government
of the member states and the Commission President at least twice a year.
It acts principally as a strategic guide and driving force for EU policy.
!
The European Parliament consists of 785 members. Since 1979, they
have been directly elected in each member state for five-year terms under
a system of proportional representation based on population. The
Parliament cannot initiate legislation like national parliaments, but it
shares “co-decision” power with the Council of Ministers in a number of
areas, and can amend or reject the EU’s budget.
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!
The Court of Justice interprets EU law and its rulings are binding; a
Court of Auditors monitors the EU’s financial management. A number
of advisory bodies represent economic, social, and regional interests.
Why and How Is the EU Enlarging?
The EU sees enlargement as crucial to promoting stability and prosperity in Europe,
and furthering the peaceful integration of the continent. The EU began as the European
Coal and Steel Community in 1952 with six members (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,
Luxembourg, and the Netherlands). Denmark, Ireland, and the UK joined in 1973, Greece
in 1981, Spain and Portugal in 1986, and Austria, Finland, and Sweden in 1995. With the
end of the Cold War, the EU saw an historic opportunity to extend the political and
economic benefits of membership to central and eastern Europe. On May 1, 2004, the EU
welcomed 10 states (Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,
Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) as new members. Bulgaria and Romania
completed accession talks in December 2004 and acceded to the Union on January 1,
2007. Accession negotiations establish the terms under which applicants will meet and
enforce EU rules and regulations. Turkey was recognized as an EU candidate in 1999 but
remained in a separate category for several years as it sought to comply with the EU’s
political and economic criteria for membership. In October 2005, the EU opened
accession talks with Turkey, but these are expected to take at least a decade to complete
and have already encountered some difficulties. The EU has cautioned that the
negotiations with Turkey are an “open-ended process, the outcome of which cannot be
guaranteed.” The EU also began accession talks with Croatia in October 2005.
Macedonia was named as an EU candidate in December 2005, but no date has yet been
set for the start of its membership talks.
What Was the EU Constitution and Why a New Reform Treaty?
In June 2004, the EU concluded work on a constitutional treaty that contained
changes to the EU’s governing institutions and decision-making processes. Commonly
referred to as the “constitution,” this new treaty grew out of previous EU efforts to
institute internal reforms to enable an enlarged EU to function more effectively. The
constitution also sought to boost the EU’s visibility on the world stage. In order to come
into effect, the constitution had to be ratified by all member states through either
parliamentary approval or public referendum. The constitution’s future was thrown into
doubt following its rejection by French and Dutch voters in separate referendums in the
spring of 2005. Reasons for its rejection varied, ranging from public unease with further
EU enlargement to fears that it could lead to the creation of a European “superstate.”
In December 2007, EU leaders approved a new reform treaty — the Lisbon Treaty
— to essentially replace the proposed constitution. Although the term “constitution” was
dropped, experts say that the Lisbon Treaty preserves over 90% of the substance of the
original constitution. Major innovations include appointing a single individual to serve
as president of the European Council, creating a new chief EU diplomat position, and
simplifying EU voting procedures. EU officials presented the Lisbon Treaty as a
document that could be ratified by parliaments, thereby avoiding risky public referendums
in most EU states, except Ireland, which was required by law to hold a public vote. In
June 2008, Irish voters rejected the Lisbon Treaty. Irish opponents argued that it would
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reduce Ireland’s influence in the EU, undermine Ireland’s neutrality, and eliminate its
ability to set its own tax rates. EU leaders have called on the ratification process to
continue in other EU states, and have given Irish officials until October 2008 to propose
a way forward. EU officials hope that the Lisbon Treaty will still be able to enter into
force before the next European Parliament elections in the spring of 2009.
Does the EU Have a Foreign Policy?
The EU is seeking to build a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). Past
attempts to further EU political integration foundered on national sovereignty concerns
and different foreign policy prerogatives. But in 1993, EU members concluded that the
Union must increase its weight in world affairs to match its growing economic clout.
