Contents

• Introduction
• Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies (E&W) Appropriations
• Description of E&W Agencies and Activities
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
• Central Utah Project (CUP) and Bureau of Reclamation
• Department of Energy
• Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
• Electricity Delivery, Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Energy Reliability
• Nuclear Energy
• Fossil Energy and Geothermal Energy
• Strategic Petroleum Reserve
• Science
• Advanced Research Projects Agency—Energy (ARPA-E)
• Clean Energy Demonstrations
• Office of Energy Dominance Financing
• Energy Information Administration
• Nuclear Weapons Activities
• Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation
• Cleanup of Former Nuclear Weapons Production and Research Sites
• Power Marketing Administrations
• Independent Agencies
• Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities (FRCAs)
• Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Summary

The Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies appropriations (E&W) bill, typically enacted on an annual basis, funds civil works activities of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) in the Department of Defense; the Department of the Interior's Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) and Central Utah Project (CUP); the Department of Energy (DOE); the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC); the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC); and several other independent agencies. E&W regular appropriations acts are typically accompanied by an explanatory statement or report providing more explanation and direction, which is sometimes incorporated by reference into the act. In some fiscal years, other acts have provided additional funding to these agencies.

USACE. USACE civil works activities include planning and constructing projects for coastal and inland navigation, riverine and coastal flood risk reduction, and aquatic ecosystem restoration. USACE operates and maintains some of these constructed water resource facilities. Regular appropriations for USACE have generally increased from $7.0 billion (nominal dollars) in FY2019 to $10.4 billion in FY2026. Across these years, USACE received a total of $29.2 billion in additional appropriations, such as the $17.1 billion provided by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA; P.L. 117-58).

CUP and Reclamation. Reclamation manages hundreds of dams and diversion projects in 17 western states. These projects provide water to approximately 10 million acres of farmland and 31 million people. The CUP, a water resources project in Utah that was originally built by Reclamation, is managed by DOI. Regular appropriations for DOI and CUP increased in nominal dollars from $1.6 billion in FY2019 to around $1.9 billion in FY2022 through FY2025. For FY2026, appropriations were $1.7 billion. Reclamation has also received additional appropriations in some of these fiscal years, totaling $12.6 billion.

DOE. Major DOE activities include research and development on renewable energy, energy efficiency, nuclear power, fossil energy, and electricity; nuclear weapons and nonproliferation; general science related to energy; environmental cleanup; energy statistics, projections, and analysis; loan programs for energy projects; the Strategic Petroleum Reserve; and power marketing administrations. DOE funding generally encompasses roughly 80% of E&W regular appropriations. Regular appropriations for DOE increased in nominal dollars from FY2019 ($35.7 billion) to FY2024 ($50.2 billion) and decreased to $49.1 billion for FY2026. From FY2020 through FY2025, DOE received $105.2 billion in additional appropriations.

Independent Agencies. Independent agencies that receive E&W funding include the NRC, boards related to nuclear activities, and select federal regional commissions and authorities (FRCAs) such as the Appalachian Regional Commission, Delta Regional Authority, and Northern Border Regional Commission. Regular appropriations for these independent agencies have increased in nominal dollars from $390 million in FY2019 to $566 million in FY2026 (excluding NRC revenues). The IIJA provided $1.4 billion in additional appropriations for a number of FRCAs, including $1.0 billion for ARC.

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Introduction

Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies (E&W) regular appropriations acts, considered annually, typically include funding for the Department of Energy (DOE), two water resources agencies, and a number of independent agencies.¹ Other acts, such as supplemental appropriations acts and reconciliation measures, have at times provided additional funding for these agencies. This report presents enacted E&W appropriations levels from FY2019 through FY2026, including for E&W accounts. The report further provides background information about the agencies and selected accounts, and notes any changes to various accounts and their programs during the period.² For action regarding FY2027, see CRS Report R48944, Energy and Water Development: FY2027 Appropriations.

Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies (E&W) Appropriations

Table 1 and Figure 1 show budget totals for E&W regular appropriations enacted for FY2019 through FY2026 (excluding additional funding).³

Figure 1. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026 (budget authority in billions of dollars)

Source: Compiled by CRS from totals provided by enacted laws. Notes: Figures exclude permanent budget authorities, scorekeeping adjustments, rescissions, and additional funding. See Table 3 for additional funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not adjusted.

E&W regular appropriations acts provide funding across four titles: Title I—Corps of Engineers—Civil in the Department of the Army (i.e., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers); Title II— Central Utah Project and Reclamation in the Department of the Interior; Title III—Department of Energy; and Title IV—Independent Agencies. (See Table 2 for regular appropriations enacted for these titles from FY2019 through FY2026.) Each E&W title includes appropriations for various accounts that fund certain activities. In addition, E&W regular appropriations acts typically have an accompanying explanatory statement or report. This accompanying document provides more explanation and direction for the appropriations in the act, and is sometimes incorporated by reference with the act to give it the force of law.

In some fiscal years, other acts, such as supplemental appropriations acts or budget reconciliation measures, have provided funding to these agencies in addition to regular appropriations. Table 3 shows such appropriations provided to these agencies (organized by title) from FY2019 through FY2026. For some fiscal years, the appropriations from these acts contribute significant funding to E&W agency accounts and programs; for example, see the series of three acts enacted in FY2022. The FY2025 budget reconciliation act, P.L. 119-21, rescinded certain unobligated advance appropriations provided by a previous budget reconciliation act, P.L. 117-169.⁴

Description of E&W Agencies and Activities

The following sections describe E&W agencies and selected accounts and programs. Tables in these sections provide regular appropriations amounts for accounts from FY2019 through FY2026. For detailed information on these topics, contact CRS analysts listed at the end of this report. For discussion of E&W appropriations action for FY2027 and related issues for Congress, see CRS Report R48944, Energy and Water Development: FY2027 Appropriations.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USACE is an agency in the Department of Defense (currently using the secondary title Department of War) with both military and civilian responsibilities. Under its civil works program, which is funded by E&W appropriations acts, USACE plans, builds, operates, and in some cases maintains water resource facilities for coastal and inland navigation, riverine and coastal flood risk reduction, and aquatic ecosystem restoration.⁵

For more than 50 years, Congress has generally authorized USACE studies, construction projects, and other activities in omnibus water authorization bills, typically titled as Water Resources Development Acts (WRDAs), prior to funding them through appropriations legislation. Recent Congresses passed omnibus USACE water resources authorization acts in 2014, 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2022. The latest enacted WRDA, the Water Resources Development Act of 2024, was Division A of the Thomas R. Carper Water Resources Development Act of 2024 (P.L. 118-272). These acts consisted largely of authorizations for new USACE studies and projects, and they altered numerous USACE policies and procedures.⁶

Unlike for highways and in municipal water infrastructure programs, federal funds for USACE are not distributed to states or projects based on formulas or delivered via competitive grants. Instead, USACE generally directly plans, designs, and constructs authorized projects that are cost shared with nonfederal project sponsors. Each year, some USACE projects receive study and construction appropriations from E&W acts or from additional funding; however, many authorized USACE studies and construction projects have not been federally funded for years after their authorizations. USACE funding also supports operations and maintenance (O&M) costs associated with some authorized projects after their construction.⁷

Accounts funding project-specific work include the Investigations (funding most studies), Construction, O&M, and Mississippi River and Tributaries (funding study, construction, and O&M for certain projects) accounts.⁸ Explanatory statements accompanying E&W acts designate funding to specific studies and projects, which generally include those listed in the budget request and those requested by Members (sometimes referred to as earmarks).⁹ The explanatory statements also have included funds not assigned to specific studies or projects (referred to in those statements as "additional funding") for USACE to allocate to studies and projects in a work plan that is to be developed after enactment.¹⁰

In addition to funding the agency's water resource activities, Congress has provided funding to USACE for regulatory activities,¹¹ the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program,¹² flood preparedness and response, administrative expenses, and the Corps Water Infrastructure Financing Program (CWIFP).¹³

Figure 2 shows annual appropriations for USACE from FY2019 through FY2026, and Table 4 lists appropriations by account.

