National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA): A Primer

January 3, 2024 R47891

National Aeronautics and Space
January 3, 2024
Administration (NASA): A Primer
Daniel Morgan
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was established in 1958 by the
Specialist in Science and
National Aeronautics and Space Act (P.L. 85-568) to conduct civilian space and aeronautics
Technology Policy
activities. According to its 2022 strategic plan, NASA’s mission is to “explore the unknown in air

and space, innovate for the benefit of humanity, and inspire the world through discovery.” With a
budget of $25.6 billion in FY2023, about 17,000 civil service employees, and about 35,000

contractors, NASA has programs in science, human spaceflight, space technology development,
aeronautics research, and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. The agency has nine NASA-
operated centers, a tenth center operated under contract as a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC), and
other facilities. It also provides funding to academia and industry to conduct research, develop systems such as new
spacecraft, and provide services such as space launch.
Among the issues facing Congress—through the annual appropriations process and potentially in authorization legislation—
are oversight and funding for the Artemis initiative to resume human exploration of the Moon for the first time since the
Apollo program; the future of the International Space Station (ISS) and oversight of the commercial providers that transport
crews and cargo to and from the ISS under NASA contract; research priorities in Earth science, planetary science, and other
fields; and aeronautics initiatives such as the development of experimental demonstrator aircraft for supersonic passenger
flight and electric propulsion.
The core capabilities for the Artemis program are a crew capsule, known as Orion, and a heavy-lift rocket to launch Orion
into space, known as the Space Launch System (SLS). Orion and the SLS have been in development since a congressional
mandate in the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-267). An uncrewed test flight of Orion and SLS, known as
Artemis I, was completed successfully in 2022. A first crewed test, known as Artemis II, is anticipated in 2024. The crewed
Artemis III mission, including the first human lunar landing since 1972, is anticipated in 2025. Subsequent Artemis missions
are planned.
Between 2012 and 2019, ISS crews, including U.S. astronauts, were carried exclusively by Russian Soyuz spacecraft. NASA
has crew transport contracts with two U.S. companies, SpaceX and Boeing. The first operational crewed flight by SpaceX
was in 2020. Boeing plans a test flight in 2024. ISS operation is authorized through at least FY2030 by the NASA
Authorization Act of 2022 (P.L. 117-167, Section 10815). At some point, even if operations are extended further, the ISS will
reach the end of its useful life. After the ISS, NASA expects to rely on commercially operated space stations to provide
services and facilities in low Earth orbit (LEO). NASA’s Commercial LEO Development program is supporting several
companies to develop such capabilities. NASA has acknowledged that there may be a gap between the end of ISS operations
and the first availability of commercial alternatives.
NASA is led by an Administrator, who is subject to confirmation by the Senate. Five mission directorates manage most of the
agency’s programs: Exploration Systems Development, Space Operations, Science, Space Technology, and Aeronautics
Research. Exploration Systems Development and Space Operations manage human spaceflight activities, while Science
manages robotic spaceflight and other scientific research. In addition, the Office of STEM Engagement manages NASA
education programs. The five mission directorates and the Office of STEM Engagement each have their own appropriations
account and are each led by an Associate Administrator. Separate appropriations accounts fund Construction and
Environmental Compliance and Remediation; Safety, Security, and Mission Services; and the NASA Inspector General.

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Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 18

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA): A Primer

Introduction
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was established in 1958 by the
National Aeronautics and Space Act (P.L. 85-568) to conduct civilian space and aeronautics
activities. According to its 2022 strategic plan, NASA’s mission is to “explore the unknown in air
and space, innovate for the benefit of humanity, and inspire the world through discovery.”1 With a
budget of $25.6 billion in FY2023, about 17,000 civil service employees, and about 35,000
contractors, NASA has programs in science, human spaceflight, space technology development,
aeronautics research, and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education.
The agency has nine NASA-operated centers, a tenth center operated under contract as a federally
funded research and development center (FFRDC), and other facilities. It also provides funding to
academia and industry to conduct research, develop systems such as new spacecraft, and provide
services such as space launch.
Among the issues facing Congress—through the annual appropriations process and potentially in
authorization legislation—are oversight and funding for the Artemis initiative to resume human
exploration of the Moon for the first time since the Apollo program; the future of the International
Space Station (ISS) and oversight of the commercial providers that transport crews and cargo to
and from the ISS under NASA contract; research priorities in Earth science, planetary science,
and other fields; and aeronautics initiatives such as the development of experimental
demonstrator aircraft for supersonic passenger flight and electric propulsion.
This report describes the organization of NASA, its budget, and its major programs. It also
provides brief discussions of selected other topics of frequent congressional interest. The intent is
to provide an overview of NASA and its activities, along with references for further information.
Organization
NASA is led by an Administrator, who is “appointed from civilian life by the President by and
with the advice and consent of the Senate.”2 The current Administrator is former Senator Bill
Nelson. The NASA Administrator is not a member of the President’s Cabinet. Three other NASA
positions are also subject to Senate confirmation: the Deputy Administrator,3 Chief Financial
Officer,4 and Inspector General.5
The organization of NASA is documented in NASA Policy Directive NPD 1000.3E.6
Management of most of the agency’s major programs is organized into five mission directorates:
Exploration Systems Development, Space Operations, Science, Space Technology, and

1 NASA, NASA Strategic Plan 2022, p. 3, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/fy-22-strategic-plan-
1.pdf.
2 51 U.S.C. §20111(a). The meaning of the phrase civilian life was much discussed in 2009 when President Obama
nominated Charles F. Bolden, Jr., a Major General in the U.S. Marine Corps who had worked in the private sector since
retiring from the military in 2003. For more details, see the record of his nomination hearing before the Senate
Commerce Committee, July 8, 2009, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-111shrg54285/pdf/CHRG-
111shrg54285.pdf, including memoranda from the Department of Justice (p. 83) and from CRS (p. 89). General Bolden
was confirmed as NASA Administrator on July 15, 2009.
3 51 U.S.C. §20111(b).
4 31 U.S.C. §901.
5 5 U.S.C. §403.
6 NASA, The NASA Organization, NASA Policy Directive NPD 1000.3E, https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/npg_img/
N_PD_1000_003E_/N_PD_1000_003E_.pdf. See also https://www.nasa.gov/organization/.
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Aeronautics Research (see Figure 1).7 In addition, the Office of STEM Engagement manages
NASA education programs. The five mission directorates and the Office of STEM Engagement
each have their own appropriations account and are each led by an Associate Administrator. The
programs managed by these offices are discussed in more detail later in this report.
Figure 1. NASA Organization Chart