CFSP decision-making is dominated by member states; they develop common policies
in areas in which they can reach consensus, and ensure that national policies are in line
with agreed EU strategies and positions (e.g., imposing sanctions on Serbia). In 1997, EU
leaders proposed creating a High Representative for CFSP; in 1999, they appointed Javier
Solana, NATO’s former Secretary General, to the position, which is often referred to as
“Mr. CFSP”. Many analysts credit Solana with boosting the EU’s visibility on the world
stage, and with forging EU consensus on issues such as the Balkans and the Middle East
peace process. Skeptics argue, however, that the EU is still far from speaking with one
voice on other key foreign policy challenges. The European Commission also plays a role
internationally, but should not be confused with CFSP or its High Representative. Benita
Ferrero-Waldner, the External Relations Commissioner, coordinates the Commission’s
diplomatic activities and manages its aid to non-member states. The Lisbon Treaty, if
approved, would combine the Ferrero-Waldner and Solana posts into a single position.
Does the EU Have a Defense Policy?
The EU is also attempting to forge a European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP)
to give CFSP a military backbone. Momentum for this project picked up speed in 1998,
when former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair reversed Britain’s traditional opposition to
a European defense identity outside NATO; it intensified after NATO’s 1999 Kosovo air
campaign exposed serious European military deficiencies. In December 1999, the EU
decided to establish an institutional decision-making framework for ESDP and a 60,000strong rapid reaction force by 2003 — able to deploy within 60 days for at least a year —
to undertake the “Petersberg tasks” (humanitarian assistance, search and rescue,
peacekeeping, and peace enforcement). In June 2004, the EU agreed to enhance ESDP
through the creation of several “battlegroups” of 1,500 troops each that will be able to
reach trouble spots, especially in Africa, within 15 days. EU forces will not form a
standing “EU army”; troops and assets at appropriate readiness levels will be drawn from
existing national forces in the event of an EU operation. The EU has created three
defense decision-making bodies, but improving military capabilities has been difficult,
especially given flat or declining European defense budgets. Serious capability gaps exist
in strategic airlift, command and control systems, intelligence, and other force multipliers.
What is the Relationship between NATO and the EU?
The EU asserts that ESDP is intended to allow the EU to make decisions and
conduct military operations “where NATO as a whole is not engaged;” ESDP is not aimed
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at usurping NATO’s collective defense role. Most EU NATO members, led by the UK,
insist that EU efforts to forge a defense arm be tied to NATO, as do U.S. policymakers.
Advocates argue that building more robust European military capabilities for ESDP will
also benefit the alliance. The NATO-EU relationship was formalized in December 2002,
which paved the way for the implementation in March 2003 of “Berlin Plus,” an
arrangement permitting the EU “assured access” to NATO operational planning
capabilities and “presumed access” to NATO common assets. “Berlin Plus” was designed
to help ensure close NATO-EU links, and prevent a wasteful duplication of resources.
Since then, the EU has launched several crisis management missions in the Balkans,
Africa, and elsewhere, with varying degrees of NATO support. Nevertheless, NATO-EU
relations remain somewhat strained. This is due in part to the differences in membership
in both organizations and disputes between Turkey (a NATO member) and the EU. U.S.
officials have also been wary that some EU member states, traditionally led by France,
would like to build a more independent EU defense arm. New French President Nicolas
Sarkozy, however, has taken a more pragmatic approach; he backs a strong ESDP, but has
downplayed it as an alternative to NATO and supports closer NATO-EU cooperation.
Does the EU Have a Trade Policy?
Yes. EU member states have a common external trade policy in which the European
Commission negotiates trade deals with other countries and trading blocs on behalf of the
Union as a whole. The EU’s trade policy is one of its most well-developed and integrated
policies. It evolved along with the common market, which provides for the free
movement of goods within the EU, to prevent one member state from importing foreign
goods at cheaper prices due to lower tariffs and then re-exporting the items to another
member with higher tariffs. The scope of the common trade policy has been extended to
include negotiations on services and intellectual property in some cases. The Council of
Ministers has the power to establish objectives for trade negotiations and can approve or
reject agreements reached by the Commission. EU rules allow the Council to make trade
decisions with a weighted voting system, but in practice, the Council tends to employ
consensus. The Commission and the Council work together to set the common customs
tariff, guide export policy, and decide on trade protection or retaliation measures where
necessary. The EU also plays a leading role in the World Trade Organization (WTO).
How Are U.S.-EU Trade Relations Doing?