Figure 2. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026 (budget authority in billions of dollars)

Source: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements. Notes: See Table 3 for supplemental funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not adjusted.

In addition to the regular appropriations for FY2019 through FY2026, USACE received the following funds separately from the annual appropriations process:

• $3.258 billion in P.L. 116-20;
• $70 million in P.L. 116-136;
• $5.711 billion in Division B of P.L. 117-43;
• $14.969 billion for FY2022, $1.080 billion for FY2023, and $1.050 billion for FY2024 in the IIJA (P.L. 117-58);
• $20 million in the FY2023 continuing resolution (P.L. 117-180);
• $1.480 billion in Division N of P.L. 117-328; and
• $1.515 billion in the American Relief Act, FY2025 (P.L. 118-158).

For more information on USACE supplemental funding, see CRS Report R48572, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: Supplemental Appropriations, and CRS Insight IN11723, Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act Funding for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Civil Works.

Central Utah Project (CUP) and Bureau of Reclamation

Most of the large dams and water diversion structures in the West were built by, or with the assistance of, Reclamation in the Department of the Interior (DOI). While USACE has built hundreds of flood control and navigation water resource projects, Reclamation's original mission was to develop, through its water resource projects, water supplies, primarily for irrigation to reclaim arid lands in the West for farming and ranching. Reclamation has evolved into an agency that assists in meeting the water demands in the West while working to protect the environment and the public's investment in Reclamation infrastructure.

Today, Reclamation manages hundreds of dams and diversion projects, including more than 300 storage reservoirs, in 17 western states. These projects provide water to approximately 10 million acres of farmland and 31 million people. Reclamation is the largest wholesale supplier of water in the 17 western states and the second-largest hydroelectric power producer in the nation. Reclamation facilities also provide substantial flood control, recreation, and other benefits. Reclamation facility operations are often controversial, particularly for their effect on fish and wildlife species and because of conflicts among competing water users during drought conditions.

As with USACE, the Reclamation budget is made up largely of individual project funding lines. Therefore, as with USACE, these Reclamation projects have often been subject to earmark disclosure rules. The moratorium on earmarks through FY2021 restricted Congress from directing funds toward specific Reclamation projects. For FY2022 through FY2026, the House and Senate rules allowed congressionally directed funding for specific Reclamation projects. For FY2025, Section 1111 of P.L. 119-4 did not provide for earmarks.

Water and Related Resources, Reclamation's single largest account, funds the agency's traditional programs and projects, including water project construction, operations and maintenance, dam safety, and ecosystem restoration, among other activities.¹⁴ Reclamation also typically requests funds for three other smaller accounts: the Policy and Administration Account, which funds Reclamation's administrative expenses; the California Bay-Delta Restoration Account, which funds collaborative state and federal water supply and habitat restoration in the Bay-Delta region of California; and the Central Valley Project Restoration Fund (CVPRF), which funds fish and wildlife habitat restoration in California's Central Valley.¹⁵ CVPRF expenditures are offset by fees on Central Valley water contractors. For more information on annual appropriations for Reclamation, see CRS In Focus IF13066, Bureau of Reclamation: FY2026 Budget and Appropriations, by Charles V. Stern.

Implementation and oversight of CUP, a project originally constructed by Reclamation that continues to be funded by Title II, is conducted by the Central Utah Project Completion Act Office (i.e., a separate office within the DOI).¹⁶

Figure 3 shows regular appropriations for CUP and Reclamation from FY2019 through FY2026, and Table 4 lists appropriations by account.

Figure 3. Central Utah Project and Bureau of Reclamation Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026 (budget authority in billions of dollars)

Source: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements. Notes: See Table 3 for additional funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not adjusted.

Reclamation has also received additional appropriations in recent fiscal years. For FY2019, P.L. 116-20 provided $16 million total to Reclamation and CUP to carry out fire remediation activities, and P.L. 116-136 provided Reclamation $21 million to prevent, prepare for, and respond to coronavirus.

The IIJA provided $1.660 billion in additional funding for each of FY2022 through FY2026 for various activities in Reclamation's Water and Related Resources account.¹⁷ P.L. 117-169, popularly known as the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), appropriated $4.588 billion in additional funds for Reclamation, including $4.000 billion for drought mitigation in the 17 western reclamation states, remaining available through FY2026.¹⁸

In FY2025, the American Relief Act, 2025 (P.L. 118-158), included $74 million for multiple Reclamation activities, including expenditures related to canal failures. Most recently, the FY2025 budget reconciliation measure (P.L. 119-21) appropriated $1.000 billion in funding for surface water storage and conveyance projects that restore or increase the capacity of existing Reclamation facilities, available through FY2034.¹⁹

Department of Energy

The E&W regular appropriations acts typically have funded nearly all DOE programs.²⁰ Major DOE activities are authorized under multiple energy statutes and include the following:

• research and development (R&D) on renewable energy, energy efficiency, nuclear power, fossil energy, and electricity;
• nuclear weapons and nonproliferation;
• general science;
• environmental cleanup;
• energy statistics, projections, and analysis;
• loan programs;
• the Strategic Petroleum Reserve; and
• power marketing administrations.

Figure 4 shows regular appropriations for DOE from FY2019 through FY2026, and Table 6 lists appropriations by account.

Figure 4. Department of Energy Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026 (budget authority in billions of dollars)

Source: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements. Notes: See Table 3 for supplemental funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not adjusted.

In addition to the regular appropriations shown in Table 6, DOE has also received additional appropriations in recent fiscal years. P.L. 116-136 provided DOE $28 million to prevent, prepare for, and respond to coronavirus, and another $100 million to its Science account to provide support and access to scientific user facilities in the Office of Science and the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA).

Additional appropriations became available to DOE from the IRA beginning in FY2022, as shown in Table 7. Additional amounts for FY2023 were appropriated by Divisions M and N of P.L. 117-328, as shown in Table 8. DOE received appropriations from IIJA; these additional amounts for FY2023, FY2024, FY2025, and FY2026 are shown in Table 9. Unobligated balances for certain IRA activities were rescinded by P.L. 119-21.

For FY2024, DOE's Science account received $98 million for development and production of medical, stable, and radioactive isotopes, and the NNSA received $149 million to respond to the Ukrainian conflict. In response to natural disasters, including Hurricanes Helene and Milton, Congress provided $60 million for the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, $2 million for weapons activities, and $2 million for environmental cleanup in P.L. 118-158.

