The Congressional Budget Process Timeline
The Congressional Budget Process Timeline
July 27, 2023
The Constitution gives Congress the power of the purse, granting the House and Senate power
over spending, revenue, and borrowing decisions. The Constitution does not, however, specify
Drew C. Aherne
how, when, and in what order Congress should make these decisions. Consequently, Congress
Analyst on Congress and
has created a budget process over time through various statutes, rules, practices, and precedents.
the Legislative Process
These component parts make up a complex process involving multiple decisions and actions that
could occur at various points throughout the year. As a result, no single timeline can predict with
certainty when the various actions that comprise the congressional budget process will occur.
There is, however, a general sequence that the basic steps in the process follow.
The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 (the Budget Act) created a timetable to coordinate decisions on budgetary measures,
including the budget resolution, appropriations bills, and any potential reconciliation legislation. While this timetable
provides a framework for the steps and sequence of the congressional budget process, the timing of events often varies from
year to year.
The annual submission of the President’s budget serves as a statement of Administration policy and priorities for the
upcoming fiscal year and is typically seen as the beginning of the congressional budget cycle. The President is required to
submit a budget by the first Monday in February, but in practice the submission may occur after this date.
The Budget Act provides for the adoption of a budget resolution that serves as an agreement between the House and Senate
on a congressional budgetary plan for the upcoming fiscal year. In years when Congress has adopted a budget resolution, it
has often been in late spring or early summer, though it has sometimes been later. In some recent years, for example,
Congress has adopted budget resolutions even after the initial fiscal year for which it applies has begun. In years when
Congress does not adopt a budget resolution, the House and/or Senate may employ alternative legislative tools to establish
enforceable budget levels.
In years when Congress adopts a budget resolution with reconciliation instructions, specified committees are instructed to
develop legislative language to achieve a budgetary effect in accordance with the budget resolution. The reconciliation
process follows a timeline set forth in the budget resolution for that fiscal year and therefore has varied in when it has
occurred. Historically, Congress has passed reconciliation legislation at various points during a year, both before and after the
initial fiscal year for which the budget resolution applies began.
Discretionary spending comprises roughly one-third of federal spending and is provided through the annual appropriations
process. The House and Senate Appropriations Committees are responsible for developing annual appropriations measures,
and each committee has 12 subcommittees, each responsible for one of the regular appropriations bills. The appropriations
process generally involves action at the subcommittee, full committee, and chamber levels in the House and Senate.
Preliminary action on the appropriations process begins shortly after the submission of the President’s budget in the late
winter or early spring. Subcommittee and full-committee action on appropriations bills generally occurs from spring through
the summer, after which appropriations bills may be considered as individual or packaged measures on the floor by the House
or Senate from late summer and often into the new fiscal year.
To prevent funding gaps and government shutdowns, Congress can enact continuing appropriations measures (commonly
known as continuing resolutions or “CRs”). It is common practice for Congress to enact an initial CR at the end of September
and then enact new CRs as needed upon the old one’s expiration. Recent practice has often been for Congress to enact an
initial CR that lasts until November or December and then extend this period through subsequent CRs until final action on
enacting regular appropriations bills occurs at some point between December and May.
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Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 .................................................................................... 1
Submission of the President’s Budget to Congress ................................................................... 2
Adoption of a Budget Resolution .............................................................................................. 3
Reconciliation Legislation ........................................................................................................ 3
Development and Consideration of Appropriations Bills ......................................................... 6
Continuing Resolutions and Final Enactment of Regular Appropriations ................................ 7
Figures
Figure 1. Timing of Budget Resolution Adoption and Enactment (or Veto) of
Reconciliation Legislation: FY1981-FY2022 .............................................................................. 5
Figure 2. Aggregate Duration of Continuing Resolutions and Funding Gaps: FY2000-
FY2023 ......................................................................................................................................... 8
Tables
Table 1. Congressional Budget Process Timetable .......................................................................... 2
Contacts
Author Information .......................................................................................................................... 9
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Introduction
The congressional budget process generally involves various actions taken and decisions made
over the course of the fiscal year. This could include committee, chamber, and bicameral-level
decisions on measures affecting spending or revenues.
The Constitution gives Congress the power of the purse, granting the House and Senate power
over spending, revenue, and borrowing decisions. Specifically, Article I of the Constitution grants
Congress the power to lay and collect taxes and to borrow money (Article I, Section 8), as well as
power over spending decisions. (Article I, Section 9, states: “No Money shall be drawn from the
Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law”). While the Constitution
establishes that the power of the purse must be exercised through the lawmaking process, it does
not specify how, when, and in what order Congress should make these decisions.
Congress has created a budget process over time through various statutes, rules, practices, and
precedents. Together, these component parts make up a complex process involving multiple
decisions and actions that could occur at various points during the year. As a consequence, there
is no single timeline that can be used to predict with certainty when the various actions that
comprise the congressional budget process will occur for any given fiscal year. There is, however,
a general sequence that the basic steps in the process follow.
This report provides an overview of the general timing and sequence of the actions that make up
the congressional budget process. First, it outlines the timetable for the process set forth in the
Congressional Budget Act of 1974 (the Budget Act). Next, it describes how each of the major
steps in the process fit into this timeline in practice. The major actions in the congressional
budget process that this report covers include the submission of the President’s budget, adoption
of the budget resolution, potential consideration of reconciliation legislation, development and
consideration of annual appropriations bills, the use of continuing appropriations measures, and
the completion of the annual appropriations process for a given fiscal year.1
The Congressional Budget Act of 1974
The Budget Act lays out the general timing and sequence of events that make up the
congressional budget process.2 The act created this process to coordinate decisions on budgetary
measures, including the budget resolution, appropriations legislation, revenue legislation, and any
possible reconciliation legislation.