Source: CRS, adapted from https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/nasa-org-chart-oct-2023.pdf.
Notes: NAC = NASA Advisory Council. ASAP = Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel. STEM = Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics.
Centers
NASA operates nine centers:
• Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA;
• Armstrong Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA;
• Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH;
• Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD;
• Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX;
• Kennedy Space Center, FL;
• Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA;
• Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL; and

7 Before September 21, 2021, the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate and the Space Operations Mission
Directorate were combined as the Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate.
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• Stennis Space Center, MS.
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), in Pasadena, CA, is an FFRDC operated by the California
Institute of Technology (Caltech) under a NASA contract; it is sometimes considered a tenth
center.8 Other NASA facilities are operated under the auspices of a center and do not themselves
have center status. See Figure 2.
Figure 2. Map of NASA Centers and Major Facilities

Source: NASA, https://www.nasa.gov/partnerships/nasa-locations-capabilities-and-points-of-contact/.
Notes: Alaska and Hawaii not shown. Stars indicate centers and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a federally
funded research and development center. Circles indicate other facilities, colored to indicate the center with
which they are affiliated. For more information on NASA centers and facilities, see https://science.nasa.gov/
about-us/nasa-centers/.
The Directors of the NASA centers report directly to the Office of the Administrator, not through
the mission directorates. Congress does not appropriate funds directly to the centers, but some
centers focus primarily on the programs of a particular mission directorate. For example, Goddard
Space Flight Center is funded mostly by the Science Mission Directorate, while Marshall Space
Flight Center is funded mostly by the Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate.
JPL reports programmatically to (and is mostly funded by) the Science Mission Directorate.
Deferred maintenance at NASA facilities is a perennial challenge.9 As of March 2023, NASA
reported a deferred maintenance backlog of $3 billion.10

8 For more information on FFRDCs, see CRS Report R44629, Federally Funded Research and Development Centers
(FFRDCs): Background and Issues for Congress, by Marcy E. Gallo.
9 See, for example, House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics,
Enabling Mission Success from the Ground Up: Addressing NASA’s Urgent Infrastructure Needs, hearing held July 29,
2021, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-117hhrg45205/pdf/CHRG-117hhrg45205.pdf.
10 FY2024 congressional budget justification, p. SSMS-35, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/nasa-fy-
2024-cj-v3.pdf.
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Personnel
Between the centers, headquarters, and other agency facilities, NASA has about 17,000 civil
service employees.11 The aging of the NASA workforce, retirement trends, and the alignment of
skills with needs are issues of frequent congressional interest. Statistical data on employee age,
retirement eligibility, job category, and other demographic factors are available on the Workforce
Information Cubes for NASA (WICN) website.12
The number of civil service employees significantly understates the total NASA workforce. On-
site and near-site contractor employees outnumber civil servants by about 2 to 1.13 Nearly all staff
at JPL, for example, are employees of Caltech, not NASA.
Budget and Appropriations
Figure 3 shows NASA’s total budget since its establishment. The large peak in the 1960s funded
the Apollo program. The smaller spike in FY1987 funded the construction of the space shuttle
Endeavour to replace the shuttle Challenger after its loss in January 1986. Since that time, NASA
funding has been relatively stable, after adjusting for inflation, with a gradual increasing trend
over the past decade.

11 Based on full-time equivalents (FTEs). For a breakdown by center and appropriations account, see NASA’s FY2024
congressional budget justification, p. SD-7, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/nasa-fy-2024-cj-v3.pdf.
12 See NASA, Workforce Information Cubes for NASA (WICN), https://wicn.nssc.nasa.gov/wicn_cubes.html.
13 In FY2022, on a work-year equivalent (WYE) basis, NASA had 35,473 on-site or near-site contractor personnel
performing recurring work for non-prime contractors. (NASA Office of Legislative Affairs, email to CRS, December
13, 2023)
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Figure 3. Total NASA Budget, FY1958-FY2023

Source: Compiled by CRS. FY1958-FY2008 from National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Aeronautics
and Space Report of the President: Fiscal Year 2008 Activities, Table D-1A, http://history.nasa.gov/presrep2008.pdf.
FY2009-FY2022 from NASA congressional budget justifications, FY2011-FY2024, adjusted for supplemental
appropriations, rescissions, and sequestration not shown in the justifications. FY2023 from P.L. 117-328 and
explanatory statement, Congressional Record, December 20, 2022, pp. S7945-S7950. Current dol ars deflated to
FY2023 dol ars using GDP (chained) price index from President’s budget for FY2023, Historical Table 10.1,
https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/historical-tables/.
Notes: Transition quarter between FY1976 and FY1977 not shown.
Proposed funding for NASA for the next fiscal year is included annually in the President’s
budget, released in early February (it is sometimes delayed).14 NASA provides more detailed
information, including program descriptions, status updates, and other data, in an annual
congressional budget justification released with or shortly after the President’s budget.15 Congress
acts on the Administration’s request through the annual appropriations legislation developed by
the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related
Agencies (CJS). Bill language specifies appropriations for each NASA account and sometimes
provides additional statutory direction, while language in accompanying committee reports and
conference reports or explanatory statements typically provides extensive guidance about
individual programs and projects. The CRS Appropriations Status Table tracks the progress of
CJS appropriations legislation.16 See also CRS Report R43419, NASA Appropriations and
Authorizations: A Fact Sheet, by Daniel Morgan, which includes tables of NASA funding data for
the year under current budget consideration as well as a few years of historical data.