The United States and the EU share the largest trade and investment relationship in
the world. The value of two-way flows of goods, services, and income receipts from
investment totaled $1.3 trillion in 2006. U.S. and European companies are also the
biggest investors in each other’s markets; total stock of two-way direct investment
reached $2.2 trillion in 2006. Most of this economic relationship is harmonious, but trade
tensions persist. One key dispute relates to government subsidies that the United States
and EU allegedly provide to their respective civil aircraft manufacturers, Boeing and
Airbus. In 2005, U.S.-EU talks to diffuse confrontation over this issue failed, and both
sides have revived their complaints in the World Trade Organization (WTO). U.S.-EU
conflicts over hormone-treated beef and bio-engineered food products also remain. Many
analysts note that resolving U.S.-EU trade disputes has become increasingly difficult,
perhaps partly because both sides are of roughly equal economic strength and neither has
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the ability to impose concessions on the other. Another factor may be that many disputes
involve clashes in different domestic values, political priorities, and regulatory systems.
Does the United States Have a Formal Relationship with the EU?
Yes. For decades, the United States and the EU (and its progenitors) have
maintained diplomatic and economic ties. Washington has strongly supported European
integration, and U.S.-EU trade and investment relations are extensive. The 1990 U.S.-EU
Transatlantic Declaration set out principles for greater consultation, and established
regular summit and ministerial meetings. In 1995, the New Transatlantic Agenda (NTA)
and the EU-U.S. Joint Action Plan provided a framework for promoting stability and
democracy together, responding to global changes, and expanding world trade. The NTA
also sought to strengthen individual ties across the Atlantic, and launched a number of
dialogues, including ones for business leaders and legislators.
Who Are U.S. Officials’ Counterparts in the EU?
At least once a year, the U.S. president meets with the president of the European
Commission and the EU’s rotating presidency, represented by the head of government
whose country holds it at the time of the meeting. For example, at the last U.S.-EU
summit in June 2008, President Bush met with Commission President José Manuel
Barroso and Prime Minister Janez Jansa of Slovenia, the presidency country during the
first half of 2008. The U.S. Secretary of State’s most frequent interlocutors are the High
Representative for CFSP, the External Relations Commissioner, and the foreign minister
of the EU presidency country. The U.S. Trade Representative’s key interlocutor is the
European Commissioner for Trade, who directs the EU’s common external trade policy.
Other U.S. cabinet-level officials interact with Commission counterparts or member state
ministers in Council formation as issues arise. Numerous working-level relationships
between U.S. and EU officials also exist. A Delegation in Washington, DC represents the
European Commission in its dealings with the U.S. government, while the U.S. Mission
to the European Union represents Washington’s interests in Brussels.
How Do European Countries View the EU?
All EU member states believe that the Union magnifies their political and economic
clout (i.e., the sum is greater than the parts). Nevertheless, the EU has always been
divided between those members that seek an “ever closer union” through greater
integration and those that prefer to keep the Union on an intergovernmental footing. For
example, the UK has more frequently sought to guard its national sovereignty and, along
with Denmark and Sweden, does not participate in the single European currency (the
euro). Another classic divide in the EU falls along big versus small state lines. Small
states are often cautious of initiatives that they fear could allow EU heavyweights to
dominate the Union. Another key difference relates to security postures; Austria, Finland,
Ireland, and Sweden practice non-aligned foreign and defense policies, which sometimes
complicates the formulation of common European positions in these areas. In addition,
the recent rounds of EU enlargement to the east have brought in many new members with
histories of Soviet domination, which often color their views on issues ranging from EU
reform to relations with Russia; at times, such differences have caused frictions with older
EU member states and have slowed EU decision making.Derek E. Mix
Analyst in European Affairs
May 18, 2009
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS21372
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
The European Union: Questions and Answers
Summary
The European Union (EU) is a unique economic and political partnership in which 27 countries
share sovereignty over an extensive range of policy areas. With strong U.S. support and
encouragement, a group of European statesmen began this process of integration after World War
II with the hope of ensuring peace on the continent. Over the years, additional economic and
political rationale have emerged to support further integration.
Although some issues require unanimous consensus among member countries, EU decisionmaking is supranational on most economic and social issues. The three main institutions of the
EU are the European Commission (essentially the EU’s executive), the Council of the European
Union (representing the national governments), and the European Parliament (representing the
citizens of the EU). The yet-to-be-ratified Lisbon Treaty is the EU’s latest attempt to reform its
institutional arrangements and decision-making procedures. Enlargements in 2004 and 2007
increased the number of member countries in the EU from 15 to 27.