As part of these coordination efforts, Section 300 of the Budget Act created a timetable (as seen
in Table 1) for the congressional budget process. This timetable provides a series of target and
enabling dates for the consideration and adoption or enactment of budgetary measures prior to the
start of a fiscal year on October 1.
1 For more on the federal budget process, see CRS Report R46240, Introduction to the Federal Budget Process, by
James V. Saturno.
2 Titles I-IX of P.L. 93-344, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §§601-688.
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The Congressional Budget Process Timeline
Table 1. Congressional Budget Process Timetable
On or before:
Action to be completed:
First Monday in February
President submits budget.
February 15
Congressional Budget Office submits report (on
the economic and budget outlook) to Budget
Committees.
Not later than 6 weeks after President submits
Committees submit views and estimates to Budget
budget
Committees.
April 1
Senate Budget Committee reports concurrent
resolution on the budget (budget resolution).
April 15
Congress completes action on concurrent
resolution on the budget.
May 15
Annual appropriation bil s may be considered in
the House.
June 10
House Appropriations Committee reports last
annual appropriation bil .
June 15
Congress completes action on reconciliation
legislation.
June 30
House completes action on annual appropriation
bil s.
October 1
Fiscal year begins.
Source: Section 300 of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §631.
Although the timetable in Section 300 of the Budget Act reflects the actions that make up the
congressional budget process, in practice the timing of events may be influenced by various
logistical, political, economic, and other factors. Because most of these actions typically occur
over the course of a given fiscal year, however, this timetable does provide a framework for
understanding the sequence of the process and how certain actions are related to later action on
other steps in the process.
Submission of the President’s Budget to Congress
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 established a requirement for the President to submit a
budget request for the upcoming fiscal year near the beginning of each calendar year.3 The
President’s budget submission serves as a statement of Administration policy priorities as well as
a detailed plan for the allocation of budgetary resources and execution of government activities.4
Under current law, the President must submit a consolidated budget to Congress no later than the
first Monday in February, although the submission may occur after this date. The submission of
the President’s budget generally signifies the beginning of congressional consideration of
budgetary questions concerning the upcoming fiscal year.
3 Public Law 13, 67th Congress, codified in part at 31 U.S.C. §501.
4 For more on the President’s budget, see CRS Report R47019, The Executive Budget Process: An Overview, by
Dominick A. Fiorentino and Taylor N. Riccard.
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The Congressional Budget Process Timeline
Adoption of a Budget Resolution
The Budget Act provides for the adoption of a concurrent resolution on the budget (the budget
resolution) to set enforceable budgetary parameters and coordinate congressional fiscal decisions
for the upcoming fiscal year.5 The budget resolution allows Congress to establish a framework
within which the House and Senate will consider budgetary legislation, set enforceable spending
and revenue levels, outline high-level spending priorities, and, optionally, include instructions
that can trigger subsequent reconciliation legislation.6 In the context of the congressional budget
process timeline, the budget resolution can be an important enabling mechanism for later steps in
the process.7
The Budget Act sets a target date of April 15 for adoption of the budget resolution, although
Congress has typically adopted budget resolutions after this date. Congress has adopted a budget
resolution prior to April 15 four times since FY1985, most recently for FY2004. In years when
Congress has adopted a budget resolution, it has most often been in late spring or early summer in
the months of April through June. In some recent years, however, Congress has adopted budget
resolutions with reconciliation instructions after the initial fiscal year for which it applies has
begun, doing so for FY2017 (January 13, 2017), FY2018 (October 26, 2017), and FY2021
(February 5, 2021).
Congress is generally prohibited from considering budgetary measures before the adoption of a
budget resolution, although the Budget Act does provide a specific exception for the House to
begin considering appropriations bills in the absence of one after May 15.8 In years when
Congress does not adopt a budget resolution, the House and/or Senate may employ alternative
legislative measures (referred to collectively as “deeming resolutions”) to establish enforceable
budgetary levels, particularly for the annual appropriations process.9
Reconciliation Legislation
Reconciliation is an optional process through which Congress can change current law to make
revenue, spending, and debt limit levels consistent with the policies and priorities established in
the budget resolution. In years when Congress adopts a budget resolution that includes
instructions for reconciliation, specified committees are instructed to develop legislative changes
to achieve a budgetary effect in accordance with the directives and timeline established in the
budget resolution.10 The resulting legislation is then considered under expedited procedures in the
Senate.11
5 Section 301 of the Budget Act, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §632. The Budget Act requires that the budget
resolution cover the upcoming fiscal year and at least the subsequent four fiscal years. In current practice, it has been
common for the budget resolution to cover the upcoming fiscal year and the subsequent nine fiscal years.
6 For more on budget resolutions, see CRS Report RL30297, Congressional Budget Resolutions: Historical
Information, by Bill Heniff Jr.
7 Adoption of the same budget resolution by both chambers is required in order to trigger any enforcement or
reconciliation procedures under the Budget Act.
8 Section 303 of the Budget Act, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §634.
9 For more on deeming resolutions, see CRS Report R44296, Deeming Resolutions: Budget Enforcement in the
Absence of a Budget Resolution, by Megan S. Lynch.