The FY2025 budget reconciliation measure (P.L. 119-21) provided additional mandatory appropriations for several DOE programs. The act expanded the scope of DOE's Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment (Section 1706) loan program and appropriated $1.000 billion to cover the Section 1706 program's subsidy costs (potential losses). The SPR account received $171 million in supplemental appropriations for purchasing crude oil for the SPR and $218 million for maintenance, both to remain available through FY2029. P.L. 119-21 also appropriated $3.885 billion for FY2025, to remain available through FY2029, for the following NNSA activities:

• $200 million for Phase 1 studies;
• $540 million for deferred maintenance and repair;
• $1.000 billion for construction;
• $400 million for the sea-launched cruise missile nuclear warhead;
• $750 million for modernization of facilities for nuclear warhead primary stages;
• $750 million for modernization of facilities for nuclear warhead secondary stages;
• $120 million for uranium enrichment centrifuge deployment;
• $10 million for spent nuclear fuel reprocessing evaluation; and
• $115 million for artificial intelligence.

Separately, P.L. 119-21 rescinded all unobligated balances of IRA appropriations for these programs:

• State Home Energy Efficiency Training Grants (IRA Section 50123);
• DOE loan programs (IRA Section 50141);
• tribal energy loan guarantees (IRA Section 50145);
• electric transmission facility loans (IRA Section 50151);
• grants for electricity transmission project siting studies (IRA Section 50152);
• offshore wind electricity transmission planning (IRA Section 50153); and
• grants for advanced industrial facilities deployment (IRA Section 50161).

The act also repealed the Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing program (IRA Section 50142).

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

The Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy account has funded DOE's Office of Critical Minerals and Energy Innovation (CMEI).²¹ CMEI was created from the former Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by adding critical minerals programs and moving geothermal research to the Office of Hydrocarbons and Geothermal Energy (formerly the Office of Fossil Energy).²²

CMEI addresses three energy and national security objectives: supply of critical minerals; energy security and reliability; and affordable access to energy, including allowing manufacturers to make appliances that use different fuels.²³ The CMEI organization includes the Office of Critical Minerals, Materials, and Manufacturing; the Office of Energy Technology; and the Office of Innovation, Affordability, and Consumer Choice. The Office of Critical Minerals, Materials, and Manufacturing covers advanced mining and mineral production, which had previously been in the Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management and known there as the Office of Mineral Production and Processing Technologies.

The DOE programs in CMEI encompass electric power generation; transportation technologies; alternative fuels for vehicles and feedstocks for chemical products, addressing supply chain costs and other objectives; materials and manufacturing for improvements across the energy value chain; industrial technologies for improved energy efficiency; and building technologies for lower-cost energy end uses. In addition, CMEI includes realigned program elements on the following: state and community energy, including weatherization assistance; federal energy management in federal facilities; and manufacturing and energy supply chain—all three of which were being executed in separate offices in prior years.²⁴

Electricity Delivery, Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Energy Reliability

The Office of Electricity (OE) "leads the Department of Energy's research, development, and demonstration programs to strengthen and modernize our nation's power grid so that our nation maintains a reliable, resilient, and secure electricity delivery infrastructure," according to the OE website.²⁵

OE uses a model of North American energy vulnerabilities for analyzing transmission and other energy infrastructure needs. Other activities include pursuing megawatt-scale electricity storage, integrating electric power system sensing technology, and analyzing electricity-related policy issues. A separate DOE Grid Deployment Office supports modernization of the nation's electricity transmission system and critical generating facilities through planning and financial assistance.

The Office of Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response (CESER) is the federal government's lead entity for energy sector-specific responses to energy security emergencies—whether caused by physical infrastructure problems or by cybersecurity issues. The office conducts R&D on energy infrastructure security technology; provides energy sector security guidelines, training, and technical assistance; and enhances energy sector emergency preparedness and response.

Nuclear Energy

DOE's Office of Nuclear Energy (NE) supports R&D on technologies to improve the efficiency and economic viability of existing U.S. nuclear power plants, development and demonstration of advanced reactor technologies, and R&D on nuclear fuel cycle technologies. NE also supports growth of the U.S. nuclear fuel supply chain, including uranium mining, conversion to uranium hexafluoride, and enrichment.

The Reactor Concepts program area comprises research on advanced reactors, including advanced small modular reactors, and research to enhance the "sustainability" of existing commercial light water reactors. Advanced reactor research focuses on "Generation IV" reactors, as opposed to the existing fleet of commercial light water reactors, which are generally classified as Generations II and III.

The Advanced Reactors Demonstration Program supports the new reactor demonstration projects and fuel cycle facilities, as well as technologies for potential future demonstration. DOE can authorize and regulate reactors under its own programs that are being developed as potential commercial reactors for NRC licensing and regulation.

The Fuel Cycle Research and Development program includes generic research on nuclear waste management and disposal. One of the program's primary activities is the development of technologies to separate the radioactive constituents of spent fuel for reuse or solidifying into stable waste forms. Other major research areas in the Fuel Cycle R&D program include the development of accident-tolerant fuels for existing commercial reactors, evaluation of fuel cycle options, and development of improved technologies to prevent diversion of nuclear materials for weapons. The program is also developing sources of high-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU), in which uranium is enriched to between 5% and 20% in the fissile isotope U-235, for potential use in advanced reactors. HALEU would be required for several designs currently receiving cost-shared support by DOE's Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program.

Fossil Energy and Geothermal Energy

The Office of Fossil Energy (FE) has historically supported research related to coal, natural gas, and petroleum, including a major focus area on the development of carbon capture and storage technologies for use with coal-fired power plants. The office also supports operations at the National Energy Technology Laboratory.

The Biden Administration changed the office's name to Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, reflecting a focus on development of carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies; hydrogen technologies; and options to reduce methane emissions from fossil fuel infrastructure. A DOE reorganization on November 20, 2025, changed the name of FECM to the Hydrocarbons and Geothermal Energy Office (HGEO) and moved geothermal research from the former Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy into HGEO.²⁶ According to the office website, the office's mission is to "unleash the full potential of America's hydrocarbon and geothermal resources to provide affordable, reliable, and secure energy."²⁷ For FY2026 appropriations, "Fossil Energy" remained the line item name for expenses for fossil energy research and development.

Additionally, HGEO is involved in a number of programs funded by IIJA, either managing the programs directly or consulting with other DOE offices that have the lead management role. These programs include Regional Direct Air Capture Hubs; Carbon Storage Validation and Testing; Critical Materials Innovation, Efficiency, and Alternatives; and the Carbon Dioxide Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (CIFIA).

HGEO's carbon capture research focuses on natural gas-fired power plants and applications outside the power sector, in line with congressional direction provided in the Energy Act of 2020 (Division Z of P.L. 116-260) and other recent laws. HGEO also conducts research on producing hydrogen from fossil fuels and using hydrogen in the power sector.