14 See Office of Management and Budget, “Budget,” https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/.
15 See NASA, “Budgets and Reports,” https://www.nasa.gov/budgets-plans-and-reports/.
16 See CRS, Appropriations Status Table, https://www.crs.gov/AppropriationsStatusTable/.
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Figure 4 shows NASA’s FY2023 appropriations by account. The accounts for Science,
Exploration, Space Operations, Space Technology, Aeronautics, STEM Engagement, and
Inspector General fund the corresponding mission directorates and offices. Construction and
Environmental Compliance and Remediation funds construction and environmental activities at
NASA facilities. Safety, Security, and Mission Services (SSMS) funds a wide range of other
supporting services, including operations and maintenance at NASA facilities. The SSMS account
is currently the only NASA account that includes funding designated by Congress for community
projects (sometimes known as earmarks).17
Figure 4. NASA Appropriations by Account, FY2023
Budget authority in millions

Source: P.L. 117-328, Divisions B and N, and explanatory statement, Congressional Record, December 20, 2022,
pp. S7945-S7950.
Notes: STEM = science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. EC&R = environmental compliance and
remediation.
In both the President’s budget request and congressional appropriations legislation, funds are
allocated by program and topic, not by NASA center or facility, even for projects that are
managed largely or entirely at a single center. Each annual congressional budget justification,
however, includes a table showing the anticipated distribution of funds from each appropriations
account to each center.18
Major Programs
NASA programs fall into five main categories: science, human spaceflight, crosscutting space
technology development, aeronautics, and education. The two largest are science—conducted
mostly with satellites and other uncrewed spacecraft—and human spaceflight. A separate program
develops crosscutting space technologies to enable future missions. A program of aeronautics

17 For more information, see CRS Report R46722, Community Project Funding: House Rules and Committee
Protocols, by Megan S. Lynch.
18 See, for example, NASA’s FY2024 congressional budget justification, p. SD-2, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/
uploads/2023/03/nasa-fy-2024-cj-v3.pdf.
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research seeks to advance flight within the atmosphere. An education program seeks to capitalize
on NASA’s scientific and technological capabilities to advance STEM education.
Science
NASA’s Earth and space science activities are managed by the Science Mission Directorate
(SMD) and funded though the Science appropriations account. They are organized into five
programs: Earth Science, Planetary Science, Astrophysics, Heliophysics, and Biological and
Physical Sciences. Each of these programs operates a fleet of satellites and other spacecraft, as
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. NASA Operational and Planned Science Missions
(as of May 2023)

Source: NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/31162.
Earth Science
Earth Science conducts research on Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and land, as well as the
biological and other processes that they undergo, primarily using observations from satellites in
Earth orbit. The program also includes some aircraft-based projects. Climate science is a key
motivator for this program, but the same satellites and sensors typically also provide data for
research on a wide range of other topics, such as floods, droughts, wildfires, agriculture, and
urban development.
The main focus of this program, like the other Science programs, is basic scientific research. The
same imagery and other data, however, can sometimes also be useful for more applied purposes.
Within Earth Science, the Applied Sciences subprogram facilitates the use of NASA satellite data,
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collected for research purposes, for use in applications such as response to natural disasters,
drought monitoring, and agriculture.19
In partnership with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), an agency of the Department of the
Interior, the Earth Science program develops and launches the Earth-imaging satellites of the
Landsat program. After launch, Landsat satellites are operated by USGS. For more information,
see CRS Report R46560, Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, by
Anna E. Normand.
Planetary Science
Planetary Science conducts research on the Solar System’s other planets, as well their moons,
Earth’s own Moon, asteroids, and comets. This work is conducted using robotic spacecraft that
orbit or fly past those bodies or land on them for closer inspection. A Planetary Science mission
of recent congressional interest is Mars Sample Return, which is intended to retrieve geological
and atmospheric samples from Mars and return them to Earth for scientific study. An independent
review board for the Mars Sample Return mission concluded in September 2023 that “there is
currently no credible, congruent technical, nor properly margined schedule, cost, and technical
baseline that can be accomplished with the likely available funding.”20 The National Academies
of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine has recommended that the Mars Sample Return mission
“is of fundamental strategic importance to NASA, U.S. leadership in planetary science, and
international cooperation and should be completed as rapidly as possible. However, its cost
should not be allowed to undermine the long-term programmatic balance of the planetary
portfolio.”21
Astrophysics
Astrophysics studies objects beyond the Solar System, such as galaxies, planets around other stars
(known as exoplanets), and the history and evolution of the universe as a whole. This program
includes familiar projects such as the Hubble Space Telescope, in Earth orbit, and the James
Webb Space Telescope, in a distant orbit beyond the Moon. The James Webb Space Telescope
encountered a series of high-profile budget and schedule challenges during development,22 but
was launched in December 2021 and is operational. Another Astrophysics mission, the Nancy
Grace Roman Space Telescope (formerly the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope, WFIRST), is
scheduled for launch in 2027. An Inspector General report in 2021 found that its budget and
schedule had been “significantly” affected (a $400 million increase and a six-month delay) by the
COVID-19 pandemic.23 In appropriations report language, Congress has expressed “the
expectation that NASA will use a $3,500,000,000 development cost cap in execution of the
mission.”24

