Order Code RL31693
Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
U.S. Armed Forces Abroad: Selected
Congressional Roll Call Votes Since 1982
Updated January 15May 8, 2003
Alan W. Brown
Information Research Specialist
Information Research Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress
U.S. Armed Forces Abroad: Selected Congressional
Roll Call Votes Since 1982
Summary
This report lists relevant congressional roll call votes for several major instances
in which U.S. Armed Forces have been sent abroad in potentially hostile situations.
These votes are representative of those that have a direct correlation to issues
affecting policy and funding of troops abroad, often in the context of the War Powers
Resolution, continued presence or withdrawal, or “use of force.” The cases of
Lebanon (1982-1983), Grenada (1983), Panama (1989), the Persian Gulf War (19901991), Somalia (1992-1995), Haiti (1993-1996), Bosnia (1992- 1998), Kosovo
(1999), the
terrorist attack against America (2001), and the use of U.S. Armed Forces against
against Iraq (2002-2003) are examined. Those roll call votes that are available online
(since 1990
in the House and 1989 in the Senate) are linked. This report will be
updated as
events or legislation warrant.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Lebanon (1982-1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Grenada (1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Panama (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Persian Gulf War (1990-1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Somalia (1992-1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Haiti (1993-1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Bosnia (1992- ) .1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
102nd Congress (1991-1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
103rd Congress (1993-1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
House Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
104th Congress (1995-1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
House Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
th
105 Congress (1997-1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
House Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Kosovo (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
House Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Terrorist Attack Against America (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Use of Force Against Iraq (2002-2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Sources Consulted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
U.S. Armed Forces Abroad: Selected
Congressional Roll Call Votes Since 1982
Introduction
The President and Congress have historically played divided roles when sending
U.S. troops into hostile situations. Although the President has the power under
Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution to send the armed forces to repel attacks,
Congress under Article I, Section 8 has the power to declare war and raise and
support the armed forces. The War Powers Resolution (P.L. 93-148, November 7,
1973) was enacted to ensure that the President and Congress share in decisions where
U.S. troops may become involved in hostilities. This sharing of power has often
resulted in controversy, particularly when troops are sent into situations where there
has not been a formal declaration of war. In most instances, Congress has used its
legislative prerogatives through funding mechanisms or declarations of policy either
to affirm or to place limits on presidential action.
There have been three instances in which Congress has authorized the use of
military force in advance of hostilities: the Persian Gulf War (1991), the terrorist
attack against America (2001), and the “use of force against Iraq” resolution (2002).
In each case, however, the President has maintained that while he may have sought
congressional consultation and support, the President has the constitutional authority
as Commander-in-Chief to use force, including the armed forces of the United States,
to protect U.S. national security interests.
This report considers selected roll call votes since 1982. These votes are
representative of those that have a direct correlation to issues affecting policy and
funding of troops abroad, often in the context of the War Powers Resolution,
continued presence or withdrawal, or “use of force.” This report may be useful for
those who want to get a feel for the tenor of debate between the executive and
legislative branches that often surrounds the issue of the U.S. military abroad. We
provide links to the actual roll call votes in the House since 1990 (101st Congress,
second session), as compiled by the Clerk of the House. Senate roll call votes are
provided since 1989 (101st Congress, first session), as compiled by Secretary of the
Senate. These links include each Member’s yea or nay vote.
In some cases, House or Senate votes are voice votes, and, thus, no roll call vote
exists. Moreover, the ultimate disposition of amendments listed in the report (i.e.,
whether such amendments were incorporated into any final law) may not be selfevident. In other instances, only one chamber of Congress may have voted on a
particular measure; for example, a House or Senate simple resolution is a
nonlegislative measure that expresses nonbinding opinions on policies or issues and
is effective only in the chamber in which it is proposed. It does not require
concurrence by the other chamber or approval by the President.
CRS-2
For more detailed contextual and legislative history information, see CRS
Report RL31185, The War Powers Resolution: After Twenty-Eight Years.
The laws, bills, and resolutions below are listed in the chronological order of the
roll call votes that were held.
Until a new date intervenes, actions should be understood to have taken place
on the last date mentioned.
Lebanon (1982-1983)
On September 29, 1982, President Reagan deployed 1,200 marines to serve as
part of a multinational observer force to restore the sovereignty of the Lebanese
government. By March 30, 1984, the mission had ended.
P.L. 98-43/S. 639
Lebanon Emergency Assistance Act of 1983. Required the President to seek
statutory authority for any substantial expansion of U.S. participation in the
multinational peacekeeping force in Lebanon. May 20, 1983: Measure passed
Senate (voice vote). June 2, 1983: Measure passed House, 276-76 (roll call vote
#153).
H.J.Res. 364
To provide statutory authority under the War Powers Resolution for continued
U.S. participation in the multinational peacekeeping force in Lebanon for up to 18
months after enactment. September 28, 1983: Measure passed House, 270-161 (roll
call vote #356).
The Long substitute amendment requires the President to invoke the War
Powers Resolution by the end of November, or at the end of any month thereafter,
unless President certifies to Congress that a cease-fire was in effect and being
observed by all parties, and that significant progress was being made in negotiations
to broaden the base of Lebanese government. Rejected in House, 158-272 (roll call
vote #360).
P.L. 98-119/S.J. Res. 159
Authorizes the President to maintain U.S. Armed Forces in Lebanon as part of
a multinational peacekeeping force for 18 months; determines that the requirements
of Section 4(a)(1) of the War Powers Resolution became operational on August 29,
1983. September 29, 1983: Measure passed House 253-156 (roll call vote #370).
September 29, 1983: Measure passed Senate, 54-46 (roll call vote #274).
Baker motion to kill the Byrd amendment stating that U.S. Marines in Lebanon
became engaged in hostilities on August 29, 1983, requiring the President to submit
report to Congress under Section 4(a)(1) of the War Powers Resolution concerning
hostilities, and extending for 60 days from enactment of the resolution the President’s
authority to keep U.S. forces in Lebanon. Agreed to in Senate, 55-45 (roll call vote
#269).
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Baker motion to kill the Pell amendment to authorize the U.S. Marines to
remain in Lebanon for an additional 6 months instead of 18. Agreed to in Senate, 6238 (roll call vote #270).
Baker motion to kill the Tsongas amendment stating that a purpose of the
deployment of U.S. Marines in Lebanon was to help the Lebanese government
“maintain a secure area from which to restore full control over its own territory.”
Agreed to in Senate, 56-42 (roll call vote #271).
Baker motion to kill the Levin amendment stating that “actual or imminent
hostilities involving U.S. armed forces” began on August 29, 1983. Agreed to in
Senate, 54-45 (roll call vote #272).