Strategic Petroleum Reserve

Authorized in 1975 by the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (P.L. 94-163, as amended; 42 U.S.C. §§6201 et seq.), the SPR fulfills two statutory policy objectives: (1) reduce the economic impact of oil supply disruptions, and (2) carry out U.S. obligations under the Agreement on an International Energy Program (IEP)—a multilateral, voluntary agreement subject to international law. Currently, the SPR consists of a government-owned crude oil reserve in Texas and Louisiana.²⁸

Since the SPR was established, various Administrations have directed crude oil drawdowns and sales on five occasions in response to emergency oil supply disruptions. During FY2022 and FY2023, emergency SPR authorities addressed anticipated oil supply disruptions following Russia's military invasion of Ukraine. The Biden Administration sold approximately 180 million barrels between March 2022 and January 2023, the largest-ever emergency SPR release.²⁹ More frequently, DOE uses SPR authorities to exchange crude oil with refiners and traders following natural disasters (i.e., hurricanes) and other regional supply disruption events. From time to time, DOE also activates exchange authorities to temporarily store crude oil during low-price periods and provide additional supply during high-price periods.³⁰ In response to oil supply and trade disruptions linked to military conflict in Iran, DOE announced plans in March 2026 to release 172 million barrels of crude oil from the SPR. This release is part of an International Energy Agency (IEA) coordinated release plan totaling 400 million barrels. DOE is releasing barrels using exchange authorities.³¹

Because of limited utilization in response to emergency oil supply disruptions prior to the 2022 Ukraine war, growing U.S. crude oil production, and rapidly declining net petroleum imports—the basis for determining IEP emergency oil stock obligations—Congress began mandating SPR crude oil sales to pay for other legislative priorities. Between 2015 and 2021, Congress passed eight laws mandating the sale of 358.6 million barrels of crude oil. Congress cancelled 140 million barrels of these mandated sales in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 (P.L. 117-328) by rescinding some proceeds from emergency sales in FY2022 and FY2023. Additionally, Congress required DOE to sell approximately $1.4 billion of SPR crude oil to pay for an SPR modernization program.³² A February 2025 DOE secretarial order includes "Refill the Strategic Petroleum Reserve" as a department-level priority.

For additional information, see CRS Insight IN12542, Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Inventory Outlook and Policy Considerations, by Phillip Brown.

Science

The DOE Office of Science conducts basic research across eight programs: accelerator R&D and production, advanced scientific computing research, basic energy sciences, biological and environmental research, fusion energy sciences, high-energy physics, isotope R&D and production, and nuclear physics. According to DOE's FY2026 budget justification, the Office of Science "is the nation's largest Federal supporter of basic research in the physical sciences."³³ DOE has a system of 17 national laboratories, mostly operated by contractors, around the country. Ten of these labs are overseen by the Office of Science.³⁴

On November 20, 2025, DOE announced an organizational realignment that made several changes to the offices overseen by the Under Secretary for Science, which includes the Office of Science.³⁵ Compared to the current (FY2026) DOE structure, new offices within the responsibilities of the Under Secretary for Science include the Office of Fusion, the Office of Artificial Intelligence and Quantum, and the Office of Technology Commercialization (previously the Office of Technology Transfer under the Energy Secretary). Additionally, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, and Manufacturing and Energy Supply Chains offices have been reorganized into newly created offices: the Office of Hydrocarbons and Geothermal Energy Office (HGEO) and the Office of Critical Minerals and Energy Innovation (CMEI).

The Accelerator R&D and Production Program conducts research related to particle accelerators that support science across multiple sectors: medicine, industry, and national security. According to DOE, particle accelerators are fundamental tools enabling discovery science across DOE facilities and research programs, supporting roughly 20,000 users per year.³⁶

The Advanced Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) Program focuses on developing and maintaining computing and networking capabilities for science and research in computational science, applied mathematics, computer science, networking, and software research, as well as development and operation of multiple large, high-performance computing and networking user facilities. The program plays a key role in the DOE-wide effort to advance the development of artificial intelligence and quantum computing. Under the 2025 DOE reorganization discussed above, CRS is unable to determine whether, or how, the new Office of Artificial Intelligence and Quantum (AIQ) will coordinate with or be responsible for future funding and programmatic activities related to AI and quantum currently undertaken by ASCR. According to DOE, the stated mission of the AIQ is "to oversee the Department's Genesis Mission through collaboration and coordination of federal government, national laboratories, and industry in support of the U.S. AI and quantum research investments."³⁷

Basic Energy Sciences (BES), the largest program in the Office of Science, focuses on research related to the discovery, design, and control of materials and chemical systems across wide scales of time and space, such as next-generation microelectronics and qubit platforms, fusion, advanced nuclear fission, and enhanced geothermal energy, as well as critical minerals and materials needed for these technologies.³⁸ The program supports research in disciplines such as condensed matter and materials physics, chemistry, geosciences, and aspects of biosciences that establish the foundation of knowledge required to advance artificial intelligence, critical materials, microelectronics, and quantum information science. BES also provides funding for scientific user facilities (e.g., the National Synchrotron Light Source II, and the Linac Coherent Light Source-II) and certain DOE research centers and hubs (e.g., the Critical Materials Innovation Hub, National Quantum Information Science Research Centers, and Energy Frontier Research Centers).

Biological and Environmental Research (BER) supports scientific research and facilities to analyze and understand complex biological, earth, and environmental systems with the aim of advancing the nation's energy and infrastructure security.³⁹ BER supports three user facilities: the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement user facility (proposed for closure in the President's FY2027 request), the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, and the Joint Genome Institute.⁴⁰

Fusion Energy Sciences (FES) seeks to increase understanding of the behavior of matter at very high temperatures and to establish the science needed to develop a fusion energy source. FES also provides funding for the ITER project, a multinational effort to design and build an experimental fusion reactor.⁴¹ As part of its organizational realignment, DOE established a new Office of Fusion under the responsibilities of the Under Secretary for Science. According to DOE, the Office of Fusion will coordinate all fusion-related activities within DOE and lead DOE "in advancing a set of national priorities that establishes a national strategy to close scientific and technological gaps on the critical path toward developing, deploying and commercializing fusion energy."⁴² For FY2027, the Administration requested $10 million to support "a new office with funding for personnel, travel, and advisory and assistance." CRS is unable to determine whether, or to what extent, the new Office of Fusion will be responsible for future funding and programmatic activities currently undertaken by FES.⁴³ For more information, see CRS Report R48866, Toward Commercial Fusion Energy: Considerations for Congress, by Todd Kuiken.

High Energy Physics (HEP) conducts research on the fundamental constituents of matter and energy, including studies of dark energy and the search for dark matter. This work is conducted to better understand how the universe works at its most fundamental level.⁴⁴ One example is the Sanford Underground Research Facility, which enables researchers to study how the universe was formed and how organisms survive in extreme conditions.⁴⁵

Isotope R&D and Production's mission is to produce critical radioactive and stable isotopes that are in short supply domestically or that no domestic entity has the infrastructure or core competency to produce. The program is the only producer of approximately 300 isotopes needed across various scientific, technological, medical, and industrial processes (e.g., cancer therapy and oil/gas exploration).⁴⁶

Nuclear Physics (NP) supports research on the nature of matter, including its basic constituents and their interactions. One NP project is the construction of the Electron-Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, NY. The program also supports user facilities: the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility at Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility; the Argonne Tandem Linac Accelerator System at Argonne National Laboratory; and the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams at Michigan State University.⁴⁷

Two research efforts in the Office of Science cut across multiple program areas: quantum information science, which aims to use quantum physics to process information, and artificial intelligence and machine learning, which use computerized systems that work and react in ways commonly thought to require intelligence. As part of its organizational realignment, DOE established a new Office of Artificial Intelligence and Quantum (AIQ) under the Under Secretary for Science.⁴⁸ The stated mission of the AIQ is "to oversee the Department's Genesis Mission through collaboration and coordination of federal government, national laboratories, and industry in support of the U.S. AI and quantum research investments."⁴⁹

Advanced Research Projects Agency—Energy (ARPA-E)