19 See NASA, Earth Science, Applied Sciences, https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/.
20 NASA, Mars Sample Return (MSR): Independent Review Board-2 Final Report, September 1, 2023, p.17,
https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/mars-sample-return-independent-review-board-report.pdf.
21 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Origins, Worlds, and Life: A Decadal Strategy for
Planetary Science and Astrobiology 2023-2032 (2023), p. 3, https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26522/origins-
worlds-and-life-a-decadal-strategy-for-planetary-science.
22 See CRS In Focus IF10940, The James Webb Space Telescope, by Daniel Morgan.
23 NASA, Office of Inspector General, COVID-19 Impacts on NASA’s Major Programs and Projects, IG-21-016, p. 18,
https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-21-016.pdf.
24 Explanatory statement accompanying the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 (P.L. 117-328), Congressional
Record, December 20, 2022, p. S7946.
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Heliophysics
The Heliophysics program studies the Sun itself as well as its impact on space weather and other
phenomena elsewhere in the Solar System. It uses satellites in orbit around the Earth and the Sun
as well as other more distant locations. Research on space weather through the Heliophysics
program is part of a broader emphasis on space weather across multiple agencies in recent years,
including an executive order issued in 2016, an interagency strategy and action plan issued in
2019, enactment of the Promoting Research and Observations of Space Weather to Improve the
Forecasting of Tomorrow (PROSWIFT) Act (P.L. 116-181) in 2020, and an interagency research
and operations framework issued in 2022.25
Biological and Physical Sciences
The smallest SMD program, Biological and Physical Sciences, uses the unique characteristics of
space, such as microgravity, to conduct fundamental research in the biological and physical
sciences. This research is done mostly using experiments conducted on or attached to the
International Space Station (ISS). Before FY2021, the program was managed and funded as an
element of the ISS program rather than as a separate activity within the Science Mission
Directorate.26
Research and Analysis
Each of the five Science programs has its own Research and Analysis (R&A) program, devoted to
supporting research based on data from existing spacecraft. The satellites and other spacecraft
used in these programs are multiyear, multimillion-dollar (or more) missions. The cost of such
missions is not uniform over time. Typically, costs are modest as a mission is being planned and
designed, then ramp up rapidly for the manufacturing and launch of the spacecraft, then drop
again once the spacecraft is operational. Funding for long-term operations and scientific data
analysis nevertheless looms large in ensuring the scientific value of NASA’s spacecraft
investments. The availability of resources for R&A is a perennial focus of congressional
oversight.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Decadal Surveys
NASA’s Science programs rely heavily on a regular sequence of advisory reports from the
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). Conducted
approximately every 10 years for each major program area, these reports are known as decadal
surveys. They provide guidance about scientific priorities, program management, and other
matters, and are generally seen as reflecting the consensus of the U.S. scientific community. As
well as a source of input, they are often used by NASA to justify actions it proposes to Congress,
or conversely by Congress to justify direction it gives to NASA. Since the NASA Authorization
Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-422), NASA’s continued use of NASEM decadal surveys has been
mandated in statute.27 As well as these regular decadal reports, NASEM frequently provides other

25 For more information, see CRS Report R46049, Space Weather: An Overview of Policy and Select U.S. Government
Roles and Responsibilities, by Eva Lipiec and Brian E. Humphreys.
26 For more on the organizational history of this program, see Marcia Smith, “Congress Approves Move of Biological
and Physical Sciences from HEOMD to SMD,” SpacePolicyOnline.com, June 12, 2020, https://spacepolicyonline.com/
news/congress-approves-move-of-biological-and-physical-sciences-from-heomd-to-smd/.
27 51 U.S.C. §20305.
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advice to NASA on particular topics outside the decadal cycle, sometimes at NASA’s request,
sometimes based on congressional direction.28
The most recent decadal surveys for the five Science programs are as follows:
• Earth Science: Thriving on Our Changing Planet: A Decadal Strategy for Earth
Observation from Space (2018)29
• Planetary Science: Origins, Worlds, and Life: A Decadal Strategy for Planetary
Science and Astrobiology 2023-2032 (2023)30
• Astrophysics: Pathways to Discovery in Astronomy and Astrophysics for the
2020s (2023)31
• Heliophysics: Solar and Space Physics: A Science for a Technological Society
(2013)32
• Biological and Physical Sciences: Thriving in Space: Ensuring the Future of
Biological and Physical Sciences Research: A Decadal Survey for 2023-2032
(2023)33
Joint Agency Satellite Division
Also within the Science Mission Directorate is the Joint Agency Satellite Division,34 which
manages the development and launch of weather satellites and other space-based instruments for
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, an agency in the Department of
Commerce). NOAA reimburses NASA for these activities, which therefore appear in NOAA’s
budget, not NASA’s.35 Once operational after launch, the satellites are operated by NOAA
directly.
Human Spaceflight
NASA’s human spaceflight programs are managed by the Exploration Systems Development
Mission Directorate (ESDMD) and the Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD), which are