Baker motion to kill Eagleton amendment to allow the U.S. to take such
“defensive measures as may be appropriate” to protect the multinational
peacekeeping force in Lebanon rather than “protective” measures; would require the
President to report to Congress periodically on the results of efforts to secure removal
of all foreign forces from Lebanon. Agreed to in Senate, 66-34 (roll call vote #273).
H.R. 4185
Department of Defense Appropriations for FY1984. November 2, 1983:
Measure passed House, 328-97 (roll call vote #443).
The Long amendment prohibits funds for deployment of U.S. Armed Forces
participating in the multinational peacekeeping force in Lebanon after March 1, 1984.
Rejected in House, 153-274 (roll call vote #441).
Grenada (1983)
On October 25, 1983, President Reagan sent U.S. Marines and Army troops to
Grenada in order to protect American lives and restore law and order at the request
of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States. All U.S. troops were removed from
Grenada by December 15, 1983.
H.J.Res. 308
Joint resolution increasing the statutory limit on the public debt. November 16,
1983: Measure passed Senate: 58-40 (roll call vote #370). October 28, 1983: Hart
amendment to invoke the War Powers Resolution with respect to American military
involvement in Grenada. Agreed to in Senate, 64-20 (roll call vote #321).
H.J.Res. 402
Declared that the requirements of Section 4(a)(1) of the War Powers Resolution
became operative on October 25, 1983, when U.S. armed forces were introduced into
Grenada. November 1, 1983: Measure passed House, 403-23 (roll call vote #437).
H.J.Res. 308
Joint resolution increasing the statutory limit on the public debt. November 16,
1983: Measure passed Senate: 58-40 (roll call vote #370). October 28, 1983: Hart
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amendment to invoke the War Powers Resolution with respect to American military
involvement in Grenada. Agreed to in Senate, 64-20 (roll call vote #321).
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Panama (1989)
On December 20, 1989, President George H.W. Bush deployed 14,000 U.S.
military forces to Panama in order to protect American lives, restore Panamanian
democracy, and apprehend General Manuel Noriega. Congress did not immediately
react to the situation, as the 101st Congress, first session had ended on November 22,
1989; the second session of the 101st Congress did not begin until January 23, 1990.
The 14,000 U.S. troops were removed from Panama by February 13, 1990.
H.Con.Res. 262
Expresses sadness over the loss of U.S. soldiers’ lives as a result of Operation
Just Cause and commends the President for his efforts to provide for the early return
of the remaining U.S. troops from Panama. February 7, 1990: Measure passed
House, 389-26 (roll call vote #12).
Persian Gulf War (1990-1991)
On August 2, 1990, Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait, seized its oil fields, ousted the
Kuwaiti leadership, installed a new government in Kuwait City, and massed troops
on the Saudi Arabian border. On August 9, President Bush reported that he had
deployed U.S. troops to the region. Legislation in late 1990 (101st Congress, second
session) focused on imposing sanctions against Iraq, in seeking the withdrawal of
Iraqi forces from the area, and in supporting the President in carrying out the
provisions of the relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions. On January
12, 1991 (102nd Congress, first session), the Congress authorized the “use of force”
against Iraq in advance of the outbreak of hostilities with Iraq on January 16.
H.R. 5431
A bill to impose sanctions on Iraq. August 2, 1990: Measure passed House,
416-0 4160 (roll call vote #303).
S.Res. 318
Resolution to condemn Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. August 2, 1990: Measure
passed Senate, 97-0 (roll call vote #211).
H.J.Res. 658
Joint resolution to support actions the President has taken with respect to Iraqi
aggression against Kuwait and to demonstrate U.S. resolve. October 1, 1990:
Measure passed House, 380-29 (roll call vote #394).
S.Con.Res. 147
Concurrent resolution supporting the actions taken by the President with respect
to Iraqi aggression against Kuwait. October 2, 1990: Measure passed Senate, 96-3
(roll call vote #258).
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P.L. 102-1/H.J.Res. 77
Joint resolution to authorize the use of United States armed forces pursuant to
United Nations Security Council Resolution 678. January 12, 1991: Measure passed
House, 250-183 (roll call vote #9).
H.Con.Res. 32
Concurrent resolution to express the sense of Congress that Congress must
approve any offensive military action against Iraq. January 12, 1991: Measure passed
House, 302-131 (roll call vote #7).
H.Con.Res. 33
Concurrent resolution expressing sense of Congress that the President should
continue to rely on international sanctions and that the President must obtain
congressional approval before undertaking any offensive action against Iraq. January
12, 1991: Measure rejected in House, 183-250 (roll call vote #8).
S.J.Res. 1
Joint resolution expressing sense of Congress that the President should continue
to rely on international sanctions and that the President must obtain congressional
approval before undertaking any offensive action against Iraq. January 12, 1991:
Measure rejected by Senate, 46-53 (roll call vote #1).
S.J.Res. 2
Joint resolution to authorize the use of U.S. Armed Forces pursuant to United
Nations Security Council Resolution 678. January 12, 1991: Measure passed Senate,
52-47 (roll call vote #2).
Somalia (1992-1995)
On December 10, 1992, President Bush reported that he had deployed U.S.
troops into Somalia on December 8, in response to United Nations Security Council
Resolution 794, which authorized the Secretary General to “use all necessary means
to establish as soon as possible a secure environment for humanitarian relief
operations in Somalia” and to provide military forces for accomplishing this. U.S.
troops were deployed to assist United Nations Forces in Somalia (UNOSOM)
throughout 1993 and 1994, ending on March 3, 1995.
S.J.Res. 45
Joint resolution authorizing the use of United States Armed Forces in Somalia
pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 providing for a secure
environment to deliver relief supplies into Somalia. February 4, 1993: Measure
passed Senate (voice vote). May 25, 1993: Measure passed House, 243-179 (roll call
vote #183). The House reported version authorized U.S. troops under the War
Powers Powers
Resolution, but terminated such authorization at the earlier of (1) end of one
year from
date of enactment of the Act unless extended by Congress; or (2)
expiration of the
United Nations-led force in Somalia.
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Gilman substitute amendment to reduce from one year to six months
authorization for U.S. participation and to delete the section of the bill complying
with with
the War Powers Resolution. Rejected in House, 179-248 (roll call vote #179).
Roth amendment to end the U.S. troop authorization and financial aid in
Somalia Somalia
on June 30, 1993. Rejected in House, 127-299 (roll call vote #180).
Solomon amendment to commend U.S. Armed Forces for establishing a secure
environment for humanitarian relief in Somalia. Agreed to in House, 425-0 (roll call
vote #181).
Separate vote at request of Walker on amendment adopted by Solomon in
Committee of the Whole to commend U.S. forces for establishing a secure
environment for humanitarian relief in Somalia. Agreed to in House, 419-0 (roll call
vote #182).
H.Con.Res. 170
Concurrent resolution directing the President pursuant to Section 5(c) of the
War War
Powers Resolution to remove United States Armed Forces from Somalia by
January January
31, 1994. September 9, 1993: Measure passed House (voice vote).