ARPA-E is a DOE office authorized by the America COMPETES Act (P.L. 110-69) to support transformational technological advances in energy technology research "in areas where industry by itself is not likely to invest due to technical and financial uncertainty."⁵⁰ According to DOE, since 2009 ARPA-E has provided $4.29 billion in R&D funding to more than 1,750 projects, of which 282 projects have attracted more than $16.3 billion in follow-on funding from the private sector.⁵¹

Clean Energy Demonstrations

DOE's Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations (OCED) funded cost-shared demonstrations of clean energy technologies, including "clean hydrogen, carbon management, industrial decarbonization, advanced nuclear reactors, long-duration energy storage, demonstration projects in rural or remote areas and on current and former mine land, and more."⁵² OCED's portfolio included the Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program (transferred from the Office of Nuclear Energy), which provided funding to two 50% cost-shared advanced reactor demonstrations in Wyoming and Texas. OCED also supported the regional Hydrogen Hubs established by IIJA to establish hydrogen supply chains for industrial, transportation, and other decarbonization uses. DOE's November 2025 reorganization eliminated OCED and divided its responsibilities among other offices.

Office of Energy Dominance Financing

DOE's Office of Energy Dominance Financing, formerly the Loan Programs Office (LPO), administers several authorized programs that provide direct loans and loan guarantees to eligible projects, including the following:

• Title 17 Incentives for Innovative Technologies;
• Title 17 Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment Financing;
• Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing;
• Tribal Energy Financing; and
• Carbon Dioxide Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (CIFIA) financing (loan guarantees and direct loans).

As with all federal credit programs, estimated costs to the federal government must be calculated for each approved project and paid for prior to financial closing. Commonly referred to as "credit subsidy costs," estimated costs are typically paid using congressionally appropriated funds, but in some cases can be wholly or partially paid by the project applicant. Most LPO programs have available appropriations for credit subsidy costs from previously enacted legislation.

Title 17 Incentives for Innovative Technologies

Title XVII of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005, P.L. 109-58) established the clean energy loan guarantee program by authorizing DOE to guarantee loans for projects located in the United States that (1) generally avoid or reduce air pollutants or greenhouse gas emissions and (2) incorporate new or significantly improved technology. As amended at 42 U.S.C. §§16511 et seq., the original Title 17 program (Section 1703) includes an expanded list of eligible project categories (see 42 U.S.C. §16513). Projects that employ commercially available technologies can qualify for the 1703 program, if they receive support from a qualified State Energy Financing Institution.

The IRA provided $40 billion of new lending authority for Section 1703 and appropriated $3.6 billion for credit subsidy and other program-related costs. The 2025 reconciliation measure rescinded unobligated IRA balances.

Title 17 Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment Financing

The IRA amended EPACT 2005 by establishing a new loan guarantee authority (Section 1706) for Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment (EIR) Financing. Generally, EIR aimed to provide debt capital for projects that reduce emissions from operating energy infrastructure and in energy infrastructure that had ceased operations. The IRA provided $250 billion of commitment authority for Section 1706 and appropriated $5 billion to pay for credit subsidy and other related program costs. For additional background about Title 17 and IRA amendments to the program, see CRS Insight IN11984, Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (IRA): Department of Energy Loan Guarantee Programs, by Phillip Brown.

Section 50403—"Energy Dominance Financing"—of the FY2025 reconciliation measure amended the Section 1706 authority. Generally, amendments included eliminating requirements to reduce emissions, expanding eligibility for projects that provide electric supply that "maintain or enhance grid reliability," and amending the definition of energy infrastructure to include facilities "used for enabling the identification, leasing, development, production, processing, transportation, transmission, refining, and generation needed for energy and critical minerals."

Further, the reconciliation measure rescinded all unobligated balances provided by IRA appropriations and appropriated $1 billion to pay for credit subsidy and other program costs. Section 1706 commitment authority and appropriations are available until September 30, 2028.

Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing

Section 136 of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-140) established an incentive program for manufacturing advanced technology light-duty vehicles, including direct loans for qualified facilities in the United States that manufacture advanced technology vehicles, components for those vehicles, and engineering integration of qualifying vehicles and components. As amended at 42 U.S.C. §17013, advanced technology vehicles currently include medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, trains and locomotives, maritime vessels, aircraft, and hyperloop technology. The IRA appropriated $3 billion to pay for the costs of providing ATVM direct loans. The IRA made the funds available until the end of FY2028. The FY2025 budget reconciliation measure repealed the ATVM changes made by the IRA and rescinded unobligated appropriations for the program.

Tribal Energy Financing

Section 2602 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-46), as amended by EPACT 2005 (P.L. 109-58), authorized DOE to provide loan guarantees for tribal energy development, including conventional and clean energy projects. As further amended at 25 U.S.C. §3502(d), borrowers are permitted to receive loan guarantees directly from the U.S. Treasury's Federal Financing Bank. The IRA permanently increased lending authority for this program to $20 billion and appropriated $75 million to carry out the program. However, unobligated balances for the program were rescinded by the FY2025 budget reconciliation measure, P.L. 119-21. For more information, see CRS In Focus IF11793, Indian Energy Programs at the Department of Energy, by Corrie E. Clark, Mark Holt, and Lexie Ryan.

Carbon Dioxide Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (CIFIA) Financing

Section 40304 of the IIJA (as amended at 42 U.S.C. §16371) established the CIFIA program to provide grants and federal credit (i.e., direct loans or loan guarantees) for common carrier infrastructure projects or associated equipment that will transport carbon dioxide captured from anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions sources or from ambient air. LPO coordinates with FE to execute the CIFIA program. The IIJA appropriated $2 billion for the CIFIA program.

Energy Information Administration

The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) was established within DOE as the lead federal agency for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating data on U.S. and world energy supply and consumption. EIA data collection spans the energy system from supply and transport to consumption. All energy sources are included in EIA's data and analysis products, though some (e.g., petroleum) are more detailed than others (e.g., renewables). Recent areas of congressional interest include improvements to EIA's computer models used to project U.S. energy supply and demand over time, and EIA's data collection related to energy consumption in residential and commercial buildings and by data centers.

Nuclear Weapons Activities

In the absence of explosive testing of nuclear weapons, the United States has adopted a science-based program to maintain and sustain confidence in the reliability of the U.S. nuclear stockpile. Congress established the Stockpile Stewardship Program in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994 (P.L. 103-160). The goal of the program, as amended by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 (P.L. 111-84, §3111), is to ensure "that the nuclear weapons stockpile is safe, secure, and reliable without the use of underground nuclear weapons testing." The program is operated by NNSA, a semiautonomous agency within DOE established by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2000 (P.L. 106-65, Title XXXII). NNSA implements the Stockpile Stewardship Program through the activities funded by the Weapons Activities account in the NNSA budget.

Most of NNSA's weapons activities take place at the nuclear weapons complex, which consists of three nuclear laboratories (Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, CA; and Sandia National Laboratories, NM and CA); four production sites (Kansas City National Security Campus, MO; Pantex Plant, TX; Savannah River Site, SC; and Y-12 National Security Complex, TN); and the Nevada National Security Site (formerly the Nevada Test Site). NNSA manages and sets policy for the weapons complex; contractors to NNSA operate the facilities. Radiological activities at these sites are subject to oversight and recommendations by the independent Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board, funded by Title IV of regular E&W appropriations acts.