The EU has a strong common trade policy, and a developing Common Foreign and Security
Policy (CFSP) for a more united voice in global affairs. It has also been developing a European
Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) in order to improve its military capabilities and capacity to
act independently. Although some shortcomings exist in EU-NATO relations, the two institutions
continue to seek a more cooperative and complementary relationship.
The United States and the EU share a large, mutually beneficial trade and investment relationship.
The global financial crisis and recession has challenged both sides to forge a common response.
The United States and EU have a number of lingering trade disputes, but have led the push to
liberalize world trade, and have sought to reduce non-tariff and regulatory barriers in the
transatlantic marketplace. With compatible worldviews on most global issues, the United States
and the EU also have a well-developed and cooperative political relationship.
This report provides a summary overview of these issues, many of which may be of interest to the
111th Congress. It will be updated as events warrant.
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The European Union: Questions and Answers
Contents
What Is the European Union?......................................................................................................1
Why Integration? ........................................................................................................................1
How Does the EU Work? ............................................................................................................1
How is the EU Governed?...........................................................................................................2
What is the Lisbon Treaty?..........................................................................................................3
How Do European Countries View the EU? ................................................................................3
Why and How Is the EU Enlarging?............................................................................................4
Does the EU Have a Foreign Policy?...........................................................................................5
Does the EU Have a Defense Policy? ..........................................................................................5
What is the Relationship of the EU to NATO? .............................................................................6
Does the EU Have a Trade Policy?..............................................................................................6
Does the United States Have a Formal Relationship with the EU? ...............................................7
Who Are U.S. Officials’ Counterparts in the EU? ........................................................................7
How Are U.S.-EU Economic Relations Doing? ...........................................................................7
Contacts
Author Contact Information ........................................................................................................8
Congressional Research Service
The European Union: Questions and Answers
What Is the European Union?
The European Union (EU) is an economic and political partnership that is unique in history. Built
upon a series of treaties and embodied in a set of governing institutions, the EU represents a
voluntary pooling of sovereignty among 27 countries.1 These countries have committed to a
process of integration by harmonizing laws and adopting common policies on an extensive range
of issues. Notable areas of shared sovereignty include a customs union; a common trade policy; a
single market in which goods, people, and capital move freely; a common currency (the euro) that
is used by 16 member states;2 and many aspects of social and environmental policy. EU member
states have also taken significant steps in the development of a Common Foreign and Security
Policy (CFSP) and closer police and judicial cooperation.
Why Integration?
In the 1950s, a group of European leaders hoped that by creating communities of shared
sovereignty and interdependence, another war in Europe would be made unthinkable. At first,
Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands agreed to jointly manage
their coal and steel industries. These six then began working toward increasing economic
integration and developing a common market, and also agreed to cooperate on atomic energy.
Over the ensuing decades, as integration helped underpin Europe’s post-war economic success,
peace and prosperity became the mutually reinforcing, fundamental rationale for deepening
(increasing the degree of integration) and widening (adding new countries). More recently,
additional reasons have grown in importance: proponents of integration argue that in addition to
economic challenges, problems such as terrorism, immigration, and the environment can no
longer be dealt with effectively at a national level alone. Many also believe that a united voice in
foreign policy and security matters is increasingly essential for European influence in world
affairs.
How Does the EU Work?
EU policy areas are conceptually divided into three “pillars.” Pillar One includes a wide range of
economic (e.g., trade, agriculture, customs union, single market,) and social (e.g., health,
research, education, immigration, environment, consumer protection) policies. Integration in
these areas is the most developed and far-reaching. Pillar One decision-making is supranational—
EU institutions hold executive authority and can impose binding decisions on national
governments. Pillar Two is the EU Common Foreign and Security Policy, and Pillar Three is
police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters. Decision-making in Pillar Two and Pillar
Three is intergovernmental—agreement between member state governments must be unanimous
and any one may veto a decision.
1
The member countries of the EU are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
2
The members of the Eurozone are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain.
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How is the EU Governed?
Three institutions are central to EU decision- and policy-making. They do not correspond exactly
to the traditional branches of government or division of power in representative democracies.
The European Commission upholds the common interest of the EU as a whole. The Commission
is essentially the EU’s executive: it implements and manages Council decisions and common
policies, ensuring that member states adopt and abide by the provisions of EU treaties,
regulations, and directives. The Commission is the EU’s primary administrative entity. In most
cases, the Commission has the sole right of legislative initiative and proposes legislation to the
Council. The 27 commissioners, one from each country, are appointed by member state consensus
to five-year terms. One is selected to lead and represent the Commission as the Commission
President. The others hold a distinct portfolio (e.g., agriculture, energy, external relations), with
five double-hatted as Vice Presidents in addition to their portfolio. On many issues, the
Commission represents the EU internationally and handles negotiations with outside countries.