Gilman amendment to change deadline for removal of U.S. troops in Somalia
from March 31, 1994, to January 31, 1994. Agreed to in House, 224-203 (roll call
vote #555).
Hamilton substitute amendment to change deadline for removal of U.S. troops
back to March 31, 1994, from January 31, 1994, substituted by Gilman. Agreed to
in in
House, 226-201 (roll call vote #556).
P.L. 103-160/H.R. 2401
National Defense Authorization Act for FY1994). September 29, 1993:
Measure Measure
passed House, 268-162 (roll call vote #474). Measure passed Senate
(inserted text of
S. 1298—voice vote).
Gephardt amendment requiring the President to report to Congress by October
15, 1993, on goals, objectives, and duration of U.S. Armed Forces in Somalia and
expressing sense of Congress that the President should seek congressional
authorization by November 15, 1993, for continued deployment in Somalia. Agreed
to in the House Committee of the Whole, 406-26 (roll call vote #463).
Separate vote at request of Walker on Gephardt amendment adopted in the
Committee of the Whole (described above). Agreed to in House, 405-23 (roll call
vote #472).
Spence motion to recommit bill to House Armed Services with instructions to
report back with amendment requiring the President to certify that it is vital and
necessary to protect U.S. national interests before placing U.S. troops under control
of a foreign national on behalf of the United Nations. Rejected in House, 192-238
(roll call vote #473).
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Byrd amendment to the Byrd amendment expressing sense of Senate that the
President should outline goals, objectives, and duration of deployment of U.S. troops
in Somalia and report to Congress by October 15, 1993; President should ask for and
receive congressional authorization for continued deployment in Somalia by
November 15, 1993; U.S. participation would terminate if Congress failed to
authorize such continued involvement. Agreed to in Senate, 90-7 (roll call vote
#252).
P.L. 103-139/H.R. 3116
Department of Defense Appropriations for FY1994. October 21, 1993: Measure
passed Senate (voice vote).
October 15, 1993: Thurmond motion to kill McCain amendment to prohibit
funding of U.S. military operations in Somalia except for withdrawal of all U.S.
troops. Agreed to in Senate, 61-38 (roll call vote #313).
Byrd amendment to prohibit funding of U.S. military operations in Somalia after
March 31, 1994, except for limited purposes if the President requests and Congress
authorizes an extension; requires U.S. forces to be under command of U.S.
commanders. Agreed to in Senate, 76-23 (roll call vote #314).
H.R. 3759
Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for FY1994. February 3, 1994:
Measure passed House, 337-74 (roll call vote #13). February 10, 1994: Measure
passed Senate, 85-10 (roll call vote #45).
February 3, 1994: Frank amendment to delete $1.2 billion for peacekeeping and
humanitarian assistance in Somalia, Bosnia, Iraq, and Haiti. Rejected in House, 158260 (roll call vote #8).
February 10, 1994: Feingold (Senate) amendment to eliminate $1.2 billion for
peacekeeping operations in Somalia, Bosnia, Iraq, and Haiti. Rejected in Senate, 1976 (roll call vote #40).
P.L. 103-335/H.R. 4650
Department of Defense Appropriations for FY1995. August 11, 1994: Measure
passed Senate, 86-14 (roll call vote #282).
August 10, 1994: Kempthorne amendment prohibiting funds from supporting
the the
continued presence of U.S. troops in Somalia after September 30, 1994. Agreed
to to
in Senate, 54-44 (roll call vote #278).
Haiti (1993-1996)
On October 20, 1993, President Clinton reported that U.S. ships had begun
enforcing a United Nations embargo against Haiti. On September 19, 1994,
President President
Clinton had deployed 1,500 troops to Haiti to restore democracy; that level
was was
ultimately increased to over 20,000. By March 21, 1995, U.S. troops were
reduced reduced
to under 5,300 and incorporated into the United Nations Multinational Force in Haiti.
CRS-8
in Haiti. By September 21, 1995, they were reduced to under 2,500 personnel. U.S.
troops troops
ended their deployment to Haiti by April 17, 1996.
P.L. 103-139/H.R. 3116
Department of Defense Appropriations for FY1994. October 21, 1993: Measure
passed Senate (voice vote).
Helms amendment to prohibit funding any U.S. military operations in Haiti
unless Congress explicitly authorizes such action or the President certifies to
Congress Congress
that U.S. citizens are in danger. Rejected in Senate, 19-81 (roll call vote
#321).
Mitchell amendment expressing sense of Congress that Congress should
authorize all U.S. military operations in Haiti unless U.S. citizens are in imminent
need of protection and evacuation or that deployment is vital to national security
interests. Agreed to in Senate, 98-2 (roll call vote #322).
H.R. 3759
Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for FY1994. February 3, 1994:
Measure passed House, 337-74 (roll call vote #13). February 10, 1994: Measure
passed Senate, 85-10 (roll call vote #45).
February 3, 1994: Frank amendment deleting $1.2 billion for peacekeeping and
humanitarian assistance in Haiti, Bosnia, Somalia, and Iraq. Rejected in House, 158260 (roll call vote #8).
February 10, 1994: Feingold amendment eliminating $1.2 billion for
peacekeeping operations in Haiti, Bosnia, Somalia, and Iraq. Rejected in Senate, 1976 (roll call vote #40).
H.R. 4301
National Defense Authorization Act for FY1995. June 9, 1994: Measure passed
House, 260-158 (roll call vote #226).
May 24, 1994: Goss amendment expressing sense of Congress that the United
States with the Organization of American States (OAS) and the United Nations
should should
establish a safe haven for Haitian refugees on Ile de la Gonava; establish
legitimate legitimate
Haitian administration to govern; the President should not undertake any
military military
action against Haiti unless it presents a clear and present danger to the
United States.
Agreed to in House, 223-201 (roll call vote #197).
June 9, 1994: Separate vote at request of Dellums on the amendment offered by
Goss, previously voted on at roll call vote #197 above. Rejected in House, 195-226
(roll call vote #224).
P.L. 103-306/H.R. 4426
Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations
for for
FY1995. July 15, 1994: Measure passed Senate, 84-9 (roll call vote #203).
CRS-9
June 29, 1994: Gregg amendment to prohibit military action in Haiti unless the
operations are authorized in advance by Congress or necessary to protect U.S.
citizens citizens
for national security interests. Rejected in Senate 34-65 (roll call vote #172).
Mitchell amendment expressing sense of Congress that Congress should
authorize all U.S. military operations in Haiti unless U.S. citizens are in immediate
need of protection or deployment is vital to U.S. national security. Agreed to in
Senate, 93-4 (roll call vote #173).
H.R. 4624
Department of Veterans Affairs Appropriations for FY1995. August 4, 1994:
Measure passed Senate, 86-9 (roll call vote #262).