NNSA's budget has four major Weapons Activities program areas:

• Stockpile Management supports work directly on nuclear weapons. These include warhead modernization, sustainment, and dismantlement.
• Production Modernization programs focus on modernizing the production capabilities for materials and components of nuclear weapons that are critical to weapons performance, as well as warhead assembly and disassembly. According to NNSA, these include primaries, secondaries, tritium, and nonnuclear components.
• Stockpile Research, Technology, and Engineering involves warhead design, certification, and assessment activities that provide the scientific and technical foundation for science-based stockpile decisions.
• Infrastructure and Operations maintains, operates, and modernizes the NNSA infrastructure. It supports construction of some new facilities and funds deferred maintenance in older facilities.

Nuclear Weapons Activities also has several smaller programs, including the following:

• Secure Transportation Asset, providing for safe and secure transport of nuclear weapons, components, and materials;
• Defense Nuclear Security, providing operations, maintenance, and construction funds for protective forces, physical security systems, personnel security, and related activities; and
• Information Technology and Cybersecurity, elements of which include cybersecurity, secure enterprise computing, and Federal Unclassified Information Technology.

For more information, see CRS Report R48194, The U.S. Nuclear Security Enterprise: Background and Possible Issues for Congress, by Anya L. Fink.

Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation

DOE's nonproliferation and national security programs provide technical capabilities to support U.S. efforts to prevent, detect, and counter the spread of nuclear weapons worldwide. These programs are administered by NNSA's Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation (DNN).

• The Materials Management and Minimization subprogram conducts activities to minimize and, where possible, eliminate stockpiles of weapons-useable material around the world, such as conversion of reactors that use highly enriched uranium (useable for weapons) to low-enriched uranium.
• Global Materials Security works to increase the security of vulnerable stockpiles of nuclear material in other countries; promotes the worldwide removal, reduction, and security of radioactive sources (typically used in medical and industrial devices), including in the United States; and improves the capability of other countries to halt illicit trafficking of nuclear materials.
• The Nonproliferation and Arms Control subprogram conducts reviews of nuclear export applications and technology transfer authorizations, implements treaty obligations, and develops technology for treaty verification and safeguards monitoring.
• Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation Research and Development (DNN R&D) advances U.S. capabilities to detect and characterize threats, such as foreign nuclear material and weapons production, diversion of special nuclear material, and nuclear detonations.
• The Nonproliferation Construction program aimed to dispose of excess U.S. weapons plutonium through a "dilute and dispose" strategy until May 2025, when Executive Order 14302 halted the program.⁵³

This account also includes the Nuclear Counterterrorism and Incident Response Program (NCTIR), which evaluates nuclear and radiological threats and develops emergency preparedness plans, including organizing scientific teams to provide rapid response to nuclear or radiological incidents or accidents worldwide.

For more information, see CRS Report R48946, National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) FY2027 Budget and Policy Issues: In Brief, by Anya L. Fink and Mary Beth D. Nikitin.

Cleanup of Former Nuclear Weapons Production and Research Sites

The development and production of nuclear weapons since the beginning of the Manhattan Project during World War II resulted in a waste and contamination legacy managed by DOE that continues to present substantial challenges.⁵⁴ DOE also manages legacy waste and environmental contamination at sites used for nondefense nuclear research. In 1989, DOE established the Office of Environmental Management primarily to consolidate its responsibilities for the cleanup of former nuclear weapons production sites that had been administered under multiple offices.⁵⁵

DOE reported 92 separate sites that historically were involved in the production of nuclear weapons and nuclear energy research for civilian purposes.⁵⁶ Responsibility for long-term stewardship at sites where remediation is complete or remedies are in place is transferred from EM to the separate DOE Office of Legacy Management (LM) and other offices within DOE.⁵⁷ DOE-LM is also responsible for administering the long-term stewardship of Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP) sites after the completion of remedial activities (i.e., cleanup) by USACE.⁵⁸ Once USACE completes the cleanup of a FUSRAP site, control is transferred to LM, which has its own DOE funding subaccount within Other Defense Activities.

Power Marketing Administrations

DOE's four Power Marketing Administrations (PMAs) were established to sell the power generated by various federal dams. The PMAs operate in 34 states; their assets consist primarily of transmission infrastructure in the form of more than 33,000 miles of high voltage transmission lines and 587 substations. PMA customers are responsible for repaying all power program expenses, plus the interest on capital projects. Since FY2011, power revenues associated with the PMAs have been classified as discretionary offsetting receipts (i.e., receipts that are available for spending by the PMAs), thus the agencies are sometimes noted as having a "net-zero" spending authority (e.g., Southeastern PMA). Only the capital expenses of the Western Area Power Administration (WAPA) and Southwestern Power Administration (SWPA) are supported by appropriations from Congress.

Independent Agencies

Independent agencies that receive funding in Title IV of the E&W acts include the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), federal regional commissions and authorities (FRCAs; e.g., Appalachian Regional Commission [ARC], Delta Regional Authority [DRA], and Northern Border Regional Commission [NBRC]), the Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board, and the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board. NRC receives the largest funding of these independent agencies. However, about 85% of NRC's budget is offset by fees, so the agency's net appropriation is less than a third of the total funding in Title IV. NRC, the FRCAs, the Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board, and the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board are discussed in more detail below.

Figure 5 shows regular appropriations for Independent Agencies in E&W measures from FY2019 through FY2026, and Table 10 lists appropriations by account.

Figure 5. Independent Agencies Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026 (budget authority in millions of dollars)

Source: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements. Notes: See Table 3 for supplemental funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not adjusted.

Some independent agencies have also received additional appropriations in recent fiscal years. P.L. 116-136 provided NRC $3 million to prevent, prepare for, and respond to coronavirus. The IIJA provided appropriations for ARC and other regional commissions and authorities as shown in Table 11.

Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities (FRCAs)

The FRCAs are quasigovernmental partnerships between the federal government and the constituent state or states of the given authority or commission. The first such entity, the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), was established in 1965.⁵⁹ Since 1965, Congress has established 10 additional FRCAs to address instances of economic distress in geographically defined regions. FRCAs share similar structures and functions, but vary in terms of appropriations, programs, staff sizes, service regions, and other authorities and features.⁶⁰

Six FRCAs are currently active, meaning they are engaged in economic development activities in their service areas, have received recent appropriations, and have a Senate-confirmed federal cochair (or equivalent) in place. These are the ARC, Delta Regional Authority (DRA), Denali Commission, Northern Border Regional Commission (NBRC), Southeast Crescent Regional Commission (SCRC), and Southwest Border Regional Commission (SBRC). Five FRCAs are currently inactive, and do not have all of those features: the Great Lakes Authority (GLA), Mid-Atlantic Regional Commission (MARC), Northern Great Plains Regional Authority (NGPRA), Northwest Regional Commission, and Southern New England Regional Commission (SNERC).⁶¹

As state-federal partnership entities, FRCAs integrate federal and state economic development priorities alongside regional and local considerations. FRCAs use congressional appropriations to provide economic development, infrastructure, and energy reliability and security grants in their respective regions. With the exception of the Denali Commission, FRCAs' administrative costs are shared equally by the federal government and member states.⁶² Eight of the FRCAs each received between $1 million and $200 million in annual appropriations in FY2026 for their various activities (see Table 10).⁶³

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NRC is an independent agency that establishes and enforces safety and security standards for nuclear power plants and users of nuclear materials. Major appropriations categories for NRC are shown in Table 12. Nuclear Reactor Safety is NRC's largest program and is responsible for licensing and regulating the 94 power reactors in the United States. NRC is also responsible for licensing and regulating nuclear waste facilities, such as the proposed underground nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain, NV (which has received no new appropriations since FY2010).