The Council of the European Union (also called the Council of Ministers) represents the
national governments. The main decision-making body of the EU, the Council enacts
legislation, usually based on proposals put forward by the Commission. A minister from
each country takes part in Council meetings, with participation configured according to
the subject under consideration (e.g., foreign ministers would meet to discuss the Middle
East, agriculture ministers to discuss farm subsidies). Most decisions are made by
qualified majority vote, but some areas—such as foreign and defense policy, taxation,
amending EU treaties, or accepting new members—require unanimity.3 Council decisions
are generally taken in consultation or “co-decision” with the European Parliament. The
Presidency of the Council rotates among the member states, changing every six months.
The presidency country sets agenda priorities and organizes the work of the Council.
The European Parliament represents the citizens of the EU. The Parliament consists of
785 members (reduced to 736 as of June 2009) who are directly elected in each member
state for five-year terms. Each member state holds a number of seats proportional to the
size of its population. Members of the European Parliament (MEP) caucus according to
trans-national groups based on political affiliation, rather than by country.4 The
Parliament cannot initiate legislation, but it has numerous important powers of oversight
and supervision. It shares “co-decision” power with the Council of Ministers in many
areas, can amend and reject the EU’s budget, and can vote to dismiss the Commission.
A number of other institutions also play important roles in the EU. The European Council
is composed of the Heads of State or Government of the member states plus the
Commission President. Meeting at least twice a year (in what are often termed “EU
3
In qualified majority voting, countries are allotted a number of votes in rough proportion to their population size.
Passage of a measure requires a double majority: at least half of the member states (two-thirds if not a Commission
initiative) and 255 out of the 345 total votes. Votes must also represent at least 62% of the total EU population.
4
There are currently 7 political groups in the European Parliament: the Group of the European People’s Party
(Christian Democrats) and European Democrats (288 MEPs); the Socialist Group in the European Parliament (216); the
Group of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (99); the Union of Europe for the Nations Group (44); the
Group of the Greens/European Free Alliance (43); the Confederal Group of the European United Left-Nordic Green
Left (41); and the Independence/Democracy Group (21). There are also 30 non-attached MEPs.
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Summits”), the European Council acts principally as a strategic guide for EU policy. The
Court of Justice interprets EU laws and rules on compliance; a Court of Auditors
monitors financial management; the European Central Bank manages the euro and
monetary policy; and advisory committees represent economic, social, and regional
interests.
What is the Lisbon Treaty?
In December 2007, EU leaders approved the Lisbon Treaty, seeking to amend existing EU treaties
with a number of significant reforms. In order to come into force, the treaty must be ratified by all
27 member states. Leaders had initially hoped that ratification would be complete in the first half
of 2009, but Ireland’s rejection of the treaty in a June 2008 national referendum threw the
timetable for adoption into disarray. Three other countries have not completed formal ratification,
but Ireland is the only country to decide ratification of the Lisbon Treaty by referendum. Ireland
plans to try again with a second vote, possibly in October 2009.
The major aims of the Lisbon Treaty are to streamline institutional decision-making, to give the
EU a stronger and more coherent global voice and identity, and to increase democracy and
transparency within the EU. Supporters argue that these reforms are needed for an EU of 27
members to function—the most recent update, the Nice Treaty, was designed for an EU of 15
members. The treaty would create a new position, President of the European Council, that would
replace the six-month rotating presidency system with an individual elected to a two-and-a-half
year term. Another new position would make a single representative for EU foreign and security
policy, combining the duties of the Council’s High Representative for CFSP and the
Commissioner for External Relations. The Lisbon Treaty would increase the number of areas
decided by qualified majority voting—although issues such as CFSP and taxation would still be
subject to unanimous intergovernmental consensus. The treaty would also increase the power of
the European Parliament by expanding use of the co-decision procedure, give national
parliaments more of a role in EU policy-making, and allow for new proposals based on citizen
initiatives. The Lisbon Treaty would do away with the “pillar” structure and give the EU a single
legal personality.