August 3, 1994: Dole amendment expressing sense of Senate that United
Nations Nations
Security Council Resolution 940 did not constitute authorization for
deployment of
U.S. forces in Haiti under the Constitution or the War Powers
Resolution. Agreed to
in Senate, 100-0 (roll call vote #254).
H.R. 4606
Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education
Appropriations for FY1995. August 5, 1994: McCain motion to kill Specter
amendment barring the President from deploying U.S. troops to restore legitimately
elected Haitian government unless authorized by Congress, unless vital to national
security interests, or to protect lives of U.S. citizens. Agreed to in Senate, 63-31 (roll
call vote #263).
H.Con.Res. 290
Concurrent resolution commending the President and the special delegation to
Haiti; supporting U.S. Armed Forces in Haiti; supporting an orderly withdrawal of
U.S. forces as soon as possible. September 19, 1994: Measure passed House, 353-45
(roll call vote #424).
S.J.Res. 259
Resolution expressing sense of the Senate supporting U.S. forces in Haiti;
commending the special delegation led by former President Carter; supporting lifting
of economic sanctions on Haiti; supporting prompt and orderly withdrawal of all U.S.
forces. September 21, 1994: Measure passed Senate, 94-5 (roll call vote #301).
H.J.Res. 416
Joint resolution expressing sense of Congress that all U.S. troops should be
promptly and orderly withdrawn from Haiti as soon as possible; President should
have have
sought congressional approval before deployment of troops; requires the
President to
submit statement of national security objectives of Operation Uphold
Democracy Democracy
within seven days of enactment. October 7, 1994: Measure passed
House, 236-182
(roll call vote #500).
October 6, 1994: Gilman amendment expressing sense of Congress that
President President
should not have ordered U.S. troops to occupy Haiti and should
immediately begin the
“safe and orderly withdrawal” of all U.S. forces; provides for
consideration of joint
resolution to be introduced January 3, 1995, which if enacted, would prohibit
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CRS-10
would prohibit continued use of U.S. troops in Haiti within 30 days. Rejected in
House, 205-225 (roll
call vote #497).
Dellums amendment expressing sense of Congress that all U.S. troops should
be be
promptly and orderly withdrawn from Haiti; President should have sought
congressional approval before deploying troops; requires President to submit to
Congress within 7 days of enactment a statement on national security objectives of
Operation Uphold Democracy and other reports on situation there. Agreed to in
House, 258-167 (roll call vote #498).
October 7, 1994: Toricelli amendment authorizing the presence of U.S. troops
in Haiti until March 1, 1995, unless President determines and certifies to Congress
that continued presence is essential to protect U.S. citizens or vital to national
security security
interests. Rejected in House, 27-398 (roll call vote #499).
P.L. 103-423/S.J.Res. 229
Joint resolution expressing sense of Congress for a prompt and orderly
withdrawal of all U.S. forces from Haiti as soon as possible; requires President to
submit reports to Congress on the scope and duration of U.S. mission in Haiti.
October 6, 1994: Measure passed Senate, 91-8 (roll call vote #323). October 7, 1994:
Measure passed House (voice vote).
Bosnia (1992- 1998)
The civil war in the former Yugoslav Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina resulted
in U.S. military participation in various efforts over several years to halt the fighting.
The United States participated in both United Nations and NATO actions without
explicit congressional authorization. Beginning in 1992, the United Nations Security
Council adopted Resolution 770, which called on all nations to take “all measures
necessary” to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian assistance to Sarajevo. On
August 11, 1992, the Senate passed S.Res. 330, which urged the President to work
for for
such a resolution and pledged funds for participation, but also said that no U.S.
military personnel should be introduced into hostilities without clearly defined
objectives.
On the same day, the House passed H.Res. 554, which urged the Security
Council to authorize measures, including the use of force, to ensure humanitarian
relief. As the conflict in Bosnia continued and escalated over the next several years,
U.S. troops were sent to participate in NATO and United Nations peacekeeping
missions. Consequently, leaders in Congress began calling for greater congressional
involvement in decisions.
In 1994, for example, the Senate passed S. 2042, which called for the United
States to end unilaterally its arms embargo with Bosnia; the Senate also passed an
amendment to S. 2042 which stated that no ground combat troops should be deployed
to Bosnia unless previously authorized by Congress. The House did not act on the
measure. With the signing of the Dayton Peace Agreement for Bosnia on December
14, 1995, NATO took over the ground operation from UNPROFOR (United Nations
Protection Force). Consequently, in late 1995, over 20,000 U.S. combat troops were
CRS-11
sent to Bosnia as part of the NATO-led peacekeeping force. In December 1995,
Congress considered and voted on a number of bills and resolutions, but the House
and Senate could not come to consensus on any single measure. In 1996, President
Clinton agreed to provide up to 8,500 ground troops to participate in the NATO-led
follow-on force in Bosnia termed the Stabilization Force (SFOR).
Subsequent efforts by both the House and Senate to require the President to
either either
limit funding for the Bosnia operations or to bring the troops home did not
succeed.
On March 18, 1998, for example, the House defeated by a vote of 193-225
H.Con.Res. 227, which would have directed the President to remove U.S. Armed
Forces from the Republic of Bosnia- Herzegovina, pursuant to Section 5(c) of the
War War
Powers Resolution.
On July 22, 2002, President Bush reported to Congress that U.S. Armed Forces
contributions to SFOR in Bosnia-Herzegovina were approximately 2,400 personnel.
102nd Congress (1991-1992)
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments.
S. Res. 330
An original resolution relating to authorization of multinational action in
Bosnia-Herzegovina BosniaHerzegovina under Article 42 of the United Nations Charter. It expresses the
sense sense
of the Senate that the President should call upon the United Nations to
authorize all
means, including multinational military action, to ensure the flow of
humanitarian humanitarian
relief in Bosnia-Herzegovina and to gain access for the U.N. and
International Red
Cross personnel to refugee and war camps. August 11, 1992:
Measure passed Senate,
74-22 (roll call vote #186).
August 10, 1992: Warner amendment to express the Senate’s support for the six
measures that President Bush said on August 6 that the Administration was taking
to to
help resolve the Balkan Crisis. Agreed to in Senate, 90-5 (roll call vote #184).
August 11, 1992: Stevens amendment to express the sense of the Senate that the
United States will provide necessary funds for U.S. participation in humanitarian and
multilateral military action in Bosnia-Herzegovina as mandated by the United
Nations.
Agree to in Senate, 82-13 (roll call vote #185).
103rd Congress (1993-1994)
House Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments.
H.R. 3116
Making appropriations for the Department of Defense for the fiscal year ending
September 30, 1994. September 30, 1993: Measure passed House, 325-102 (roll call
vote #480). November 10, 1993: Senate agreed to conference report, 88-9 (roll call
vote #368).