28 For example, in 2020, the Promoting Research and Observations of Space Weather to Improve the Forecasting of
Tomorrow (PROSWIFT) Act (P.L. 116-181) mandated a NASEM review of a strategy developed by NASA and other
agencies for observation of space weather. (51 U.S.C. §60602(c))
29 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM), Thriving on Our Changing Planet: A
Decadal Strategy for Earth Observation from Space, 2018, https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/24938/thriving-
on-our-changing-planet-a-decadal-strategy-for-earth.
30 NASEM, Origins, Worlds, and Life: A Decadal Strategy for Planetary Science and Astrobiology 2023-2032, 2023,
https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26522/origins-worlds-and-life-a-decadal-strategy-for-planetary-science.
31 NASEM, Pathways to Discovery in Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 2020s, 2023,
https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26141/pathways-to-discovery-in-astronomy-and-astrophysics-for-the-2020s.
32 NASEM, Solar and Space Physics: A Science for a Technological Society, 2013, https://nap.nationalacademies.org/
catalog/13060/solar-and-space-physics-a-science-for-a-technological-society. For the progress of the next decadal
survey of heliophysics, see https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/decadal-survey-for-solar-and-space-physics-
heliophysics-2024-2033.
33 NASEM, Thriving in Space: Ensuring the Future of Biological and Physical Sciences Research: A Decadal Survey
for 2023-2032, 2023, https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26750/thriving-in-space-ensuring-the-future-of-
biological-and-physical-sciences-research-a-decadal-survey-for-2023-2032.
34 See NASA, Science Mission Directorate, Joint Agency Satellite Division, https://science.nasa.gov/about-us/smd-
programs/joint-agency-satellite-division/.
35 See CRS In Focus IF12406, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) FY2024 Budget Request and
Appropriations, by Eva Lipiec.
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funded though the Exploration and Space Operations appropriations accounts, respectively.
SOMD focuses on operational activities, particularly those associated with the International
Space Station (ISS), while ESDMD focuses on the development of future capabilities,
particularly those associated with the Artemis program to return humans to the Moon.
International Space Station
The ISS orbits at an altitude of about 240 miles and is composed of crew living space,
laboratories, remote manipulator systems, solar arrays to generate electricity, and other elements.
As well as providing facilities for research and technology development, it serves as a test bed for
future human exploration missions to more distant destinations. Rotating crews from the United
States, Russia, the European Union, and other countries have occupied it continuously since
November 2000.
In an effort to increase use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector, the NASA
Authorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-155, Sec. 507) designated the U.S. portion of the ISS as a
national laboratory. The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 subsequently directed NASA to
contract with a nonprofit organization to manage the ISS national laboratory (P.L. 111-267, Sec.
504). In 2011, NASA selected the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS) as
the ISS national laboratory managing organization.36
The framework for international cooperation on the ISS is the Intergovernmental Agreement on
Space Station Cooperation, signed in 1998 by representatives of the United States, Russia, Japan,
Canada, and 11 European countries.37 The agreement is implemented through memoranda of
understanding between NASA and its counterpart agencies in the other countries. Russia’s
participation at the operational level appears mostly unaffected by international tensions arising
from Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, despite some concerning statements from Russian
officials in the early stages of the war.38
NASA used to rely on the space shuttle to carry U.S. cargo and crews to and from the ISS. The
shuttle fleet was retired in 2011. Since 2012, two U.S. commercial providers—Space Exploration
Technologies (SpaceX) and Northrop Grumman (formerly Orbital ATK)—have carried ISS cargo
under NASA contracts. A third cargo provider, Sierra Nevada Corporation, also has a contract and
is planning its first orbital launch and demonstration flight to the ISS in 2024. Between 2012 and
2019, ISS crews, including U.S. astronauts, were carried exclusively by Russian Soyuz
spacecraft. NASA has crew transport contracts with two U.S. companies, SpaceX and Boeing.
The first operational crewed flight by SpaceX was in 2020. Boeing plans a test flight in 2024. To
ensure cross-training for safety purposes, some U.S. astronauts still fly on Soyuz, and some
Russian cosmonauts fly on NASA-contracted SpaceX flights, on a no-exchange-of-funds basis.
ISS operations were originally scheduled to continue only through FY2016. Statutory authority
for continued U.S. operation of the ISS was extended through at least FY2020 by the NASA
Authorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-267, Section 503(a)); through at least FY2024 by the U.S.
Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (P.L. 114-90, Section 114(b)); and through at
least FY2030 by the NASA Authorization Act of 2022 (P.L. 117-167, Section 10815). At some
point, even if operations are extended further, the ISS will reach the end of its useful life. To

36 See International Space Station National Laboratory, https://www.issnationallab.org/.
37 See Intergovernmental Agreement on Space Station Cooperation, 1998, https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/
2019/02/12927-Multilateral-Space-Space-Station-1.29.1998.pdf.
38 See, for example, Eric Berger, “The Western Space Community Should Put Dmitry Rogozin on ‘Ignore,’” Ars
Technica, May 2, 2022, https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/05/the-western-space-community-should-put-dmitry-
rogozin-on-ignore/. At the time of the 2022 invasion, Rogozin was the head of Roscosmos, the Russian space agency.
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mitigate the risk of creating hazardous orbital debris, NASA plans to deorbit the ISS in a
controlled manner.39 It has issued a request for proposals for a Deorbit Vehicle, with contract
awards anticipated in 2024.40
After the ISS, NASA expects to rely on commercially operated space stations to provide services
and facilities in low Earth orbit (LEO). NASA’s Commercial LEO Development program is
supporting several companies to develop such capabilities. NASA has acknowledged that there
may be a gap between the end of ISS operations and the first availability of commercial
alternatives.41
Artemis
The core capabilities for the Artemis program are a crew capsule, known as Orion, and a heavy-
lift rocket to launch Orion into space, known as the Space Launch System (SLS). Orion and the
SLS have been in development since a congressional mandate in the NASA Authorization Act of
2010 (P.L. 111-267). An uncrewed test flight of Orion and SLS, known as Artemis I, was
completed successfully in 2022. A first crewed test, known as Artemis II, is anticipated in 2024.
The crewed Artemis III mission, including the first human lunar landing since 1972, is anticipated
in 2025.42 Subsequent Artemis missions are planned.
Orion will not land directly on the Moon. Instead, a Human Landing System (HLS) is being
developed to carry crews between lunar orbit and the lunar surface. NASA has contracted with
two U.S. companies, SpaceX and Blue Origin, to provide HLS capabilities as a commercial
service. NASA’s decision to rely on commercial providers rather than NASA-owned spacecraft,
and NASA’s initial 2021 selection of SpaceX as the single provider, were both controversial in
Congress. Since the award of a second contract to Blue Origin in 2023, congressional attention
has focused on the progress of HLS development and whether the system will be available in time
for Artemis III.
For missions after Artemis III, NASA is developing a modular platform, known as Gateway, to be
placed in a permanent orbit around the Moon. The first two Gateway modules—the Power and
Propulsion Element (PPE) and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO, a pressurized
habitat for astronauts)—are currently in development, with launch anticipated in 2025. Several of
the planned subsequent modules will be contributed in-kind by international partners.43 Gateway
is intended to serve as a depot for storing supplies, a platform for science experiments, a location
where subsystems launched separately can be assembled and integrated, and a rendezvous point
where astronauts can transfer between Orion and the HLS and potentially, at some point in the
future, depart for other, more distant destinations, such as Mars.
Other elements of Artemis include space suits, a surface habitat, a lunar rover, surface power
systems, and so on. All these are in various stages of design and development.