The Lisbon Treaty follows the failure of the EU constitutional treaty, a major reform effort that
was shelved after its rejection in referendums held in France and the Netherlands in 2005. Legally
speaking, the constitutional treaty would have wholly replaced, rather than amended, existing EU
treaties; however, analysts have noted that the Lisbon Treaty preserves over 90% of the substance
of the constitutional treaty.
How Do European Countries View the EU?
All member states hold that the EU brings them important political and economic benefits.
Nevertheless, tensions have long existed within the EU between those seeking an “ever closer
union” through greater integration and those that prefer a more intergovernmental footing.
Concerns about the impingement of the EU on national sovereignty have played out in decisions
to “opt out” of certain aspects of integration, such as passport- and visa-free travel within the EU
(UK and Ireland), the euro (UK, Denmark, and Sweden), Justice and Home Affairs issues (UK,
Ireland, and Denmark), and the common defense policy (Denmark). Another classic divide in the
EU falls along big versus small state lines—small states are often cautious of initiatives that they
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fear could allow a few large states to dominate decision-making. In addition, the newer member
states of central and eastern Europe have recent histories of Communism and Soviet domination,
which impact their view on issues such as relations with Russia, EU treaties and decision-making
arrangements, and even climate change policy. At times, such differences have caused frictions
with western European member states and slowed EU decision-making.
The prevailing view among European citizens is likewise favorable toward the EU, and many
assert a general perception that the EU benefits them in important ways. Some observers have
noted that, owing largely to the EU, many of the continent’s citizens describe a European identity
layered on top of national, regional, and local identities. However, there is also a certain amount
of “Euro-skepticism” among a significant portion of Europe’s citizens. Concerns over the loss of
national sovereignty are one central element of this sentiment. Some citizens assert that there is a
“democratic deficit”—a feeling that one has no say over decisions taken in far away Brussels.
Others view the EU as a giant bureaucracy that delivers few concrete benefits. Some observers
suggest that the benefits and founding ideals of the EU—peace and prosperity—may not ring as
loudly among younger generations with no experience of war or economic hardship.
Why and How Is the EU Enlarging?
Many observers have regarded EU enlargement as crucial to expanding stability and prosperity
across Europe. In order to be eligible for membership, countries must first meet criteria for
democracy, rule of law, and economic policy. Observers have noted that the prospect of
membership can act as an incentive for countries to adopt beneficial reforms in order to qualify.
Once a country becomes an official candidate, accession negotiations are a long and complex
process in which the applicant must adopt and implement a massive body of EU laws, treaties,
and regulations that now cover 35 “chapters” (subject areas).
In 1973, Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joined the six pioneer countries (Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands). Greece joined in 1981, Spain and
Portugal in 1986, and Austria, Finland, and Sweden in 1995. In 2004, the EU welcomed eight
formerly communist countries of central and eastern Europe—the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia—plus Cyprus and Malta. Bulgaria
and Romania joined in 2007. Following these latest rounds, some Europeans have spoken of
“enlargement fatigue” and advocated pausing enlargement pending the enactment of internal
reforms that allow an EU of 27-plus members to function more smoothly.
Further enlargement is likely to focus on the Balkans—Croatia and Macedonia are officially
considered candidates for accession, and Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, and
Serbia are potential candidates down the road. There are indications that Iceland may apply for
membership, an effort that would likely receive quick approval. Turkey has also had a longstanding bid for EU membership. Whether owing to its demographic, geographic, economic, or
cultural characteristics, many Europeans are opposed to the idea of Turkish EU membership.
Many analysts believe that the final outcome of EU accession negotiations with Turkey is
uncertain. The status of Turkey’s application is a frequent source of tension between Turkey and
the EU.
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The European Union: Questions and Answers
Does the EU Have a Foreign Policy?
The EU has a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) in which member states agree to
adopt shared positions, undertake joint actions, and pursue coordinated strategies. Since CFSP
decision-making is intergovernmental and requires unanimity, all 27 members must agree that a
common EU stance is the most desirable and effective approach to a given issue, and all 27
members must agree on the terms of that stance. CFSP does not preclude individual member
states pursuing their own national foreign policies or conducting their own national diplomacy.
Proponents of expanding CFSP assert that the EU must increasingly speak with one voice in
foreign and security policy if its global weight and influence are to match its economic clout.
Skeptics argue, however, that the reach and credibility of CFSP too often suffers from an inability
to reach consensus. While EU countries do often have similar worldviews and international goals,
some differences in viewpoint are inevitable among 27 countries that still retain different
approaches, cultures, histories, and relationships—and often different national interests—when it
comes to foreign policy.