CRS-12
October 20, 1993: Mitchell amendment to express the sense of Congress that
none of the funds in the bill should be used to deploy U.S. troops in BosniaHerzegovina unless authorized by Congress, except for humanitarian missions started
before October 20, 1993. Agree to in Senate, 99-1 (roll call vote #320).
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments.
S. 2042
A bill to remove the United States arms embargo of the government of BosniaHerzegovina. May 12, 1994: Measure passed Senate (voice vote).
Mitchell amendment to direct the President to seek the immediate agreement of
NATO allies to terminate the arms embargo against Bosnia-Herzegovina, direct the
President to seek a U.N. Security Council resolution to terminate the arms embargo
and ... authorize U.S. air power to implement NATO exclusion zones and to protect
U.N. forces, but prohibit the deployment of U.S. ground combat forces without
congressional authorization. Agreed to in Senate, 50-49 (roll call vote #110).
Dole amendment to require the President to terminate the U.S. arms embargo
of of
Bosnia-Herzegovina upon receipt of a request from that government for assistance
in in
its right of self-defense and to prohibit interference with the transfer of
conventional conventional
arms by the executive branch. The amendment also states that nothing
in the
amendment shall be interpreted as an authorization for the deployment of U.S.
forces.
Agreed to in Senate, 50-49 (roll call vote #111).
104th Congress (1995-1996)
House Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments.
H.Res. 247
Expresses the sense of the House of Representatives to the deployment of the
United States armed forces on the ground in the territory of the Republic of BosniaHerzegovina to enforce a peace agreement. October 30, 1995: Gilman motion to
suspend the rules and adopt the resolution ... that a successful outcome for the Bosnia
peace talks should not assume the deployment of U.S. troops, and that any
deployment deployment
should be authorized by Congress. Measure passed House, 315-103 (roll
call vote
#745).
H.R. 2606
To prohibit the use of funds appropriated to the Department of Defense from
being used for the deployment on the ground of U.S. Armed Forces in the Republic
of Bosnia-Herzegovina as part of any peacekeeping operations, or as part of any
implementation force, unless funds for such deployment are specifically appropriated
by law. November 17, 1995: Measure passed House, 243-171 (roll call vote #814).
December 13, 1995: Measure rejected in Senate, 22-77 (roll call vote #601).
H.R. 2770
To prohibit federal funds from being used for the deployment on the ground of
U.S. Armed Forces in the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina as part of any
CRS-13
peacekeeping operations, or as part of any implementation force. December 13,
1995:
Measure rejected in House, 210-218 (roll call vote #856).
H.Res. 302
Relating to the deployment of the U.S. Armed Forces in and around the territory
of the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina to enforce the peace agreement between the
parties to the conflict. Declares that the House has serious concerns and opposes the
President’s policy to deploy U.S. ground troops to Bosnia ... and that the U.S.
government should be impartial and evenhanded with all parties in the Bosnian
conflict as necessary to ensure the safety of U.S. troops. December 13, 1995:
Measure Measure
passed House, 287-141 (roll call vote #857).
H.Res. 306
Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives that while some Members
of Congress have questions and concerns about the deployment of U.S. Armed
Forces Forces
to Bosnia, the House unequivocally supports the men and women of the U.S.
Armed Armed
Forces who are serving there. December 14, 1995: Rejected in House, 190237190-237 (roll
call vote #858).
H.R. 2076
Making appropriations for the Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the
Judiciary, and related agencies for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1996, and for
other purposes. July 26, 1995: Measure passed House, 272-151 (roll call vote #585).
September 29, 1995: Measure passed Senate (voice vote). December 6, 1995: House
agreed to conference report, 256-166 (roll call vote #841). December 7, 1995: Senate
agreed to conference report, 50-48 (roll call vote #591). December 19, 1995: Vetoed
by President. January 3, 1996, House failed to override veto, 240-159 (roll call vote
#4).
September 29, 1995: Gregg amendment to express the sense of the Senate that
U.S. troops should not be deployed to Bosnia-Herzegovina unless Congress approves
the deployment or the temporary deployment as necessary to evacuate U.N.
peacekeeping forces from imminent danger, to undertake air rescue operations, or to
provide humanitarian supplies. Agreed to in Senate, 94-2 (roll call vote #479).
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments.
S.Con.Res. 35
A concurrent resolution expressing the opposition of the Congress to President
Clinton’s planned deployment of United States ground forces to Bosnia while also
expressing congressional support for the U.S. troops ordered by the President to help
implement the Bosnia peace agreement. December 13, 1995: Measure rejected in
Senate, 47-52 (roll call vote #602).
S.J.Res. 44
A joint resolution expressing support for U.S. troops in Bosnia, but expressing
reservations about the deployment of such troops. The measure would also limit the
deployment to “approximately” one year and require the President to limit the use of
U.S. troops in Bosnia to the enforcement of the military provisions of the peace
agreement and provide an exit strategy from Bosnia that would include an
CRS-14
international effort to achieve a military balance in Bosnia by arming the federation
of Bosnia. December 14, 1995: Measure agreed to in Senate, 69-30 (roll call vote
#603).
105th Congress (1997-1998)
House Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments.
H.R. 2226
Making appropriations for the Department of Defense for the fiscal year ending
September 30, 1998, and for other purposes. The bill/conference report would cut
off off
funding for U.S. troops in Bosnia after June 30, 1998, but would permit the
President President
to request further funding. July 29, 1997: Measure passed House, 322-105
(roll call
vote #338). Measure passed Senate (unanimous consent). September 25,
1997:
House agreed to conference report, 356-65 (roll call vote #442). Senate agreed
to to
conference report, 93-5 (roll call vote #258). October 8, 1997: Became Public
Law Law
105-56. October 21, 1997: Line item veto by the President.
P.L. 105-85/H.R. 1119
An Act to authorize appropriations for FY1998 for military activities of the
Department of Defense ... and for other purposes. June 25, 1997: Measure passed
House, 304-120 (roll call vote #236). July 11, 1997: Measure passed Senate
(unanimous consent). October 28, 1997: House agreed to conference report, 286-123
(roll call vote #534). November 6, 1997: Senate agreed to conference report, 90-10
(roll call vote #296).
June 24, 1997: Hilleary substitute amendment to the Buyer amendment to
prohibit the obligation of funds for ground deployment of U.S. troops in Bosnia after
December 31, 1997, unless the President submits a report to Congress requesting an
extension of funding. The Hilleary amendment would require the extension to be
approved by a joint resolution of Congress and would permit deployment for an
additional 180 days or until June 30, 1998. Rejected in House, 196-231 (roll call
vote vote
#233).
Buyer amendment to prohibit funding for U.S. ground troops in Bosnia after
June June
30, 1998. Agreed to in House, 278-148 (roll call vote #234).