39 For more information, see NASA, “Frequently Asked Questions About the International Space Station Transition
Plan,” https://www.nasa.gov/faqs-the-international-space-station-transition-plan/.
40 See NASA, “United States Deorbit Vehicle Contract,” https://www.nasa.gov/johnson/jsc-procurement/usdv/.
41 Jeff Foust, “NASA Acknowledges Possibility of Short-Term Post-ISS Gap,” Space News, November 22, 2023,
https://spacenews.com/nasa-acknowledges-possibility-of-short-term-post-iss-gap/.
42 As of December 2023, NASA is reviewing this schedule. According to the Government Accountability Office,
Artemis III is likely to be delayed to early 2027. (Government Accountability Office, NASA Artemis Programs:
Crewed Moon Landing Faces Multiple Challenges, GAO-24-106256, November 30, 2023, https://www.gao.gov/
products/gao-24-106256)
43 For more details, see NASA, “NASA’s Gateway Program,” https://www.nasa.gov/reference/nasas-gateway-program.
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The cost and schedule of the Artemis program overall, as well as of its individual elements, are a
topic of continuing congressional scrutiny. At congressional direction,44 the Government
Accountability Office has issued a number of reports reviewing the progress of SLS and of
Artemis in general.45
For more information, see CRS In Focus IF11643, Artemis: NASA’s Program to Return Humans
to the Moon, by Daniel Morgan.
Space Technology
NASA’s activities in crosscutting space technology development are managed by the Space
Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) and funded though the Space Technology
appropriations account. The program was established to focus on technologies that can enable
future space missions, rather than those needed for a specific mission currently under
development. STMD has developed a strategic framework that organizes its investments and
desired outcomes into categories such as advanced propulsion, in-situ resource utilization, and
advanced avionics.46 Technologies for space nuclear power and propulsion are a frequent focus of
congressional interest.
STMD also manages the agency’s Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Small
Business Technology Transfer (STTR) programs.47 For more information on federal SBIR and
STTR programs, see CRS Report R43695, Small Business Research Programs: SBIR and STTR,
by Marcy E. Gallo.
Aeronautics
NASA’s aeronautics activities are managed by the Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate
(ARMD) and funded though the Aeronautics appropriations account. The program conducts
research and development (R&D) on technologies for aviation, including aviation safety and
environmental impact, as well as for air traffic management. Topics of frequent congressional
interest include rotorcraft, hypersonic flight, electric propulsion and sustainable fuels, and the
development of demonstrator aircraft, such as the X-59 Quiet Supersonic Technology (QueSST)
experimental aircraft and the X-66A Sustainable Flight Demonstrator.48
The NASA Aeronautics Strategic Implementation Plan 2023 sets out ARMD’s overall strategy,
describes its role in six identified thrust areas, and discusses its needs for crosscutting research,
workforce, and test capabilities.49

44 For example, see H.Rept. 117-97, p. 134.
45 For example, see Government Accountability Office, Space Launch System: Cost Transparency Needed to Monitor
Program Affordability, GAO-23-105609, September 7, 2023, https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-105609; and NASA
Artemis Programs: Crewed Moon Landing Faces Multiple Challenges, GAO-24-106256, November 30, 2023,
https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106256.
46 See NASA, TechPort, “Strategic Framework,” https://techport.nasa.gov/framework.
47 See NASA, Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) Program,
https://sbir.nasa.gov/.
48 For more information on supersonic passenger aircraft, including NASA’s role, see CRS Report R45404, Supersonic
Passenger Flights, coordinated by Rachel Y. Tang.
49 See NASA, NASA Aeronautics Strategic Implementation Plan 2023, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/
2021/04/sip-2023-final-508.pdf.
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STEM Education
NASA’s STEM education activities are mostly managed by the Office of STEM Engagement and
funded though the STEM Engagement appropriations account. The Office has three main
programs: the National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program (Space Grant), the Minority
University Research and Education Project (MUREP), and the Established Program to Stimulate
Competitive Research (EPSCoR). In addition, the Next Gen STEM program supports K-12
education and informal education at institutions such as museums and science centers.50 These
programs are authorized by Section 10851 of the CHIPS and Science Act (P.L. 117-167). Other
STEM education activities are embedded in some of the agency’s research programs, such as the
Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) program, in Earth
Science, and the Science Activation project, in Astrophysics.51
Space Grant
Space Grant supports education and student research through grants to consortia of colleges and
universities.52 There are 52 Space Grant consortia, one in each of the 50 states and one each in the
District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Consortia are selected competitively, usually every five
years. In report language accompanying annual appropriations legislation, Congress often
specifies a floor for the annual amount to be provided to each consortium. The Space Grant
program was established in 1987 by the National Space Grant College and Fellowship Act (P.L.
100-147, Title II).53
MUREP
MUREP supports education and research at Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs), including
Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic Serving Institutions, and other MSIs.54
Funds are awarded competitively.
EPSCoR
NASA’s EPSCoR program supports R&D at colleges and universities in states that have
historically been less successful at competing for federal R&D funding.55 For more information
on federal EPSCoR programs, see CRS Report R44689, Established Program to Stimulate
Competitive Research (EPSCoR): Background and Selected Issues, by Laurie A. Harris.
Selected Other Topics
The remainder of this report consists of short sections addressing other focused topics of frequent
congressional interest, including NASA’s statutory authorities; where to find NASA policies and
other Administration policies affecting NASA; space act agreements; where to find NASA