Currently, two major positions represent the EU externally. The High Representative for CFSP
(Javier Solana) represents the Council of the EU in CFSP matters, such as negotiations with Iran,
EU military missions, counterterrorism policy, sanctions, and a wide range of other issues on
which CFSP declarations have been agreed. The Commissioner for External Relations (Benita
Ferrero-Waldner) represents the EU in general dialogue and cooperation with outside countries,
including aid and development support and European Neighborhood Policy, in which the EU
seeks to build close partnerships with its southern and eastern neighbors. The Lisbon Treaty, if
approved, would combine these posts into a single position—High Representative for Foreign
Affairs and Security Policy/Vice President of the Commission. The treaty would also create an
EU diplomatic corps (European External Action Service) to support the High Representative.
Does the EU Have a Defense Policy?
The EU has been developing its European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP), which was
formally launched in 1999. The main purpose of ESDP is twofold: to help build up European
military capabilities, and to give the EU a capacity for separate action in cases where NATO is
not engaged. Through a series of “Headline Goals,” the EU has set targets for the development of
forces and capabilities. Forces under development include a rapid reaction force and
multinational “battlegroups.” ESDP operations focus largely on tasks such as peacekeeping, crisis
management, and humanitarian assistance. ESDP does not mean a standing “EU army,” but rather
a catalogue of forces that member countries could make available for EU missions. The EU is
currently engaged in some 12 ESDP missions in the Balkans, Africa, Caucasus, and the Middle
East, and has completed an additional 10 missions in previous years. However, improving
military capabilities has been difficult, especially given flat or declining European defense
budgets. Serious capability gaps continue to exist in areas such as strategic airlift and sealift, and
a relatively low percentage of European forces are deployable for expeditionary operations. Some
analysts have suggested asset pooling and a greater focus on national niche capabilities as a way
forward for European defense. Reflecting such thinking, the EU created the European Defense
Agency in 2004 in order to help coordinate defense-industrial and procurement policy.
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The European Union: Questions and Answers
What is the Relationship of the EU to NATO?
Despite overlapping membership and interests, NATO and the European Union have struggled to
establish a cooperative and complementary relationship. 5 In the United States and some other
NATO countries such as the UK, support for ESDP as a means for Europe to develop security
capabilities has mostly overcome initial concerns that ESDP would mean decoupling/delinking
(from NATO strategy and decision making), duplication (of NATO structures and resources), and
discrimination (against non-EU members of NATO). The 2003 Berlin Plus agreement, allowing
EU-led missions access to NATO assets and planning capabilities, remains the biggest step
forward to date and the cornerstone of EU-NATO relations. Berlin Plus reflects a pragmatic
conclusion that NATO and the EU need not be competitors, but are better served as partners
sharing a pool of resources and offering each other an array of complementary capabilities.
While EU-NATO cooperation exists at the tactical level, procedural blockage related to EUTurkey tensions and the issue of divided Cyprus prevents the two institutions from sharing
sensitive intelligence information, thereby hindering their ability to cooperate on matters of
strategic importance. Some analysts argue that this impasse needs to be resolved to allow greater
EU-NATO cooperation. An enhanced EU-NATO relationship might include joint planning in
areas such as crisis management, defense policy, and procurement, as well as more formal
coordination of complementary capabilities for expeditionary missions, stabilization and
reconstruction operations, and security sector reform programs.
Does the EU Have a Trade Policy?
Yes. EU member states have a common external trade policy in which the European Commission
negotiates trade deals with outside countries and trading blocs on behalf of the Union as a whole.
The EU’s trade policy is one of its most well-developed and integrated policies. It evolved along
with the common market, which provides for the free movement of goods within the EU—
preventing one member state from importing foreign goods at cheaper prices due to lower tariffs
and then re-exporting the items to another member with higher tariffs. The scope of the common
trade policy has been extended to include negotiations on services and intellectual property in
some cases. The Council of Ministers has the power to establish objectives for trade negotiations
and can approve or reject agreements reached by the Commission. EU rules allow the Council to
make trade decisions with qualified majority voting, but in practice the Council tends to employ
consensus. The Commission and the Council work together to set the common customs tariff,
guide export policy, and decide on trade protection or retaliation measures where necessary. The
EU also plays a leading role in the World Trade Organization (WTO).