10 Section 310 of the Budget Act, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §641.
11 For more on the reconciliation process, see CRS Report R44058, The Budget Reconciliation Process: Stages of
Consideration, by Megan S. Lynch and James V. Saturno.
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The Budget Act sets a target date of June 15 for enacting reconciliation legislation. In practice,
however, reconciliation follows the timeline established in the budget resolution for that fiscal
year. This means that the timeline for reconciliation legislation generally varies in terms of its
development, consideration, and passage, as well as the time between the adoption of a budget
resolution and passage of reconciliation legislation. Furthermore, the reconciliation process
operates separately from the appropriations process, so while they may occur simultaneously, the
timing of one generally does not directly affect the timing of the other.
Since the first reconciliation legislation was enacted for FY1981, Congress has passed 27
reconciliation measures and the President has signed 23 into law. Over this period, there has been
wide variation in the timing of when Congress has considered such legislation (as shown in
Figure 1).12 Congress has passed 12 of the 27 reconciliation measures prior to the start of the
initial fiscal year for which the budget resolution applied. Of these, two were passed between
May and June, and the other 10 were passed in August or September. Congress passed the
remaining 15 reconciliation measures after the initial fiscal year for which the budget resolution
applied had already begun. Seven were passed between October and December, and eight were
passed in the next calendar year between January and August.
12 For more on the timing of the reconciliation process, see CRS Report RL30458, The Budget Reconciliation Process:
Timing of Legislative Action, by Megan S. Lynch.
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The Congressional Budget Process Timeline
Figure 1. Timing of Budget Resolution Adoption and Enactment (or Veto) of
Reconciliation Legislation: FY1981-FY2022
Sources: Information compiled from CRS Report R40480, Budget Reconciliation Measures Enacted into Law Since
1980, by Megan S. Lynch; the CRS Appropriations Status Table; and Congress.gov.
Notes: The “number of days in between the resolution and reconciliation” refers to the number of days
between Congress adopting a budget resolution and the enactment or veto of reconciliation legislation. The
President has vetoed reconciliation legislation four times since FY1981 (FY1996, FY2000, FY2001, and FY2016).
Congress has enacted multiple pieces of reconciliation legislation for the same fiscal year three times (FY1983,
FY1998, and FY2006), as shown above. Years when Congress enacted reconciliation legislation past April of the
new fiscal year (FY1984, FY1986, FY2006, and FY2022) are represented above by wrapping the timeline around
the x-axis and should stil be read from left to right beginning with the adoption of a budget resolution.
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Development and Consideration of Appropriations Bills
Discretionary spending comprises roughly one-third of federal spending and is provided through
the annual appropriations process. This process currently consists of the development and
consideration of 12 regular appropriations measures, as well as any supplemental appropriations
measures that may be needed over the course of a fiscal year. Most of the budget authority
enacted through regular appropriations legislation is provided for a single fiscal year and expires
at the end of that fiscal year on September 30. This makes October 1 a hard deadline for Congress
in enacting regular appropriations for the new fiscal year, as agencies generally cannot obligate
money in the absence of appropriations enacted into law.13
Like other aspects of the congressional budget process, the timing of appropriations decisions
varies from year to year.14 The House and Senate Appropriations Committees are responsible for
developing annual appropriations measures, and each committee currently has 12 identical
subcommittees that are each responsible for developing one of the regular appropriations bills.15
The appropriations process for a given fiscal year typically involves action at the subcommittee,
full committee, chamber floor, and bicameral levels.
The House and Senate Appropriations Committees typically begin preliminary action on annual
appropriations measures in the late winter or early spring, shortly after the submission of the
President’s budget. This commonly takes the form of hearings conducted by appropriations
subcommittees at which Administration officials testify about agency funding requests.16
Appropriations subcommittees may also solicit input from Members at this stage, usually through
hearings at which Members may testify as well as requests submitted by Member offices.17
Once decisions on top-line discretionary spending levels are made (known as “302(a)
allocations”), the Budget Act requires the House and Senate Appropriations Committees to make
further allocations from that total to each of their subcommittees (known as “302(b)
suballocations”).18 With these allocations, the appropriations subcommittees in the House and
Senate will typically begin drafting, marking up, and forwarding their respective appropriations
bills to the full committee. Appropriations bills will then be marked up at the full committee level
and reported to the full House or Senate for floor consideration.
13 For more, see CRS Report R46417, Congress’s Power Over Appropriations: Constitutional and Statutory
Provisions, by Sean M. Stiff.
14 For more on the appropriations process, see CRS Report R47106, The Appropriations Process: A Brief Overview, by
James V. Saturno and Megan S. Lynch.
15 For more on the Appropriations Committees’ subcommittee structure, see CRS Report RL31572, Appropriations
Subcommittee Structure: History of Changes from 1920 to 2023, by James V. Saturno.
16 In association with the President’s budget request, agencies are required to submit individual agency budget
justifications that provide more detail on their budget requests. For more, see CRS Report R47090, Executive Agency
Justification of the President’s Budget: In Brief, by Dominick A. Fiorentino.
17 For more on House Member participation in the appropriations process, see CRS Report R47031, The House
Appropriations Process: Opportunities for Member Participation, by Megan S. Lynch.
18 Section 302(a) of the Budget Act (codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §633(a)) requires that overall spending levels set
forth in the budget resolution be allocated among every committee in Congress with jurisdiction over spending
legislation (known as “302(a) allocations.”) Section 302(b) of the Budget Act (codified as amended at 2 U.S.C.