NRC is required by law to offset its total annual appropriation, excluding specified items, through fees charged to nuclear reactor owners and other holders of NRC licenses. NRC does not retain the fee revenue, but instead sends it to the U.S. Treasury. Budget items excluded from fee recovery include prior-year balances, development of advanced reactor regulations, international activities, and non-site-specific homeland security. As a result, NRC's net appropriation is about 15% of the agency's total budget.

Footnotes

1.	In some instances, continuing appropriations acts have been used to provide funding for the entire remainder of a fiscal year, such as for FY2025 (P.L. 119-4).
2.	Some sections detailing accounts and programs may mention recent proposals (e.g., proposals in the FY2027 budget request) to make changes to those accounts and programs for awareness; however, the report focuses on funding for accounts and programs through FY2026.
3.	For FY2025, a continuing appropriations act provided funding for Energy and Water (E&W) agencies instead of a regular appropriations act. The figures exclude permanent budget authorities, scorekeeping adjustments, rescissions, and additional funding.
4.	See Section 50402 of P.L. 119-21, Title V, Subtitle D.
5.	Military responsibilities are funded through the Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies appropriations acts.
6.	For more information on USACE authorization legislation, see CRS In Focus IF13112, Water Resources Development Acts: Primer and Action in the 119th Congress, and CRS Report R47946, Process for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Projects.
7.	Generally, operation and maintenance (O&M) of flood risk reduction and aquatic ecosystem restoration projects are a nonfederal responsibility, though there are exceptions (e.g., multipurpose flood control dams).
8.	These accounts also fund some programs, such as research and monitoring and inspection of completed works. The Construction account also funds environmental infrastructure assistance for certain nonfederal projects generally related to water supply and wastewater; most are listed by authorization or project in the accompanying explanatory statement. The Mississippi River and Tributaries (MR&T) account funds studies and projects as part of the larger MR&T project.
9.	For FY2022 through FY2024 and for FY2026, Congress approved earmarks (community project funding [CPF] in the House and congressionally directed spending [CDS] in the Senate) in specified categories. In FY2025, however, Section 1111 of P.L. 119-4 established that the act did not provide for earmarks. FY2025 did not have an accompanying explanatory statement specifying funding for specific projects, so funding from USACE accounts was allocated by the Trump Administration. For more information on FY2025, see CRS In Focus IF12648, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: FY2025 Appropriations.
10.	Earmarks were limited during the 112th through 116th Congresses. During this time, the procedure was that after congressional enactment of the appropriations legislation and accompanying explanatory statement on priorities and other guidance for use of the additional funding, the Administration developed a work plan that reported on the specific studies and projects receiving additional funds. Congress has since continued to provide additional funding and associated direction in this way, resulting in subsequent work plans developed by USACE. USACE work plans are available at USACE, "Civil Works Budget and Performance," https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Civil-Works/Budget/#Work-Plans.
11.	USACE's regulatory responsibilities for navigable waters extend to issuing permits for private actions that may affect navigation, wetlands, and other waters of the United States. Prominent among these responsibilities is USACE administration of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. For more information on these permitting responsibilities, see CRS Report R47408, Waters of the United States (WOTUS): Frequently Asked Questions About the Scope of the Clean Water Act, and CRS In Focus IF13202, Section 408 Permission to Alter Army Corps Works: Developments and Congressional Considerations.
12.	The Atomic Energy Commission established the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP) in 1974 under the Atomic Energy Act (42 U.S.C. §§2011 et seq.) to investigate the need for remediation at privately owned or operated sites that supported the development of U.S. nuclear weapons from the 1940s to the 1960s. USACE became responsible for the remediation of FUSRAP sites. After USACE completes the remediation of a site, jurisdiction is transferred back to DOE for long-term stewardship. For information on the status of FUSRAP, see USACE, "Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program," https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Environmental/FUSRAP.aspx. Lance Larson, CRS analyst in environmental policy, covers FUSRAP activities.
13.	CWIFP is funded through the Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Program account. For more information on CWIFP, see CRS Insight IN12021, Corps Water Infrastructure Financing Program (CWIFP).
14.	The Water and Related Resources Account is largely funded by the Reclamation Fund, which receives and distributes receipts related to a number of federal activities (including royalties received from oil and gas leasing on federal lands). For more on this fund and financing of selected Reclamation projects, see CRS Report R41844, The Reclamation Fund: A Primer, by Charles V. Stern.
15.	For more information on these activities see CRS Report R44456, Central Valley Project Operations: Background and Legislation, by Charles V. Stern and Pervaze A. Sheikh.
16.	The Central Utah Project (CUP) moves water from the Colorado River basin in eastern Utah to the western slopes of the Wasatch Mountain range. It was authorized in 1956 under the Colorado River Storage Project Act (P.L. 84-485). For more information, see the CUP website at https://www.usbr.gov/projects/index.php?id=498.
17.	For more information, see CRS Report R47032, Bureau of Reclamation Provisions in the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58), by Charles V. Stern and Anna E. Normand.
18.	For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12437, Bureau of Reclamation Funding in the Inflation Reduction Act (P.L. 117-169), by Charles V. Stern and Anna E. Normand.
19.	For more information, see CRS Report R47987, Bureau of Reclamation Support for Water Storage Projects, by Charles V. Stern.
20.	The DOE Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence is funded as part of the National Intelligence Program in the Defense Appropriations bill.
21.	For FY2027, the Trump Administration proposed the Critical Minerals and Energy Innovation account for funding DOE's Office of Critical Minerals and Energy Innovation (CMEI). Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the U.S. Government: Appendix, Fiscal Year 2027, p. 390; and H.Rept. 119-667.
22.	DOE, "Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American Energy," press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-organizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
23.	Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the U.S. Government: Appendix, Fiscal Year 2027, p. 391.
24.	DOE, Office of the Chief Financial Officer, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Volume 2: Critical Minerals and Energy Innovation, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-2-cmei.
25.	DOE Office of Electricity, "Mission," https://www.energy.gov/oe/office-electricity.
26.	DOE, "Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American Energy," press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-organizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
27.	DOE Hydrocarbons and Geothermal Energy Office, "Mission," accessed June 8, 2026, https://www.energy.gov/hgeo/mission.
28.	Congress directed DOE to sell and close the 1-million-barrel Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve (NGSR) during FY2024 (P.L. 118-42, §308). DOE issued an NGSR notice of sale in May 2024 and awarded contracts to complete the sale in July 2024. DOE, "DOE Awards Contracts for the Sale of Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve as Americans Hit the Road for Summer Driving Season," July 2, 2024, https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-awards-contracts-sale-northeast-gasoline-supply-reserve-americans-hit-road-summer.
29.	CRS Insight IN11916, Strategic Petroleum Reserve Oil Releases: October 2021 Through October 2022, by Phillip Brown; DOE, "SPR Quick Facts," https://www.energy.gov/ceser/spr-quick-facts.
30.	For additional information about SPR releases, see DOE, "History of SPR Releases," https://www.energy.gov/fe/services/petroleum-reserves/strategic-petroleum-reserve/releasing-oil-spr, accessed February 27, 2023.