50 See NASA, “Next Gen STEM for Educators,” https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-educators/.
51 See NASA, “GLOBE,” https://www.nasa.gov/get-involved/globe/; and NASA, “Learn: Science Activation,”
https://science.nasa.gov/learn/.
52 See NASA, National Space Grant College and Fellowship Project, https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/national-
space-grant-college-and-fellowship-project/.
53 For the act as amended, see 51 U.S.C. Chapter 403.
54 See NASA, “MUREP,” https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/minority-university-research-education-project/.
55 See NASA, “Established Program to Stimulate Competitive Research,” https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/
established-program-to-stimulate-competitive-research/.
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funding data by state or district; NASA’s regulatory role; the Artemis Accords; the Wolf
Amendment prohibiting NASA collaboration with China; and major sources of external advice
and analysis regarding NASA policies and programs.
Statutory Authorities
Most laws focused on NASA are codified in U.S. Code Title 51, which was created in 2010 to
consolidate space-related statutes that had previously been in various other titles. The main
exception is provisions derived from the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-267), which
appear in 42 U.S.C. Chapter 159. Other relevant statutes are codified in a variety of titles. For
example, statutes giving NASA special authorities regarding hiring and employment are codified
along with related authorities for other agencies at 5 U.S.C. Chapter 98.
The foundation for most of Title 51 is the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 (P.L. 85-
568), the act that established NASA. Congress has enacted many amendments and additions since
then, both in periodic broader-ranging NASA authorization acts and in focused legislation (e.g.,
the One Small Step to Protect Human Heritage in Space Act [P.L. 116-275] and the NASA
Enhanced Use Leasing Extension Act of 2018 [P.L. 115-403]). Although NASA authorization acts
are typically introduced and considered during most Congresses, they are not necessarily enacted
on a regular annual or multiyear schedule, unlike some other authorization bills (such as the
defense authorization bill and the farm bill).56 Two have been enacted in the past decade: the
NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017 (P.L. 115-10) and the NASA Authorization Act of
2022 (P.L. 117-167, Division B, Title VII).
Agency and Administration Policies
NASA has formal policies on a variety of topics, ranging from its own organization, management,
and personnel to its procurement and the formulation and management of its programs. Current
agency-wide policies are compiled and searchable at the NASA Online Directives Information
System (NODIS).57 They include high-level NASA Policy Directives (NPDs), more detailed
NASA Procedural Requirements (NPRs), and guidebooks known as NASA Advisory
Implementing Instructions (NAIIs), along with other less common categories.
Policies for NASA are also sometimes established at the Administration level through documents
such as the National Space Policy, presidential Space Policy Directives, executive orders, and
more focused national policies such as the Presidential Memorandum on Launch of Spacecraft
Containing Space Nuclear Systems.58 Such policies may be coordinated via the National Space
Council, which consists of the NASA Administrator, the heads of other agencies with space
activities, and other senior Administration officials, chaired by the Vice President.59 They may
also be issued by the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) in the Executive Office of

56 For a historical perspective, see the section on NASA in CRS Report R43862, Changes in the Purposes and
Frequency of Authorizations of Appropriations, by Jessica Tollestrup.
57 See NASA, NODIS Library, https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/main_lib.cfm.
58 For a compilation of such policies, see NOAA, Office of Space Commerce, “Space Policies,”
https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/.
59 See The White House, National Space Council, https://www.whitehouse.gov/spacecouncil/. For the council’s
statutory authorities, see Section 501 of the NASA Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 1989 (P.L. 100-685) and other
provisions set out as notes under 51 U.S.C. §20111. See also Executive Order 14056, The National Space Council,
December 1, 2021, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/12/03/2021-26459/the-national-space-council.
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the President, or the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC).60 Administration-level
policies such as these are often high-level strategies or implementation plans with a focus on
interagency coordination.
Space Act Agreements
At NASA’s establishment, the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 (P.L. 85-568),
commonly known as the Space Act, authorized the new agency to “enter into and perform such
contracts, leases, cooperative agreements, or other transactions as may be necessary in the
conduct of its work and on such terms as it may deem appropriate.”61 The phrase “other
transactions” allows NASA to craft agreements that are functionally contracts but are not subject
to certain federal contracting requirements, such as the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR).
Such agreements are known as space act agreements (SAAs). Guidelines for the use of SAAs are
contained in NASA’s Space Act Agreements Guide.62 A number of other agencies have
subsequently received “other transaction” authority (OTA), usually with more detailed statutory
guidance. The intent is typically to give agencies and companies more flexibility to negotiate the
terms of an agreement, often when a company is paying all or part of the cost of its share of the
agreed work.63
NASA Funding by State and District
The NASA Procurement Data View (NPDV) website allows any user to search for NASA
contracts and other awards by contractor name or geographically by state and district.64 Searches
can be filtered by the type of award recipient (e.g., small business, educational institution, or
nonprofit organization) and results can be presented either as dollar totals for the selected fiscal
year or as detailed information on individual awards.
Regulatory Role
NASA is generally not a regulatory agency, but it does issue regulations, such as 14 C.F.R.
Chapter V (largely governing NASA’s own operations and its interactions with other entities); 2
C.F.R., Subtitle B, Chapter XVIII (regarding requirements for NASA grants and other awards);
and 48 C.F.R. Chapter 18 (the NASA supplement to the FAR).
The NASA Administrator serves on the FAR Council,65 which was established by the Office of
Federal Procurement Policy Act Amendments of 1988 (P.L. 100-679) to assist in the direction and
coordination of procurement policy and procurement regulatory activities across the federal
government. Under that authority, changes to the government-wide FAR (48 C.F.R. Chapter 1)