H.Con.Res. 227
Directed the President, pursuant to Section 5(c) of the War Powers Resolution,
to remove U.S. Armed Forces from the Republic of Bosnia- Herzegovina. March 18,
1998: Measure rejected in House, 193-225 (roll call vote #58).
H.R. 3616
To authorize appropriations for FY1999 for military activities of the Department
of Defense ... and for other purposes. May 21, 1998: Frank motion to recommit the
bill to the National Security Committee with instructions to report it back with an
amendment that no funds appropriated for the Department of Defense for FY1999
may be used for the deployment of U.S. Armed Forces in the Republic of BosniaHerzegovina after December 31, 1998, unless a law has been enacted that explicitly
CRS-15
authorizes the deployment of such armed forces. Rejected in House, 167-251 (roll
call call
vote #182).
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments.
S. 936
An original bill to authorize appropriations for fiscal year 1998 for military
activities of the Department of Defense ... and for other purposes. Expresses the
sense sense
of Congress that U.S. troops should pull out of Bosnia by June 30, 1998. July
11,
1997: Measure passed Senate, 94-4 (roll call vote #173).
Senate Treaty Document 105-36
Protocols to the North Atlantic Treaty of 1949 on Accession of Poland,
Hungary,
and the Czech Republic. April 30, 1998: Resolution of advice and consent
to to
ratification agreed to in Senate, 80-19 (roll call vote #117).
Craig amendment to add language to the resolution of ratification that would
require Congress and the President to enact legislation specifically authorizing the
continued deployment of U.S. troops in Bosnia before the United States ratifies the
NATO expansion treaty. Rejected in Senate, 20-80 (roll call vote #110).
B. Smith amendment to add language to the resolution of ratification that would
require both houses of Congress to vote on legislation, prior to ratification of NATO
expansion, that would authorize continued U.S. troop deployments to Bosnia.
Rejected in Senate, 16-83 (roll call vote #116).
S. 2057
An original bill to authorize appropriations for FY1999 for military activities
of of
the Department of Defense ... and for other purposes. June 25, 1998: Measure
passed passed
Senate, 88-4 (roll call vote #181).
June 24, 1998: Thurmond amendment to express the sense of Congress that U.S.
ground forces should not remain in Bosnia indefinitely, and that the President should
work with NATO to withdraw U.S. forces “within a reasonable period of time.”
Agreed to in Senate, 90-5 (roll call vote #170).
McCain motion to table (kill) the Smith amendment that would prohibit funding
for U.S. ground troop deployment in Bosnia if both houses of Congress do not vote
by March 31, 1999, on legislation that would authorize continued deployment in
Bosnia. Agreed to in Senate, 65-31 (roll call vote #171).
S. 2132
An original bill making appropriations for the Department of Defense for the
fiscal year ending September 30, 1999 ... and for other purposes. July 30, 1998:
Indefinitely postponed in the Senate by unanimous consent.
McCain motion to table (kill) the Hutchison amendment that would require the
President to reduce U.S. combat forces in Bosnia to 6,500 by February 2, 1999, and
by 5,000 by October 1, 1999. Agreed to in Senate, 68-31 (roll call vote #249).
CRS-16
Kosovo (1999)
On March 24, 1999, President Clinton ordered U.S. military forces to begin air
strikes against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) in
cooperation with the NATO-led operation. The strike was ordered in response to
Yugoslavia’s campaign of violence against ethnic Albanians in the province of
Kosovo. On June 3, 1999, Yugoslavia agreed to a peace plan calling for withdrawal
of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo to include an international peacekeeping force. On
June 10, 1999, NATO air strikes were halted, and Yugoslav forces withdrew their
military forces from Kosovo by June 20, 1999.
Congress, while not authorizing directly, and in advance, this military action,
introduced and voted on several legislative measures related to deployment of U.S.
military forces for combat or peacekeeping in the Balkan region. The House adopted
H.Con.Res. 42 on March 11, 1999, which authorized the President to send troops as
peacekeepers; the Senate passed a non-binding resolution (S.Con.Res. 21) on March
23, 1999, that expressed the sense of Congress that the President was authorized to
conduct military air operations in cooperation with NATO allies against Yugoslavia.
However, the House later defeated the Senate resolution, on April 28, 1999. Other
House or Senate votes sent conflicting signals in addressing funding related to troop
deployments in the region, declaration of war issues, and executive and congressional
roles in sending U.S. military forces abroad.
For more detailed contextual and legislative history, see CRS Issue Brief 81050,
War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance; CRS Report RL31053, Kosovo
and U.S. Policy; CRS Issue Brief 10027, Kosovo and Macedonia: U.S. and Allied
Military Operations, and CRS Report 30729, Kosovo and the 106th Congress. The
following legislation is representative of what was introduced and voted on in the
106th Congress.
House Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments
H.Res. 103
Provides for consideration of the concurrent resolution, H.Con.Res. 42,
regarding regarding
the use of U.S. Armed Forces as part of a NATO peacekeeping operation
implementing a Kosovo peace agreement. March 11, 1999: Motion to order the
previous question (thus ending debate and the possibility of amendment) on adoption
of H.Res. 103. Motion agreed to in House, 219-203 (roll call vote #45). Resolution
agreed to in House, 218-201 (roll call vote #46).
H.Con.Res. 42
A concurrent resolution authorizing the President to deploy U.S. Armed Forces
personnel to Kosovo as part of a NATO peacekeeping operation implementing a
Kosovo peace agreement, subject to certain limitations. March 11, 1999: Measure
passed House, 219-191 (roll call vote #49).
Fowler amendment to limit the deployment of U.S. Armed Forces to Kosovo
and and
to not authorize the President to deploy ground forces as part of a NATO
peacekeeping operation. Rejected in House, 178-237 (roll call vote #48).
CRS-17
H.Res. 130
Expresses the support of the House of Representatives for the members of the
U.S. Armed Forces who are engaged in military operations against Yugoslavia.
March 24, 1999: Resolution agreed to in House, 424-1 (roll call vote #71).
H.Res. 151
Provides for consideration of the bill (H.R. 1569) to prohibit the use of funds
appropriated to the Department of Defense from being used for the deployment of
ground elements of the U.S. Armed Forces in Yugoslavia unless that deployment is
specifically authorized by law; for consideration of the concurrent resolution
(H.Con.Res. 82) directing the President, pursuant to Section 5(c) of the War Powers
Resolution, to remove U.S. Armed Forces from their positions in connection with the
present operations against Yugoslavia; for consideration of the joint resolution
(H.J.Res. 44) declaring a state of war between the United States and the Government
of Yugoslavia; and for consideration of the concurrent resolution (S.Con.Res. 21)
authorizing the President of the United States to conduct military air operations and
missile strikes against Yugoslavia. April 28, 1999: Resolution agreed to in House,
213-210 (roll call vote #99).