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21 countries belong to both NATO and the EU. There are six non-NATO members of the EU (Austria, Cyprus,
Finland, Ireland, Malta, and Sweden) and seven non-EU members of NATO (Albania, Canada, Croatia, Iceland,
Norway, Turkey, and the United States).
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The European Union: Questions and Answers
Does the United States Have a Formal Relationship
with the EU?
Yes. For decades, the United States and the EU (and its progenitors) have maintained diplomatic
and economic ties. Washington has strongly supported European integration, and U.S.-EU trade
and investment relations are extensive. The 1990 U.S.-EU Transatlantic Declaration set out
principles for greater consultation, and established regular summit and ministerial meetings. In
1995, the New Transatlantic Agenda (NTA) and the EU-U.S. Joint Action Plan provided a
framework for promoting stability and democracy together, responding to global changes, and
expanding world trade. The NTA also sought to strengthen individual ties across the Atlantic, and
launched a number of dialogues, including for business leaders and legislators. The Transatlantic
Legislators’ Dialogue (TLD) has been the formal mechanism for engagement and exchange
between the U.S. House of Representatives and the European Parliament since 1972.
The United States also maintains strong bilateral ties with individual EU member states. Some
observers call for a further strengthening of the U.S.-EU relationship, arguing that U.S.
engagement at the EU level—rather than bilaterally with individual capitals—is the most relevant
and effective approach in a large and growing number of issues.
Who Are U.S. Officials’ Counterparts in the EU?
U.S.-EU Summits occur at least once a year, with the U.S. president meeting with the president of
the European Commission and the Head of State or Government of the country holding the
rotating Council presidency. The U.S. Secretary of State’s most frequent interlocutors in the EU
context are the High Representative for CFSP, the External Relations Commissioner, and the
foreign minister of the EU presidency country. The U.S. Trade Representative’s key interlocutor
is the European Commissioner for Trade, who directs the EU’s common external trade policy.
Other U.S. cabinet-level officials interact with Commission counterparts or member state
ministers in the Council of Ministers context as issues arise. Many working-level relationships
between U.S. and EU officials also exist. A Delegation in Washington, DC represents the
European Commission in its dealings with the U.S. government, while the U.S. Mission to the
European Union represents Washington’s interests in Brussels.
How Are U.S.-EU Economic Relations Doing?
Comprising nearly 60% of global gross domestic product (GDP), the U.S.-EU trade and
investment relationship is the largest and most influential in the world. In 2007, the value of the
two-way transatlantic flow of goods, services, and income receipts from investment totaled more
than $1.6 trillion. U.S. and European companies are also the biggest investors in each other’s
markets: total stock of two-way direct investment exceeded $2.6 trillion by the end of 2007.
The global financial crisis and recession have posed difficult challenges to both sides and raised
concerns about the adoption of protectionist policies. While leaders have pursued a coordinated
response through the G-20, different preferences have emerged in the process. At the April 2009
G-20 Summit in London, European leaders resisted U.S. calls for further stimulus spending,
focusing instead on efforts to reform regulation of the global financial system. Leaders agreed to
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The European Union: Questions and Answers
a package worth around $1 trillion in extra resources for the International Monetary Fund and
financing for global trade.
Although an inability to reach a transatlantic agreement on agricultural subsidies has contributed
to stalling the Doha Round of trade negotiations, U.S.-EU cooperation has been the key driving
force behind efforts to liberalize world trade. Transatlantic trade disputes persist over poultry,
subsidies to Boeing and Airbus, hormone-treated beef, and bio-engineered food products. The
United States and the EU have made a number of attempts to reduce remaining non-tariff and
regulatory barriers to trade and investment. The Transatlantic Economic Council (TEC) was
created at the 2007 U.S.-EU summit and tasked with advancing the process of regulatory
cooperation and barrier reduction. Many analysts note that resolving U.S.-EU trade disputes has
become increasingly difficult, perhaps partly because both sides are of roughly equal economic
strength and neither has the ability to impose concessions on the other. Another factor may be that
many disputes involve differences in regulatory frameworks, political priorities, and domestic
values and preferences.
Author Contact Information
Kristin Archick
Specialist in European Affairs
karchick@crs.loc.gov, 7-2668
Congressional Research Service
Derek E. Mix
Analyst in European Affairs
dmix@crs.loc.gov, 7-9116
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