60 See, for example, NSTC, National Preparedness Strategy for Near-Earth Object Hazards and Planetary Defense,
April 2023, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/2023-NSTC-National-Preparedness-Strategy-
and-Action-Plan-for-Near-Earth-Object-Hazards-and-Planetary-Defense.pdf. For more information on OSTP and
NSTC and their relationship, see CRS Report R47410, The Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP): Overview
and Issues for Congress, by Emily G. Blevins.
61 51 U.S.C. §20113(e).
62 NASA, Space Act Agreements Guide, NASA Advisory Implementing Instruction NAII 1050-1D,
https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/OPD_docs/NAII_1050_1D_.pdf.
63 For more information on OTs, see CRS Report R45521, Department of Defense Use of Other Transaction Authority:
Background, Analysis, and Issues for Congress, by Heidi M. Peters.
64 See NASA, NASA Procurement Data View (NPDV), https://prod.nais.nasa.gov/cgibin/npdv/npdv.cgi.
65 See Acquisition.gov, Federal Acquisition Regulatory Council, https://www.acquisition.gov/far-council.
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are issued jointly by NASA, the Department of Defense, and the General Services
Administration. In practice, though, FAR changes are initiated and developed via the Civilian
Agency Acquisition Council (CAAC) and the Defense Acquisition Regulations (DAR) Council,
for review by the FAR Council.66 The CAAC and the DAR Council both have a broader base of
agency participation than the FAR Council itself.
Note that NASA does not regulate commercial space activities, which generally fall under the
regulatory jurisdiction of the Federal Aviation Administration, the Department of Commerce, and
the Federal Communications Commission. For more information, see CRS Report R45416,
Commercial Space: Federal Regulation, Oversight, and Utilization, by Daniel Morgan.
Artemis Accords
The Artemis Accords are agreements between NASA and its counterpart agencies in other
countries, establishing “principles for cooperation in the civil exploration and use of the Moon,
Mars, comets, and asteroids.”67 NASA and seven other countries signed the Accords in October
2020. More than 20 additional countries have signed since then. Negotiations with the partner
countries are co-led by NASA and the Department of State.68 The Accords articulate principles,
mostly based on the Outer Space Treaty of 1967,69 rather than operational details.70 NASA
considers participation in the Accords a prerequisite for collaboration with NASA on the Artemis
lunar exploration initiative, although the scope of the Accords is not limited to that. Note that the
Artemis Accords are nonbinding agreements between NASA and other national space agencies;
they do not have the status of a treaty.
Wolf Amendment (Prohibiting Cooperation with China)
The Wolf Amendment—named after its original author, former Representative Frank Wolf—is a
provision in annual appropriations acts that prohibits most bilateral NASA cooperation with
China. It was first enacted in 2011 as Section 539 of the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related
Agencies Appropriations Act, 2012 (P.L. 112-55, Division B). It has been repeated each year
since then, with some variations from year to year. The FY2023 version prohibits bilateral NASA
cooperation with China and the hosting of official Chinese visitors at NASA facilities, unless
NASA certifies to Congress that an activity (1) poses no risk of technology or information
transfer with national security or economic security implications and (2) will not involve knowing
interactions with officials directly involved in human rights violations.71

66 See 48 C.F.R. §1.201-1.
67 See NASA, “Principles for a Safe, Peaceful, and Prosperous Future,” https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/.
68 See Department of State, “Artemis Accords,” https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords/.
69 See United Nations, Office for Outer Space Affairs, Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/
ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html.
70 Some of the signatory countries also have more detailed operational agreements with NASA. See, for example,
Framework Agreement Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America
and the Israel Space Agency for Cooperation in Aeronautics and the Exploration and Use of Airspace and Outer Space
for Peaceful Purposes (2015), https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/15-1013-Israel-Space-Coop-
Peaceful-Uses.pdf.
71 See Section 526 of the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2023 (P.L. 117-328,
Division B).
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The NASA Office of Inspector General issues an annual report on NASA’s cooperation with
China, listing any new or ongoing bilateral activities and confirming whether NASA made the
required certifications to Congress for those activities.72
Major Sources of Assessment/Advice
As already mentioned, NASA makes extensive use of the National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering, and Medicine for decadal surveys and other advisory studies (see “National
Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Decadal Surveys” above). These studies are
mostly prepared under the auspices of NASEM’s Space Studies Board and Aeronautics and Space
Engineering Board.73 It also receives external advice from the NASA Advisory Council (NAC)
and the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP), both of which periodically issue
recommendations and other reports and provide advice directly during regular open meetings.74
The NAC and ASAP both operate under the requirements of the Federal Advisory Committee Act
(FACA, 5 U.S.C. Chapter 10).75 The NASA Office of Inspector General frequently reports on its
audits and investigations, with recommendations for corrective actions.76 The Government
Accountability Office frequently publishes reports and testimonies on NASA, including a
congressionally mandated annual report assessing major NASA projects,77 other reports on
individual NASA programs or topics,78 and a searchable database of open recommendations.79

Author Information

Daniel Morgan

Specialist in Science and Technology Policy

72 The 2023 report is NASA Office of Inspector General, NASA’s Compliance with Federal Export Control Laws, IG-
23-009, February 6, 2023, https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-23-009.pdf. For the Wolf Amendment, see pp. 1-2.
73 See National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Space Studies Board,
https://www.nationalacademies.org/ssb/space-studies-board; and National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
Medicine, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, https://www.nationalacademies.org/aseb/aeronautics-and-space-
engineering-board.
74 Reports, meeting minutes, and other materials are available online at NASA Advisory Council,
https://www.nasa.gov/nac/, and NASA Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel, https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/.
75 For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12102, Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA): Committee
Establishment and Termination, by Meghan M. Stuessy; CRS In Focus IF12512, Federal Advisory Committee Act
(FACA): Membership, by Meghan M. Stuessy and Jacob R. Straus; and CRS In Focus IF12252, Federal Advisory
Committee Act (FACA): Meeting Requirements, by Meghan M. Stuessy.
76 See NASA Office of Inspector General, https://oig.nasa.gov/.
77 The 2023 report is Government Accountability Office, NASA: Assessments of Major Projects, GAO-23-106021, May
31, 2023, https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-106021. This annual report series was mandated in the explanatory
statement accompanying the Omnibus Appropriations Act, 2009 (P.L. 111-8). See Congressional Record, February 23,
2009, p. H1825. GAO defines major projects as projects or programs with a lifecycle cost exceeding $250 million.
78 See GAO, Reports and Testimonies, https://www.gao.gov/reports-testimonies.
79 See GAO, Reports and Testimonies, Recommendations Database, https://www.gao.gov/reports-testimonies/
recommendations-database.
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Disclaimer
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under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
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