H.R. 1569
A bill to prohibit the use of funds appropriated to the Department of Defense
from being used for the deployment of ground elements of the U.S. Armed Forces in
Yugoslavia unless that deployment is specifically authorized by law. April 28, 1999:
Measure passed House, 249-180 (roll call vote #100).
H.Con.Res. 82
A concurrent resolution directing the President, pursuant to Section 5(c) of the
War Powers Resolution, to remove U.S. Armed Forces from their positions in
connection with the present operations against Yugoslavia. April 28, 1999: Measure
rejected in House, 139-290 (roll call vote #101).
H.J.Res. 44
A joint resolution declaring a state of war between the United States and the
government of Yugoslavia. April 28, 1999: Measure rejected in House, 2-427 (roll
call call
vote #102).
H.Res. 159
Provides for consideration of the bill (H.R. 1664) making emergency
supplemental appropriations for military operations, refugee relief, and humanitarian
assistance relating to the conflict in Kosovo ... for the fiscal year ending September
30, 1999, and for other purposes. May 6, 1999: Resolution agreed to in House, 253171 (roll call vote #116).
H.R. 1664
A bill (as introduced) making emergency supplemental appropriations for
military operations, refugee relief, and humanitarian assistance relating to the conflict
in Kosovo ... for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1999, and for other
purposes—provided $13.1 billion relating to Kosovo operations and other purposes
(Kosovo-related supplemental funding was ultimately removed from this legislation
CRS-18
and included in H.R. 1141). May 6, 1999: Measure passed House as amended, 311105 (roll call vote #120).
Obey amendment to provide the President’s funding request for military
operations in Kosovo, etc. Rejected in House, 164-260 (roll call vote #118).
Istook amendment to prohibit funding for the implementation of any plan to
invade Yugoslavia with ground forces, except in time of war. Rejected in House,
117-301 (roll call vote #119).
P.L. 106-31/H.R. 1141
A bill making emergency supplemental appropriations for the fiscal year ending
September 30, 1999, and for other purposes—provides $15 billion for Central
American humanitarian relief, aid to Jordan, U.S. farmer assistance, and U.S. military
and humanitarian operations in the Balkans. March 24, 1999: Measure passed
House,
220-211 (roll call vote #70). March 25, 1999:Measure passed Senate, as
amended, in
lieu of S. 544 (voice vote). May 18, 1999: House agreed to conference
report, 269-158269158 (roll call vote #133). May 20, 1999: Senate agreed to conference
report, 64-36
(roll call vote #136).
H.R. 1401
A bill to authorize appropriations for fiscal years 2000 and 2001 for military
activities of the Department of Defense ... and for other purposes. June 10, 1999:
Measure passed House, 365-58 (roll call vote #191).
June 6, 1999: Souder amendment to prohibit any fiscal year 2000 funding for
military operations in Yugoslavia. Rejected in House, 97-328 (roll call vote #187).
Skelton amendment to delete language which prohibits any funding for combat
or peacekeeping operations in Yugoslavia after September 30, 1999; retains language
which requires the President to request supplemental appropriations in order to
conduct combat or peacekeeping operations in Yugoslavia. Agreed to in House, 270155 (roll call vote #189).
Senate Resolutions, Bills, and Amendments
S. 544
An original bill making emergency supplemental appropriations and rescissions
for recovery from natural disasters, and foreign assistance, for the fiscal year ending
September 30, 1999, and for other purposes. March 23, 1999: Cloture motion (thus
limiting debate) on the Lott amendment (S.Amdt. 124) to the Hutchison amendment
(S.Amdt. 81) to prohibit the use of funds for military operations in Yugoslavia
unless unless
Congress enacts specific authorizations in law for the conduct of those
operations.
Cloture motion rejected in Senate, 55-44, because three-fifths did not
vote for it (roll
call vote #55). Measure passed Senate (voice vote).
S.Con.Res. 21
A concurrent resolution authorizing the President of the United States to
conduct conduct
military air operations and missile strikes against Yugoslavia. March 23, 1999:
CRS-19
1999: Measure passed Senate, 58-41 (roll call vote #57). April 28, 1999: Measure
rejected rejected
in House, 213-213 (roll call vote #103).
S.J.Res. 20
A joint resolution authorizing the President to use all necessary force and other
means, in concert with the U.S. allies, to accomplish U.S. and NATO objectives in
Yugoslavia. May 4, 1999: Motion to table agreed to in Senate, 78-22 (roll call vote
#98).
P.L. 106-65/S. 1059
An original bill to authorize appropriations for fiscal year 2000 for military
activities of the Department of Defense ... and for other purposes. May 27, 1999:
Measure passed Senate as amended, 92-3 (roll call vote #154). June 14, 1999:
Measure passed House, in lieu of H.R. 1401 (voice vote). September 15, 1999:
House House
agreed to conference report, 375-45 (roll call vote #424). September 22,
1999: Senate
agreed to conference report (voice vote).
May 25, 1999: Specter amendment to direct the President, pursuant to the U.S.
Constitution and the War Powers Resolution, to seek approval from Congress prior
to the introduction of ground troops from the U.S. Armed Forces in connection with
the present operations against Yugoslavia or funding for that operation will not be
authorized. Motion to table agreed to in Senate, 52-48 (roll call vote #145).
May 26, 1999: B. Smith amendment to prohibit, effective October 1, 1999, the
use of funds for military operations in Yugoslavia unless Congress enacts specific
authorization in law for the conduct of those operations. Motion to table agreed to
in in
Senate, 77-21 (roll call vote #151).
Terrorist Attack Against America (2001)
On September 11, 2001, terrorists attacked the United States with a coordinated
series of aircraft hijackings and suicide crashes into populated buildings. Two
airplanes crashed into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City,
causing their complete destruction. Another airplane crashed into the Pentagon, and
a fourth airplane crashed in southwestern Pennsylvania (near Shanksville) after
passengers attempted to take control of the aircraft in order to prevent it from
crashing crashing
into an important symbol of democracy and freedom, perhaps in the
Washington, D.C.
area. Over 3,000 people lost their lives in these terrorist attacks.
Consequently, on September 14, 2001, Congress passed a joint resolution,
which which
“authorizes the President to use all necessary and appropriate force against
those those
nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized,
committed, or
aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, or
harbored such
organizations or persons, in order to prevent any future acts of
international terrorism
against the United States by such nations, organizations, or
persons.” It further states
that the Act is intended to constitute specific statutory
authorization within the
meaning of the War Powers Resolution. President George
W. Bush signed the joint
resolution into law on September 18, 2001. On October 9,
2001, President Bush
reported in a letter to Congress that U.S. Armed Forces had
CRS-20
begun combat action in
CRS-20
Afghanistan against the Al Qaeda terrorists and their Taliban
supporters starting at
12:30 p.m. (EDT) on October 7, 2001.