31.	DOE, "Energy Department Begins Delivering SPR Barrels at Record Speeds," March 20, 2026, https://www.energy.gov/hgeo/articles/energy-department-begins-delivering-spr-barrels-record-speeds; and International Energy Agency, "IEA Member Countries to Carry out Largest Ever Oil Stock Release amid Market Disruptions from Middle East Conflict," March 11, 2026, https://www.iea.org/news/iea-member-countries-to-carry-out-largest-ever-oil-stock-release-amid-market-disruptions-from-middle-east-conflict.
32.	For additional information about congressionally required SPR oil sales, see Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Mandated and Modernization Sales, by Phillip Brown, a congressional distribution memorandum available to congressional clients by request from the author.
33.	DOE, FY2027 Congressional Justification: Budget in Brief, p. 26, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-budget-brief.
34.	DOE, "National Laboratories," https://www.energy.gov/national-laboratories.
35.	DOE, "Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American Energy," press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-organizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
36.	DOE, "Accelerator R&D and Production," https://www.energy.gov/science/ardap/accelerator-rd-and-production.
37.	DOE's Genesis Mission, launched in 2025, is "a national initiative to build the world's most powerful scientific platform to accelerate discovery science, strengthen national security, and drive energy innovation" by developing "an integrated platform that connects the world's best supercomputers, experimental facilities, AI systems, and unique datasets across every major scientific domain to double the productivity and impact of American research and innovation within a decade." The mission is focused on three overarching challenge areas: energy dominance, scientific discovery, and national security. For additional information see DOE, "Genesis Mission," https://genesis.energy.gov/. Department of Energy, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Office of Artificial Intelligence and Quantum, 2026, p. 2, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-vol-4-artificial-intelligence-and-quantum.
38.	DOE, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Volume 4, Science, 2026, p. 31, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-4-sc.
39.	DOE, "Biological and Environmental Research," https://www.energy.gov/science/ber/biological-and-environmental-research.
40.	Department of Energy, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Office of Science, 2026, p. 119, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-4-sc.
41.	The name "ITER" was derived from "international thermonuclear experimental reactor," but is referred to as the ITER Project by the international organization that is building it. See ITER, "What Is ITER?," https://www.iter.org/proj/inafewlines. Also see CRS Report R48362, ITER—An International Nuclear Fusion Research and Development Facility, coordinated by Todd Kuiken.
42.	Department of Energy, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Office of Fusion, 2026, p. 2, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-4-fusion.
43.	DOE, "Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American Energy," press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-organizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
44.	DOE, "HEP Mission," https://science.osti.gov/hep/About.
45.	Sanford Underground Research Facility, "Areas of Research," https://sanfordlab.org/areas-of-research.
46.	DOE, "Isotope R&D and Production," https://www.energy.gov/science/ip/isotope-rd-and-production-doe-ip. See also https://science.osti.gov/-/media/Isotope-Research-Development-and-Production/pdf/brochures/IRP-Fact-Sheet_approved.pdf.
47.	DOE, "Nuclear Physics," https://www.energy.gov/science/np/nuclear-physics.
48.	DOE, "Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American Energy," press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announces-organizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
49.	DOE's Genesis Mission, launched in 2025, is "a national initiative to build the world's most powerful scientific platform to accelerate discovery science, strengthen national security, and drive energy innovation" by developing "an integrated platform that connects the world's best supercomputers, experimental facilities, AI systems, and unique datasets across every major scientific domain to double the productivity and impact of American research and innovation within a decade." The mission is focused on three overarching challenge areas: energy dominance, scientific discovery, and national security. For additional information, see DOE, "Genesis Mission," https://genesis.energy.gov/. Department of Energy, Artificial Intelligence and Quantum FY 2027 Congressional Justification, 2026, p. 2, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-vol-4-artificial-intelligence-and-quantum.
50.	DOE, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Advanced Research Projects Agency—Energy, 2026, p. 2, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-2-arpa-e.
51.	ARPA-E, "Impact," accessed April 15, 2026, https://arpa-e.energy.gov/about/our-impact.
52.	DOE, "Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations," https://www.energy.gov/cmei/oced/office-clean-energy-demonstrations.
53.	Executive Order 14302 of May 23, 2025, "Reinvigorating the Nuclear Industrial Base," 90 Federal Register 22595, May 29, 2025, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-05-29/pdf/2025-09801.pdf; see also, "Surplus Plutonium Disposition Program" in CRS Report R44413, Energy and Water Development Appropriations for Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation: In Brief, by Mary Beth D. Nikitin.
54.	As described by the Manhattan Project National Historical Park, "The Manhattan Project was a massive, top secret national mobilization of scientists, engineers, technicians, and military personnel charged with producing a deployable atomic weapon during World War II.… Coordinated by the US Army, Manhattan Project activities were located in numerous locations across the United States." The nuclear weapons activities begun by the Manhattan Project are now the responsibility of DOE. See National Park Service, "Manhattan Project National Historical Park, History and Culture," https://www.nps.gov/mapr/learn/historyculture/index.htm.
55.	In 1989, DOE created the Office of Environmental Restoration and Waste Management, which later was renamed the Office of Environmental Management.
56.	For a list of completed sites, see the Office of Environmental Management "Completed Cleanup Sites" web page and interactive map at https://www.energy.gov/em/completed-cleanup-sites .
57.	The Office of Legacy Management administers the long-term stewardship of DOE sites that do not have a continuing mission once cleanup remedies are in place. Sites that have a continuing mission are transferred to the DOE offices that administer those missions, which are responsible for their long-term stewardship.
58.	USACE, "Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program," https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Environmental/FUSRAP/.
59.	Appalachian Regional Development Act of 1965, P.L. 89-4. The Appalachian region is defined as the whole of West Virginia and parts of 12 other states: Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia (40 U.S.C. §14102(a)(1)).
60.	As one example of a distinct FRCA authority or feature, the Denali Commission is a single-state entity, whereas the other 10 federal regional commissions and authorities (FRCAs) cover all or parts of multiple states. As another example, Congress authorized construction of the Appalachian Development Highway System (ADHS) as part of the Appalachian Regional Commission's (ARC's) original enabling legislation in 1965. The ARC continues to collaborate with federal, state, and local agencies to develop the ADHS, a planned 3,000-mile system of highways that connect with the U.S. Interstate Highway System. According to ARC, as of FY2025, 92.1% of ADHS was "under construction or open to traffic." Appropriations for the ADHS are provided separately from the appropriations provided for the programs and expenses of the ARC. See ARC, "Appalachian Development Highway System," https://www.arc.gov/appalachian-development-highway-system.
61.	With the exception of the Denali Commission, an FRCA federal cochair is a presidentially nominated and Senate-confirmed position. The appointment of a federal cochair, unless otherwise provided, is essential for most FRCAs' operations. For example, the Southeast Crescent Regional Commission (SCRC) consistently received appropriations each fiscal year beginning in FY2010, but was unable to begin its operations until a federal cochair was appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate in December 2021, more than 13 years after it was authorized.
62.	See CRS In Focus IF12165, Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities: Administrative Expenses, by Julie M. Lawhorn.
63.	For a detailed funding history of all FRCAs since 1986, see "Appendix C. Historical Appropriations" in CRS Report R45997, Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities: Structural Features and Function, by Julie M. Lawhorn.