§633(b)) requires the House and Senate Appropriations Committees to make 302(b) suballocations, which serve as
enforceable levels for each of the 12 regular appropriations bills. For more on this allocation process, see CRS Report
R47388, Enforceable Spending Allocations in the Congressional Budget Process: 302(a)s and 302(b)s, by Drew C.
Aherne.
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The Congressional Budget Process Timeline
Historically, the House has initiated consideration of regular appropriations measures.19 In most
years, the House Appropriations subcommittees have marked up and forwarded their bills to the
full committee between April and July, and the bills have been reported from the full committee
shortly thereafter. Consideration of regular appropriations bills on the House floor has historically
begun in the summer and sometimes continued into the new fiscal year. While the House has
considered some regular appropriations bills on the floor individually in recent years, it has also
done so by packaging some or all of the bills to consider them simultaneously (commonly
referred to as an “omnibus” or “minibus”).
The Senate Appropriations subcommittees and full committee have historically marked up and
reported its bills anywhere from spring to late summer, but the timing and frequency of doing so
have varied in recent years. The Senate reported few or no regular appropriations bills for each
fiscal year from FY2020 through FY2023, and it has been relatively rare going back even further
for the Senate to consider individual appropriations bills on the floor. Instead, the Senate has
often acted on House-passed omnibus or minibus measures at a later stage in the process.
Prior to the start of a new fiscal year on October 1, the House and Senate may consider and pass
all, some, or none of the regular appropriations bills. If a regular appropriations bill is not enacted
prior to the start of a fiscal year, Congress may enact a continuing appropriations measure in
order to avoid a funding gap or partial government shutdown.20
Continuing Resolutions and Final Enactment of Regular
Appropriations
To avert funding gaps and government shutdowns, when one or more regular appropriations bills
have not been enacted by October 1, Congress may provide interim budget authority to agencies
by enacting continuing appropriations measures (commonly known as “continuing resolutions” or
“CRs”). Continuing resolutions typically provide budget authority at a specified rate, generally
allowing agencies to obligate funds at a rate necessary to continue operations funded in the
previous fiscal year. Continuing resolutions also place certain restrictions on agency spending
while they are in effect. For example, CRs generally prohibit agencies from carrying out new
programs, projects, and activities that were not funded in the previous fiscal year or making
decisions that undermine Congress’s ability to make final, full-year funding decisions.21
Since FY1977, when the fiscal year was set as October 1 through September 30, Congress has
enacted one or more CRs in all but three fiscal years, including in each fiscal year since
FY1998.22 CRs vary in both duration and timing, but Congress typically enacts an initial CR in
late September in the final days or weeks of the fiscal year that provides budget authority for the
first weeks or months of the new fiscal year. From FY2013 through FY2023, for example, the
initial CR enacted by Congress was in effect once until November, eight times until December,
once until January, and once until March. Congress may subsequently enact additional CRs upon
the original’s expiration while work is completed on any regular appropriations bills that have yet
19 In some recent years, however, the Senate has developed and reported original Senate bills prior to receiving a
House-passed measure.
20 For more on federal funding gaps, see CRS Report RS20348, Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview, by James V.
Saturno.
21 For more on continuing resolutions, see CRS Report R46595, Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and
Practices, coordinated by James V. Saturno.
22 Congress enacted all regular appropriations bills prior to October 1 for FY1977, FY1989, FY1995, and FY1997,
although two CRs were enacted for FY1977 to provide funding for certain activities that were not included in regular
appropriations acts.
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The Congressional Budget Process Timeline
to be enacted. Historically, these subsequent CRs have lasted anywhere from a few days to
months, although Congress may choose to enact a CR that lasts through the end of the fiscal year
(known as a “full-year CR”).23
The aggregate duration of CRs varies depending on when Congress completes action on all
regular appropriations or if it enacts a full-year CR (as shown in Figure 2). From FY2013 to
FY2023, for example, Congress enacted all appropriations bills or enacted a full-year CR four
times in December, once in January, once in February, four times in March, and once in May. In
recent practice, it has been common for all or most of the regular appropriations bills to be
enacted together as part of an omnibus or minibus measure.
Figure 2. Aggregate Duration of Continuing Resolutions and Funding Gaps: FY2000-
FY2023
Source: Information compiled from CRS Report R46595, Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and
Practices, coordinated by James V. Saturno; CRS Report RS20348, Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview, by James
V. Saturno; and the CRS Appropriations Status Table.
Notes: Each segment of the bar for a fiscal year represents the duration that one CR or funding gap was in
effect. Funding gaps in FY2014, FY2018, and FY2019 are represented with red striped shading. The left-most
segment for each fiscal year represents the first CR enacted by Congress, beginning coverage on October 1. The
number on the right-hand side of each bar represents the total number of days between October 1 and the
enactment of the final regular appropriations measure for that fiscal year (including October 1). For FY2007,
FY2011, and FY2013, some or all of the regular appropriations bil s were funded through a ful -year CR, as
shown above. This graph does not convey coverage of CRs. CRs can cover all or only some of the regular
appropriations bil s. Enactment of a CR does not mean that none of the regular appropriations bil s were enacted
prior, nor does it preclude passage of regular appropriations measures while the CR is in effect.
23 Since FY2000, Congress has enacted full-year CRs that covered at least one of the regular appropriations bills three
times (FY2007, FY2011, and FY2013).
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The Congressional Budget Process Timeline
Author Information
Drew C. Aherne
Analyst on Congress and the Legislative Process
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
Congressional Research Service
R47235 · VERSION 4 · UPDATED
9
July 27, 2023
The Constitution gives Congress the power of the purse, granting the House and Senate power
over spending, revenue, and borrowing decisions. The Constitution does not, however, specify
Drew C. Aherne
how, when, and in what order Congress should make these decisions. Consequently, Congress
Analyst on Congress and
has created a budget process over time through various statutes, rules, practices, and precedents.
the Legislative Process
These component parts make up a complex process involving multiple decisions and actions that
could occur at various points throughout the year. As a result, no single timeline can predict with
certainty when the various actions that comprise the congressional budget process will occur.
There is, however, a general sequence that the basic steps in the process follow.
The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 (the Budget Act) created a timetable to coordinate decisions on budgetary measures,
including the budget resolution, appropriations bills, and any potential reconciliation legislation. While this timetable
provides a framework for the steps and sequence of the congressional budget process, the timing of events often varies from
year to year.
The annual submission of the President’s budget serves as a statement of Administration policy and priorities for the
upcoming fiscal year and is typically seen as the beginning of the congressional budget cycle. The President is required to
submit a budget by the first Monday in February, but in practice the submission may occur after this date.
The Budget Act provides for the adoption of a budget resolution that serves as an agreement between the House and Senate
on a congressional budgetary plan for the upcoming fiscal year. In years when Congress has adopted a budget resolution, it
has often been in late spring or early summer, though it has sometimes been later. In some recent years, for example,
Congress has adopted budget resolutions even after the initial fiscal year for which it applies has begun. In years when
Congress does not adopt a budget resolution, the House and/or Senate may employ alternative legislative tools to establish
enforceable budget levels.
In years when Congress adopts a budget resolution with reconciliation instructions, specified committees are instructed to
develop legislative language to achieve a budgetary effect in accordance with the budget resolution. The reconciliation
process follows a timeline set forth in the budget resolution for that fiscal year and therefore has varied in when it has
occurred. Historically, Congress has passed reconciliation legislation at various points during a year, both before and after the
initial fiscal year for which the budget resolution applies began.
Discretionary spending comprises roughly one-third of federal spending and is provided through the annual appropriations
process. The House and Senate Appropriations Committees are responsible for developing annual appropriations measures,
and each committee has 12 subcommittees, each responsible for one of the regular appropriations bills. The appropriations
process generally involves action at the subcommittee, full committee, and chamber levels in the House and Senate.
Preliminary action on the appropriations process begins shortly after the submission of the President’s budget in the late
winter or early spring. Subcommittee and full-committee action on appropriations bills generally occurs from spring through
the summer, after which appropriations bills may be considered as individual or packaged measures on the floor by the House
or Senate from late summer and often into the new fiscal year.
To prevent funding gaps and government shutdowns, Congress can enact continuing appropriations measures (commonly
known as continuing resolutions or “CRs”). It is common practice for Congress to enact an initial CR at the end of September
and then enact new CRs as needed upon the old one’s expiration. Recent practice has often been for Congress to enact an
initial CR that lasts until November or December and then extend this period through subsequent CRs until final action on
enacting regular appropriations bills occurs at some point between December and May.
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Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 .................................................................................... 1
Submission of the President’s Budget to Congress ................................................................... 2
Adoption of a Budget Resolution .............................................................................................. 3
Reconciliation Legislation ........................................................................................................ 3
Development and Consideration of Appropriations Bills ......................................................... 6
Continuing Resolutions and Final Enactment of Regular Appropriations ................................ 7
Figures
Figure 1. Timing of Budget Resolution Adoption and Enactment (or Veto) of
Reconciliation Legislation: FY1981-FY2022 .............................................................................. 5
Figure 2. Aggregate Duration of Continuing Resolutions and Funding Gaps: FY2000-
FY2023 ......................................................................................................................................... 8
Tables
Table 1. Congressional Budget Process Timetable .......................................................................... 2
Contacts
Author Information .......................................................................................................................... 9
Congressional Research Service
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Introduction
The congressional budget process generally involves various actions taken and decisions made
over the course of the fiscal year. This could include committee, chamber, and bicameral-level
decisions on measures affecting spending or revenues.
The Constitution gives Congress the power of the purse, granting the House and Senate power
over spending, revenue, and borrowing decisions. Specifically, Article I of the Constitution grants
Congress the power to lay and collect taxes and to borrow money (Article I, Section 8), as well as
power over spending decisions. (Article I, Section 9, states: “No Money shall be drawn from the
Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law”). While the Constitution
establishes that the power of the purse must be exercised through the lawmaking process, it does
not specify how, when, and in what order Congress should make these decisions.
Congress has created a budget process over time through various statutes, rules, practices, and
precedents. Together, these component parts make up a complex process involving multiple
decisions and actions that could occur at various points during the year. As a consequence, there
is no single timeline that can be used to predict with certainty when the various actions that
comprise the congressional budget process will occur for any given fiscal year. There is, however,
a general sequence that the basic steps in the process follow.
This report provides an overview of the general timing and sequence of the actions that make up
the congressional budget process. First, it outlines the timetable for the process set forth in the
Congressional Budget Act of 1974 (the Budget Act). Next, it describes how each of the major
steps in the process fit into this timeline in practice. The major actions in the congressional
budget process that this report covers include the submission of the President’s budget, adoption
of the budget resolution, potential consideration of reconciliation legislation, development and
consideration of annual appropriations bills, the use of continuing appropriations measures, and
the completion of the annual appropriations process for a given fiscal year.1
The Congressional Budget Act of 1974
The Budget Act lays out the general timing and sequence of events that make up the
congressional budget process.2 The act created this process to coordinate decisions on budgetary
measures, including the budget resolution, appropriations legislation, revenue legislation, and any
possible reconciliation legislation.
As part of these coordination efforts, Section 300 of the Budget Act created a timetable (as seen
in Table 1) for the congressional budget process. This timetable provides a series of target and
enabling dates for the consideration and adoption or enactment of budgetary measures prior to the
start of a fiscal year on October 1.
1 For more on the federal budget process, see CRS Report R46240, Introduction to the Federal Budget Process, by
James V. Saturno.
2 Titles I-IX of P.L. 93-344, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §§601-688.
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Table 1. Congressional Budget Process Timetable
On or before:
Action to be completed:
First Monday in February
President submits budget.
February 15
Congressional Budget Office submits report (on
the economic and budget outlook) to Budget
Committees.
Not later than 6 weeks after President submits
Committees submit views and estimates to Budget
budget
Committees.
April 1
Senate Budget Committee reports concurrent
resolution on the budget (budget resolution).
April 15
Congress completes action on concurrent
resolution on the budget.
May 15
Annual appropriation bil s may be considered in
the House.
June 10
House Appropriations Committee reports last
annual appropriation bil .
June 15
Congress completes action on reconciliation
legislation.
June 30
House completes action on annual appropriation
bil s.
October 1
Fiscal year begins.
Source: Section 300 of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §631.
Although the timetable in Section 300 of the Budget Act reflects the actions that make up the
congressional budget process, in practice the timing of events may be influenced by various
logistical, political, economic, and other factors. Because most of these actions typically occur
over the course of a given fiscal year, however, this timetable does provide a framework for
understanding the sequence of the process and how certain actions are related to later action on
other steps in the process.
Submission of the President’s Budget to Congress
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 established a requirement for the President to submit a
budget request for the upcoming fiscal year near the beginning of each calendar year.3 The
President’s budget submission serves as a statement of Administration policy priorities as well as
a detailed plan for the allocation of budgetary resources and execution of government activities.4
Under current law, the President must submit a consolidated budget to Congress no later than the
first Monday in February, although the submission may occur after this date. The submission of
the President’s budget generally signifies the beginning of congressional consideration of
budgetary questions concerning the upcoming fiscal year.
3 Public Law 13, 67th Congress, codified in part at 31 U.S.C. §501.
4 For more on the President’s budget, see CRS Report R47019, The Executive Budget Process: An Overview, by
Dominick A. Fiorentino and Taylor N. Riccard.
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Adoption of a Budget Resolution
The Budget Act provides for the adoption of a concurrent resolution on the budget (the budget
resolution) to set enforceable budgetary parameters and coordinate congressional fiscal decisions
for the upcoming fiscal year.5 The budget resolution allows Congress to establish a framework
within which the House and Senate will consider budgetary legislation, set enforceable spending
and revenue levels, outline high-level spending priorities, and, optionally, include instructions
that can trigger subsequent reconciliation legislation.6 In the context of the congressional budget
process timeline, the budget resolution can be an important enabling mechanism for later steps in
the process.7
The Budget Act sets a target date of April 15 for adoption of the budget resolution, although
Congress has typically adopted budget resolutions after this date. Congress has adopted a budget
resolution prior to April 15 four times since FY1985, most recently for FY2004. In years when
Congress has adopted a budget resolution, it has most often been in late spring or early summer in
the months of April through June. In some recent years, however, Congress has adopted budget
resolutions with reconciliation instructions after the initial fiscal year for which it applies has
begun, doing so for FY2017 (January 13, 2017), FY2018 (October 26, 2017), and FY2021
(February 5, 2021).
Congress is generally prohibited from considering budgetary measures before the adoption of a
budget resolution, although the Budget Act does provide a specific exception for the House to
begin considering appropriations bills in the absence of one after May 15.8 In years when
Congress does not adopt a budget resolution, the House and/or Senate may employ alternative
legislative measures (referred to collectively as “deeming resolutions”) to establish enforceable
budgetary levels, particularly for the annual appropriations process.9
Reconciliation Legislation
Reconciliation is an optional process through which Congress can change current law to make
revenue, spending, and debt limit levels consistent with the policies and priorities established in
the budget resolution. In years when Congress adopts a budget resolution that includes
instructions for reconciliation, specified committees are instructed to develop legislative changes
to achieve a budgetary effect in accordance with the directives and timeline established in the
budget resolution.10 The resulting legislation is then considered under expedited procedures in the
Senate.11
5 Section 301 of the Budget Act, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §632. The Budget Act requires that the budget
resolution cover the upcoming fiscal year and at least the subsequent four fiscal years. In current practice, it has been
common for the budget resolution to cover the upcoming fiscal year and the subsequent nine fiscal years.
6 For more on budget resolutions, see CRS Report RL30297, Congressional Budget Resolutions: Historical
Information, by Bill Heniff Jr.
7 Adoption of the same budget resolution by both chambers is required in order to trigger any enforcement or
reconciliation procedures under the Budget Act.
8 Section 303 of the Budget Act, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §634.
9 For more on deeming resolutions, see CRS Report R44296, Deeming Resolutions: Budget Enforcement in the
Absence of a Budget Resolution, by Megan S. Lynch.
10 Section 310 of the Budget Act, codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §641.
11 For more on the reconciliation process, see CRS Report R44058, The Budget Reconciliation Process: Stages of
Consideration, by Megan S. Lynch and James V. Saturno.
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The Budget Act sets a target date of June 15 for enacting reconciliation legislation. In practice,
however, reconciliation follows the timeline established in the budget resolution for that fiscal
year. This means that the timeline for reconciliation legislation generally varies in terms of its
development, consideration, and passage, as well as the time between the adoption of a budget
resolution and passage of reconciliation legislation. Furthermore, the reconciliation process
operates separately from the appropriations process, so while they may occur simultaneously, the
timing of one generally does not directly affect the timing of the other.
Since the first reconciliation legislation was enacted for FY1981, Congress has passed 27
reconciliation measures and the President has signed 23 into law. Over this period, there has been
wide variation in the timing of when Congress has considered such legislation (as shown in
Figure 1).12 Congress has passed 12 of the 27 reconciliation measures prior to the start of the
initial fiscal year for which the budget resolution applied. Of these, two were passed between
May and June, and the other 10 were passed in August or September. Congress passed the
remaining 15 reconciliation measures after the initial fiscal year for which the budget resolution
applied had already begun. Seven were passed between October and December, and eight were
passed in the next calendar year between January and August.
12 For more on the timing of the reconciliation process, see CRS Report RL30458, The Budget Reconciliation Process:
Timing of Legislative Action, by Megan S. Lynch.
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Figure 1. Timing of Budget Resolution Adoption and Enactment (or Veto) of
Reconciliation Legislation: FY1981-FY2022
Sources: Information compiled from CRS Report R40480, Budget Reconciliation Measures Enacted into Law Since
1980, by Megan S. Lynch; the CRS Appropriations Status Table; and Congress.gov.
Notes: The “number of days in between the resolution and reconciliation” refers to the number of days
between Congress adopting a budget resolution and the enactment or veto of reconciliation legislation. The
President has vetoed reconciliation legislation four times since FY1981 (FY1996, FY2000, FY2001, and FY2016).
Congress has enacted multiple pieces of reconciliation legislation for the same fiscal year three times (FY1983,
FY1998, and FY2006), as shown above. Years when Congress enacted reconciliation legislation past April of the
new fiscal year (FY1984, FY1986, FY2006, and FY2022) are represented above by wrapping the timeline around
the x-axis and should stil be read from left to right beginning with the adoption of a budget resolution.
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Development and Consideration of Appropriations Bills
Discretionary spending comprises roughly one-third of federal spending and is provided through
the annual appropriations process. This process currently consists of the development and
consideration of 12 regular appropriations measures, as well as any supplemental appropriations
measures that may be needed over the course of a fiscal year. Most of the budget authority
enacted through regular appropriations legislation is provided for a single fiscal year and expires
at the end of that fiscal year on September 30. This makes October 1 a hard deadline for Congress
in enacting regular appropriations for the new fiscal year, as agencies generally cannot obligate
money in the absence of appropriations enacted into law.13
Like other aspects of the congressional budget process, the timing of appropriations decisions
varies from year to year.14 The House and Senate Appropriations Committees are responsible for
developing annual appropriations measures, and each committee currently has 12 identical
subcommittees that are each responsible for developing one of the regular appropriations bills.15
The appropriations process for a given fiscal year typically involves action at the subcommittee,
full committee, chamber floor, and bicameral levels.
The House and Senate Appropriations Committees typically begin preliminary action on annual
appropriations measures in the late winter or early spring, shortly after the submission of the
President’s budget. This commonly takes the form of hearings conducted by appropriations
subcommittees at which Administration officials testify about agency funding requests.16
Appropriations subcommittees may also solicit input from Members at this stage, usually through
hearings at which Members may testify as well as requests submitted by Member offices.17
Once decisions on top-line discretionary spending levels are made (known as “302(a)
allocations”), the Budget Act requires the House and Senate Appropriations Committees to make
further allocations from that total to each of their subcommittees (known as “302(b)
suballocations”).18 With these allocations, the appropriations subcommittees in the House and
Senate will typically begin drafting, marking up, and forwarding their respective appropriations
bills to the full committee. Appropriations bills will then be marked up at the full committee level
and reported to the full House or Senate for floor consideration.
13 For more, see CRS Report R46417, Congress’s Power Over Appropriations: Constitutional and Statutory
Provisions, by Sean M. Stiff.
14 For more on the appropriations process, see CRS Report R47106, The Appropriations Process: A Brief Overview, by
James V. Saturno and Megan S. Lynch.
15 For more on the Appropriations Committees’ subcommittee structure, see CRS Report RL31572, Appropriations
Subcommittee Structure: History of Changes from 1920 to 2023, by James V. Saturno.
16 In association with the President’s budget request, agencies are required to submit individual agency budget
justifications that provide more detail on their budget requests. For more, see CRS Report R47090, Executive Agency
Justification of the President’s Budget: In Brief, by Dominick A. Fiorentino.
17 For more on House Member participation in the appropriations process, see CRS Report R47031, The House
Appropriations Process: Opportunities for Member Participation, by Megan S. Lynch.
18 Section 302(a) of the Budget Act (codified as amended at 2 U.S.C. §633(a)) requires that overall spending levels set
forth in the budget resolution be allocated among every committee in Congress with jurisdiction over spending
legislation (known as “302(a) allocations.”) Section 302(b) of the Budget Act (codified as amended at 2 U.S.C.
§633(b)) requires the House and Senate Appropriations Committees to make 302(b) suballocations, which serve as
enforceable levels for each of the 12 regular appropriations bills. For more on this allocation process, see CRS Report
R47388, Enforceable Spending Allocations in the Congressional Budget Process: 302(a)s and 302(b)s, by Drew C.
Aherne.
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Historically, the House has initiated consideration of regular appropriations measures.19 In most
years, the House Appropriations subcommittees have marked up and forwarded their bills to the
full committee between April and July, and the bills have been reported from the full committee
shortly thereafter. Consideration of regular appropriations bills on the House floor has historically
begun in the summer and sometimes continued into the new fiscal year. While the House has
considered some regular appropriations bills on the floor individually in recent years, it has also
done so by packaging some or all of the bills to consider them simultaneously (commonly
referred to as an “omnibus” or “minibus”).
The Senate Appropriations subcommittees and full committee have historically marked up and
reported its bills anywhere from spring to late summer, but the timing and frequency of doing so
have varied in recent years. The Senate reported few or no regular appropriations bills for each
fiscal year from FY2020 through FY2023, and it has been relatively rare going back even further
for the Senate to consider individual appropriations bills on the floor. Instead, the Senate has
often acted on House-passed omnibus or minibus measures at a later stage in the process.
Prior to the start of a new fiscal year on October 1, the House and Senate may consider and pass
all, some, or none of the regular appropriations bills. If a regular appropriations bill is not enacted
prior to the start of a fiscal year, Congress may enact a continuing appropriations measure in
order to avoid a funding gap or partial government shutdown.20
Continuing Resolutions and Final Enactment of Regular
Appropriations
To avert funding gaps and government shutdowns, when one or more regular appropriations bills
have not been enacted by October 1, Congress may provide interim budget authority to agencies
by enacting continuing appropriations measures (commonly known as “continuing resolutions” or
“CRs”). Continuing resolutions typically provide budget authority at a specified rate, generally
allowing agencies to obligate funds at a rate necessary to continue operations funded in the
previous fiscal year. Continuing resolutions also place certain restrictions on agency spending
while they are in effect. For example, CRs generally prohibit agencies from carrying out new
programs, projects, and activities that were not funded in the previous fiscal year or making
decisions that undermine Congress’s ability to make final, full-year funding decisions.21
Since FY1977, when the fiscal year was set as October 1 through September 30, Congress has
enacted one or more CRs in all but three fiscal years, including in each fiscal year since
FY1998.22 CRs vary in both duration and timing, but Congress typically enacts an initial CR in
late September in the final days or weeks of the fiscal year that provides budget authority for the
first weeks or months of the new fiscal year. From FY2013 through FY2023, for example, the
initial CR enacted by Congress was in effect once until November, eight times until December,
once until January, and once until March. Congress may subsequently enact additional CRs upon
the original’s expiration while work is completed on any regular appropriations bills that have yet
19 In some recent years, however, the Senate has developed and reported original Senate bills prior to receiving a
House-passed measure.
20 For more on federal funding gaps, see CRS Report RS20348, Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview, by James V.
Saturno.
21 For more on continuing resolutions, see CRS Report R46595, Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and
Practices, coordinated by James V. Saturno.
22 Congress enacted all regular appropriations bills prior to October 1 for FY1977, FY1989, FY1995, and FY1997,
although two CRs were enacted for FY1977 to provide funding for certain activities that were not included in regular
appropriations acts.
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to be enacted. Historically, these subsequent CRs have lasted anywhere from a few days to
months, although Congress may choose to enact a CR that lasts through the end of the fiscal year
(known as a “full-year CR”).23
The aggregate duration of CRs varies depending on when Congress completes action on all
regular appropriations or if it enacts a full-year CR (as shown in Figure 2). From FY2013 to
FY2023, for example, Congress enacted all appropriations bills or enacted a full-year CR four
times in December, once in January, once in February, four times in March, and once in May. In
recent practice, it has been common for all or most of the regular appropriations bills to be
enacted together as part of an omnibus or minibus measure.
Figure 2. Aggregate Duration of Continuing Resolutions and Funding Gaps: FY2000-
FY2023
Source: Information compiled from CRS Report R46595, Continuing Resolutions: Overview of Components and
Practices, coordinated by James V. Saturno; CRS Report RS20348, Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview, by James
V. Saturno; and the CRS Appropriations Status Table.
Notes: Each segment of the bar for a fiscal year represents the duration that one CR or funding gap was in
effect. Funding gaps in FY2014, FY2018, and FY2019 are represented with red striped shading. The left-most
segment for each fiscal year represents the first CR enacted by Congress, beginning coverage on October 1. The
number on the right-hand side of each bar represents the total number of days between October 1 and the
enactment of the final regular appropriations measure for that fiscal year (including October 1). For FY2007,
FY2011, and FY2013, some or all of the regular appropriations bil s were funded through a ful -year CR, as
shown above. This graph does not convey coverage of CRs. CRs can cover all or only some of the regular
appropriations bil s. Enactment of a CR does not mean that none of the regular appropriations bil s were enacted
prior, nor does it preclude passage of regular appropriations measures while the CR is in effect.
23 Since FY2000, Congress has enacted full-year CRs that covered at least one of the regular appropriations bills three
times (FY2007, FY2011, and FY2013).
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Author Information
Drew C. Aherne
Analyst on Congress and the Legislative Process
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
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