P.L. 107-40/S.J.Res. 23;H.J.Res. 64
Joint resolutions to authorize the use of United States armed forces against those
responsible for the recent (September 11, 2001) attacks launched against the United
States. September 14, 2001: Measure passed Senate, 98-0 (roll call vote #281).
Measure passed House, 420-1 (roll call vote #342).
Use of Force Against Iraq (2002-2003)
On October 10, 2002, after several days of debate, the House passed H.J.Res.
114, which authorized the use of military force against Iraq. The Senate had
considered its own measure, S.J. Res. 45, beginning on October 3, but indefinitely
postponed it, and passed H.J.Res. 114 instead on October 11, 2002. As enacted into
law, the joint resolution provides authorization for the use of military force against
Iraq and expresses support for the President’s efforts to
1) strictly enforce through the United Nations Security Council all relevant
Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq; and
2) obtain prompt and decisive action by the Security Council to ensure that Iraq
abandons its strategy of delay, evasion, and noncompliance and promptly and
strictly complies with all relevant Security Council resolutions.
In addition, it authorizes the President to use the U.S. Armed Forces to (1)
defend U.S. national security against the continuing threat posed by Iraq; and (2)
enforce all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq. It directs the
President, prior to or as soon as possible (but no later than 48 hours) after exercising
such authority, to make available to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and
the President pro tempore of the Senate his determination that:
1) reliance on further diplomatic or peaceful means alone will not achieve the
above purposes; and
2) acting pursuant to this joint resolution is consistent with the United States
and and
other countries continuing to take necessary actions against international
terrorists and terrorist organizations, including those who planned, authorized,
committed, or aided the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
It declares that this section is intended to constitute specific statutory authorization
for for
use of the armed forces, consistent with the requirements of the War Powers
Resolution. Finally, it requires the President to report to Congress at least every 60
days on matters relevant to this resolution.
The war with Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom) began on March 19, 2003, with an
aerial attack against a location where Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was suspected
to be meeting with top Iraqi officials. U.S. and British troops entered Iraq on March
20, 2003, and while the invasion encountered resistance, particularly in its early
CRS-21
stages, U.S. forces had largely gained control of Baghdad by April 9, 2003. The
northern cities of Kirkuk and Mosul fell shortly afterward, and on April 14, 2003, U.S.
troops entered Tikrit, Saddam’s birthplace and the last major population center outside
coalition control. On April 15, 2003, President Bush declared that “the regime of
Saddam Hussein is no more.” For more information on Operation Iraqi Freedom, see
CRS Report RL31715, Iraq War: Background and Issues Overview.
P.L. 107-243/H.J. Res 114
Joint resolution to authorize the use of United States Armed Forces against Iraq.
October 10, 2002: Measure passed House, 296-133 (roll call vote #455). October 11,
2002: Measure passed Senate, 77-23 (roll call vote #237).
CRS-21
The following material is taken from CQ Weekly, October 5 and 12, 2002.
October 10, 2002: B. Lee amendment that would urge the President to work
through the United Nations to ensure that Iraq is not developing weapons of mass
destruction, and urge the use of peaceful means to resolve the issue, including the
resumption of weapons inspections. Rejected in House, 72-355 (roll call vote #452).
Spratt amendment to authorize the U.S. military to support any new U.N.
Security Council resolution that orders the elimination, by force if required, of Iraq’s
weapons of mass destruction, long-range missiles, and the means of producing such
weapons. The President would be required to seek congressional authority before
using military force against Iraq without such a U.N. resolution. Rejected in House,
155-270 (roll call vote #453).
Kucinich motion to recommit the bill to the House International Relations
Committee with instructions that it be reported back with language that would require
the President, prior to the use of force, to report to Congress on the effect of war with
Iraq, including estimates of its impact on the U.S. economy, Iraqi citizens, and
international stability. Rejected in House, 101-325 (roll call vote #454).
S.J.Res. 45
Joint resolution to authorize the use of United States Armed Forces against Iraq.
October 9, 2002: McCain motion to table the Graham amendment to the
Lieberman substitute amendment. The Graham amendment would authorize the use
of force against Iraq and five terrorist organizations. It would require the
Administration to report to Congress that diplomatic options have been exhausted no
later than 48 hours after action has begun. The President would be required to report
to Congress at least every 60 days. Agreed to in Senate, 88-10 (roll call vote #231).
October 10, 2002: Byrd amendment to the Lieberman substitute amendment.
The Byrd amendment would provide for the termination of congressional
authorization of the use of force 12 months after the resolution’s enactment, unless
the the
President certifies that an extension is necessary and Congress does not pass a
joint joint
resolution disapproving of the extension. Rejected in Senate, 31-66 (roll call
vote #232). vote
#232).
CRS-22
Motion to invoke cloture (thus limiting debate) on the Lieberman substitute
amendment that would authorize the use of force against Iraq and require the
Administration to report to Congress that diplomatic options have been exhausted no
later than 48 hours after military action has begun. The President also would be
required to submit a progress report to Congress at least every 60 days. Agreed to in
Senate, 75-25 (roll call vote #233).
Byrd amendment to the Lieberman substitute amendment. The Byrd
amendment amendment
would clarify that any authorization of the use of force against Iraq
would not alter the
constitutional authority of Congress to declare war. It also would
clarify that no
additional authority not directly related to a clear threat of imminent,
sudden, and
direct attack on the United States be granted to the President unless
Congress Congress
authorizes it. Rejected in Senate, 14-86 (roll call vote #234).
CRS-22
Levin amendment to the Lieberman substitute amendment. The Levin
amendment would authorize the use of force against Iraq if it failed to comply with
a new U.N. resolution that demanded unrestricted access for U.N. weapons inspectors
in Iraq and authorized the use of military force by U.N. members to enforce the
resolution. Congress could return to session at any time to promptly consider
proposals related to Iraq if the U.N. failed to adopt such a resolution. Rejected in
Senate, 24-75 (roll call vote #235).
Durbin amendment to the Lieberman substitute amendment. The Durbin
amendment would authorize the use of military force to cover an “imminent threat”
by Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction, rather than a “continuing threat” by Iraq.
Rejected in Senate, 30-70 (roll call vote #236).
S.Res. 95
A resolution commending the President and the armed forces of the United States
of America in the conflict against Iraq. March 20, 2003: Measure passed Senate, 99-0.
(roll call vote #61).
H.Con.Res. 104
A concurrent resolution expressing the support and appreciation of the nation for
the President and the members of the armed forces who are participating in Operation
Iraqi Freedom. March 21, 2003: Measure passed House, 392-11 (roll call vote #83).
Sources Consulted
Congressional Quarterly Almanac. Washington, CQ Press. Annual.
CQ Weekly. Washington, CQ Press. Various issues.
CRS Report RL30172. Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad,
1798-2001.
CRS Report RL31185. The War Powers Resolution: After Twenty-Eight Years.
CRS Issue Brief 81050. The War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance.