Career and Technical Education: A Primer

June 21, 2022 R47166

Career and Technical Education: A Primer
June 21, 2022
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R47166

Career and Technical Education: A Primer

R47166
Career and Technical Education: A Primer
June 21, 2022
Career and technical education (CTE), sometimes referred to as vocational education, provides
occupational and non-occupational preparation at the secondary and postsecondary levels. CTE is
Adam K. Edgerton
a key element of the nation’s workforce development system, providing students of all ages with
Analyst in Education Policy
both academic and technical skills to succeed in further education and future careers. Federal

investments in CTE aim to increase the number of individuals with industry-recognized
credentials in order to reduce unemployment, improve individual earnings, and benefit the

nation’s economy. This report provides a primer on CTE to support congressional discussion of
initiatives designed to improve workforce development and to address some skills deficits that may exist in the workforce.
(For information on the primary federal program that funds CTE programs, see CRS Report R47071, Strengthening Career
and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V): A Primer.)
CTE is organized into 16 career clusters with various career pathways for each cluster. These clusters include several
occupational areas, such as health science and manufacturing. Career clusters are groupings of occupations and broad
industries based on commonalities, and there are multiple career pathways within each cluster. Career pathways are a series
of connected education and training strategies and support services that help individuals to secure industry-recognized
credentials needed to obtain employment within an occupational area, or to advance to a higher level of education. As it can
be difficult to anticipate the precise technical skills needed by future occupations, general education and academic skills
remain a critical component of secondary and postsecondary CTE programs.
At the secondary level, CTE is commonly offered in high schools, area CTE centers, community colleges (via cooperative
programs), and detention centers. According to the most recent available federal data (from 2013), the vast majority (88%) of
public high school graduates attained at least one CTE credit, and 20% earned at least three CTE credits in a single
occupational area. CTE courses can broaden students’ education and provide early exposure to several career options. They
can also facilitate students’ entry into the workforce immediately after high school by equipping them with an industry-
recognized credential upon completion of a career pathway. Similarly, CTE courses can lead to attainment of industry-
recognized credentials after one to two years of postsecondary education or training.
At the postsecondary level, CTE is commonly offered by community colleges, trade schools, and employers through
apprenticeships and on-the-job training. CTE commonly refers to programs that lead to credentials at or below the associate’s
degree. Some CTE programs are terminal (i.e., few courses are transferable for credit toward a more advanced credential),
while others may lead to stackable credentials (i.e., a sequence of credentials leading to more advanced qualifications).
Earning stackable credentials is intended to increase the odds of securing employment and of garnering higher wages once
employed.
There is a limited body of rigorous research that isolates the benefits of CTE. Wage premiums for earning CTE credentials
vary depending on the program of study. For example, certificates and associate’s degrees in more technical CTE fields such
as computer and information services are associated with higher earnings than certificates and associate’s degrees in less
technical CTE fields such as business. Programs in fields such as information technology are becoming more popular at both
the secondary and postsecondary levels, as they yield higher wage returns. Pandemic-related labor shortages in areas such as
construction, agriculture, and transportation may also be leading to increased enrollment in these specific fields even as
overall CTE community college enrollment has declined.
Shorter-term benefits associated with CTE include a greater likelihood of graduating high school. Though both the short- and
long-term returns of certain types of postsecondary CTE credentials (e.g., health sciences, cosmetology, and protective
services) are positive on average, earnings for those who only hold a certificate are more sensitive to economic conditions
than earnings for individuals with associate’s degrees. Wage returns to nondegree certificates vary depending upon the
program of study, institution type, and local labor market conditions.
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Appendixes
Appendix. Career Clusters and Career Pathways .......................................................................... 22

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 25

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Introduction
To better align both secondary and postsecondary education with the nation’s economic and
workforce needs, the federal government provides funding to states, institutions of higher
education (IHEs), and local education agencies (LEAs) to support career and technical education
(CTE). CTE, sometimes referred to as vocational education,1 provides occupational and non-
occupational2 preparation at the secondary and postsecondary levels. A CTE program of study3 is
often designed to have an immediate practical application in the workforce while also developing
broadly applicable skills such as writing and effective communication.
This report provides an overview of CTE, beginning with discussion of the history of federal
support, CTE as defined at the secondary and postsecondary levels, and the most recent
enrollment and completion data. The second half of the report discusses challenges with CTE
program implementation and access, strategies and resources that have been used to address these
challenges, and outcomes associated with participating in and completing CTE programs of study.
The Appendix provides additional information on the specifics of career clusters and career
pathways referenced throughout the report.
Federal Support for Career and Technical Education
The federal government has a long history of supporting CTE. The Morrill Land Grant College
Act of 1862 (7 U.S.C. §301 et. seq.) supported the development of the current system of land-
grant colleges to teach the agricultural and mechanical arts to the “industrial classes.”4 At the
secondary level, federal involvement began with the passing of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917,
which provided federal aid to the states for the purpose of promoting vocational education in
agriculture, industrial trades, and home economics.5 The Smith-Hughes Act was among the first
federal efforts focused on supporting the education of students aged 14 and older and was passed
with unanimous support on the eve of World War I.6
Federal involvement in CTE has often been preceded by Congress’s desire for the nation to
remain economically competitive internationally and to address perceived skill deficits7 in the

1 Career and technical education is also referred to as career education, technical and vocational education (TVET), and
technical education. CTE is defined in the Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act of
2018 (Perkins V; P.L. 115-224), the largest source of federal support for CTE programs. For more information, see
CRS Report R47071, Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V): A Primer.
2 Non-occupational CTE includes family and consumer sciences education (i.e., courses that prepare students for roles
outside the paid labor market) and general labor market preparation (i.e., courses that teach general employment skills
such as word processing and introductory technology skills); see https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes/tables/
glossary_secondary.asp.
3 According to Section 7(41) of Perkins V, programs of study (POS) are coordinated, nonduplicative sequences of
academic and technical content at the secondary and postsecondary level that incorporate challenging academic
standards; address both academic and technical knowledge and skills, including employability skills; are aligned with
the needs of industries; progress in specificity; have multiple entry and exit points that incorporate credentialing; and
culminate in the attainment of a recognized postsecondary credential.
4 For more information, see CRS Report R45897, The U.S. Land-Grant University System: An Overview.
5 The Smith-Hughes Act was repealed by the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (P.L. 105-33).
6 David Carleton, Landmark Congressional Laws on Education (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001).
The author claims that the war was an impetus for the legislation.
7 For more recent information on skills deficits and gaps, see CRS Report R47059, Skills Gaps: A Review of
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nation’s workforce. Rationales for funding CTE over the past century have relied on shared
benefits to both the nation’s and individual citizens’ economic well-being. In 1917, vocational
education was termed “vital to national defense and prosperity.”8 Other efforts have focused on
retraining individuals whose occupational skills had become obsolete, or who did not have
educational opportunities. For example, the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962
(MDTA; P.L. 87-415) was intended to prepare individuals for employment who could not
reasonably be expected to secure full-time employment without training.9 The MDTA was a
policy response to the perceived negative effects of automation on the existing workforce.
Nearly 50 years after the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act, the federal government’s role in CTE
policy further expanded with the Vocational Education Act of 1963 (VEA, P.L. 88-210), which
supported vocational education schools; vocational work-study programs; and research, training,
and demonstration programs related to vocational education. Whereas the Smith-Hughes Act
focused on secondary schools, the VEA substantially increased funding for postsecondary and
adult education. Additional legislative actions since the VEA have focused on serving students
with disabilities and other special populations who have historically been underserved.10
Today, the federal government remains active in CTE, although appropriations have declined over
the last several decades. Perkins V is the largest source of federal funding for CTE at the
secondary and postsecondary levels. After adjusting appropriations for inflation, Figure 1
demonstrates the extent to which funding for CTE via Perkins V has declined since FY198011,
though this decline has plateaued in recent years. In FY2021, the federal government invested
$1.3 billion less in CTE than in FY1980 (after adjusting for inflation).

Underlying Concepts and Evidence.
8 U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Annual Report of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 65th Cong.,
2nd sess., Doc. No. 16 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1917).
9 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, Subcommittee on Rural Development, Manpower
Training and Employment Programs Serving Rural America, committee print, prepared by the Congressional Research
Service, 65th Cong., 2nd sess., October 31, 1973 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1973), p. 2.
10 For a more detailed history of federal involvement in CTE, see CRS Report R47071, Strengthening Career and
Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V): A Primer.
11 FY1980 is the earliest year with a historical budget for the Department of Education, which was founded as a cabinet
level agency on October 17, 1979 (although many of its functions and many of the programs it administers existed prior
to this point). This starting point also coincides with the end of historically high levels of funding for CTE during the
last year of the Carter Administration.
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Figure 1. Inflation-Adjusted U.S. Department of Education Appropriations for CTE
FY1980–FY2021

Source: Prepared by CRS based on U.S. Department of Education, Education Department Budget History
Table: FY1980 - FY2021; accessed March 28, 2022, at https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/history/
index.html. Inflation adjustments relied on the non-seasonally adjusted Consumer Price Index for Al Urban
Consumers (CPI-U) with FY2021 as the base year; accessed March 28, 2022, at https://www.bls.gov/data/
home.htm.
Notes: The FY2006 and FY2007 appropriations include the one-time emergency supplemental funds
appropriated for recovery from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. ED spending through federal student aid is not
included.
As shown in Figure 2, the percentage of ED discretionary educational appropriations represented
by CTE funding via Perkins V has also declined since 1980. Since 2010, the proportion of federal
education funding represented by CTE has remained below 2% despite slight increases in recent
years.
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Figure 2. CTE Appropriations as an Overall Percentage of Discretionary
Appropriations of the U.S. Department of Education
FY1980–FY2021

Source: Prepared by CRS based on U.S. Department of Education, Education Department Budget History
Table: FY1980 - FY2021; accessed March 28, 2022, at https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/history/
index.html.
Notes: The FY2006 and FY2007 appropriations include the one-time emergency supplemental funds
appropriated for recovery from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. To adjust for inflation, CRS averaged the monthly
non-seasonally adjusted CPI-U for each of FY1980 through FY2021. The resulting value for FY2021 was used as
the base year.
A decline in CTE secondary school enrollment mirrors the decline in federal funding. According
to the 2019 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) High School Transcript Study
(HSTS), graduates earned 0.5 fewer CTE credits in 2019 compared to 1990 (3.3 and 3.8 credits,
respectively). Declines in CTE credits earned were larger among Black and female graduates.12
According to data from ED, nationwide CTE participation at the secondary level decreased from
8.9 million students in 2018-2019 to 7.6 million in 2019-2020, though postsecondary CTE
participation remained roughly the same at 3.5 million for both academic years.13
Within the context of these national trends, this report serves as a CTE primer in order to support
and inform discussion of workforce development.
Overview of CTE
CTE is offered by high schools, area CTE centers, community colleges, vocational schools, and
employers through apprenticeships and on-the-job training. Generally, CTE occupations require
two years or less of postsecondary education or training. CTE integrates knowledge from the
liberal arts with a practical or applied purpose, such as nursing, business administration, culinary
arts, automotive maintenance, software programming, engineering technology, and cosmetology.

12 2019 NAEP High School Transcript Study (HSTS) Results; accessed March 28, 2022, at
https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/hstsreport/#coursetaking_0_0_el.
13 National summaries are available at https://cte.ed.gov/profiles/national-summary.
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The goal of CTE is preparation for employment, and a key measure of success is the achievement
of industry-recognized credentials.
The scope of CTE coursework is organized into career clusters and career pathways to facilitate
educational program design and effective use of resources and to foster alignment with business
and industry. Non-occupational CTE includes family and consumer sciences (i.e., courses that
prepare students for roles outside of the paid labor market) and general labor market preparation
(i.e., courses that teach skills such as word processing).
Career Clusters and Career Pathways14
Because of the breadth of subjects covered by CTE, practitioners have organized it into career
clusters and career pathways to facilitate CTE program development and to help students
understand related opportunities. Career clusters contain occupations that are in the same field
and require similar skills. They were developed by ED and various stakeholders and have been
used for over two decades.15 Practitioners have developed a broad curriculum framework for
academic and technical instruction around each career cluster to support the preparation of
students for additional education, employment in a career area, or both.
There are 16 career clusters, which demonstrate the scope and breadth of CTE (see the Appendix
for a full list and additional detail). For example, the agriculture, food, and natural resources
career cluster comprises the development of agricultural products, including plants, animals,
food, textiles, and other consumer products. Because even a single career cluster covers several
areas, career clusters are further disaggregated into career pathways.
Career pathways are a series of connected education and training strategies and support services
that enable individuals to secure industry relevant certification and obtain employment within an
occupational area and to advance to higher levels of education and employment in that area. For
example, the agriculture, food, and natural resources career cluster is divided into seven career
pathways: food products and processing systems; power, structural, and technical systems; plant
systems; natural resource systems; animal systems; environmental service systems; and
agribusiness systems. (The Appendix includes the related career pathways for each career
cluster.)
CTE providers may focus on a limited number of career clusters in order to maximize resource
efficiency. For example, schools and school districts use the career clusters and pathways to
organize small learning communities and career academies because offering programs in some of
the clusters, such as manufacturing, can be resource-intensive. Career guidance and academic
counseling programs use the career clusters to help students and parents understand and explore
broad career pathways within and among the clusters. Students can choose a career cluster in
which to explore or specialize while gaining valuable, related skills.
Figure 3 depicts the different career clusters and the number of students concentrating (e.g.,
students who have taken a threshold number of high school courses or earned a threshold number
of postsecondary credits) in those clusters at the secondary and postsecondary levels for CTE
programs supported by Perkins V. At the postsecondary level, the most popular cluster is health
science, whereas the most popular cluster at the secondary level is human services.

14 The Career Clusters brand is a registered trademark of the National Career Technical Education Foundation, and is
managed by the National Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium (NASDCTEc) on
its behalf.
15 U.S. Department of Education, “Career Clusters—Cooperative Agreements; Notice Inviting Applications for New
Awards for Fiscal Year (FY) 2001; Notice,” 65 Federal Register 76523-76543, December 6, 2000.
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Figure 3. Enrollment of CTE Concentrators by Career Cluster at the
Secondary and Postsecondary Levels
Program Year 2018-2019

Source: Created by CRS based on U.S. Department of Education, Office of Career, Technical, and Adult
Education, Perkins Data Explorer. Accessed December 23, 2021, at https://perkins.ed.gov/pims/DataExplorer.
Notes: These data are based on participation in CTE programs supported by Perkins V funds; thus, they may
not represent total enrol ment or concentration in career clusters across the nation. Career clusters are based
on the National Career Clusters Framework at http://www.careertech.org/career-clusters. Each career cluster
represents a distinct grouping of occupations and industries based on the knowledge and skil s CTE students
require. The definitions of a CTE concentrator at the secondary and postsecondary levels are provided in the
Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V; P.L. 115-224). A
concentrator at the secondary level is a student who has completed at least two courses in a single CTE
program or program of study. A concentrator at the postsecondary level is a student who has earned at least 12
credits within a CTE program or a program of study, or completed a program that encompasses fewer than 12
credits or the equivalent in total. The data provided in this table include the 50 U.S. states, the District of
Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Republic of Palau.
According to the NAEP HSTS, at the secondary level from 2010 to 2019, health science,
information technology, and hospitality and tourism have grown in popularity, while the largest
declines are in business and marketing, architecture and construction, and manufacturing.16 At the
postsecondary level from 2010 to 2019, finance, information technology, and manufacturing have
grown in popularity, while the largest declines are in health science; business and marketing; and
law, public safety, and security.17

16 2019 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) High School Transcript Study (HSTS) Results; accessed
March 28, 2022, at https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/hstsreport/#coursetaking_0_0_el.
17 As analyzed by CRS using data from the U.S. Department of Education’s Integrated Postsecondary Education Data
System (IPEDS).
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Industry-Recognized Credentials (IRCs)
CTE provider collaborations with business and industry have enabled the development of
education programs that lead to or prepare individuals for IRCs. IRCs are awarded to individuals
who demonstrate skills, experience, knowledge, and/or a set of competencies that are recognized
as necessary or desired for a particular occupation by the relevant industry. “Within the context of
education, workforce development, and employment and training for the labor market,” DOL
defines “the term credential [as] a verification of qualification or competence issued to an
individual by a third party with the relevant authority or jurisdiction to issue such credentials
(such as an accredited educational institution, an industry recognized association, or an
occupational association or professional society).”18 Some IRCs are required in order to work in
an occupation, while others may increase income or employability in the occupation.
There are different types of IRCs and different requirements. IRCs include postsecondary
degrees, postsecondary certificates, licenses, certifications, and Registered Apprenticeship
certificates. Standards may be developed by an industry, industry association, state government,
or product manufacturer. IRCs may require a certain amount of formal classroom instruction,
hands-on experience, and/or a licensing or certification test. Some IRCs are recognized
nationally, while others are recognized only regionally or locally. Examples of IRCs include
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) repair; programming in computer languages
such as Java; heavy machinery operation; and phlebotomy.
Career and Technical Student Organizations (CTSOs)
CTSOs are nonprofit organizations that often provide co-curricular programs to give students
practical experience, instruction, and opportunities to network with industry and business leaders.
The organizations are generally led by national officers through state and local chapters. Local
chapters are often advised by a local CTE teacher.
In 1950, Congress chartered one of these CTSOs, the Future Farmers of America (now known as
the FFA).19 If requested by the board of directors, the Secretary of Education may make ED
personnel, services, and facilities available to promote, administer, or assist in the administration
of the activities of the FFA.20 Other major CTSOs that specifically relate to one or more of the 16
career clusters include the following:
 Business Professionals of America (BPA);
 DECA (formerly Distributive Education Clubs of America);
 Future Business Leaders of America—Phi Beta Lambda;
 Family, Career, and Community Leaders of America (FCCLA);
 HOSA-Future Health Professionals;
 SkillsUSA; and
 the Technology Student Association (TSA).21

18 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, Increasing Credential, Degree, and
Certificate Attainment by Participants of the Public Workforce System, TEGL No. 15-10, Washington, DC, December
15, 2010, p. Attachment 2, http://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL15-10.pdf.
19 See P.L. 81-740.
20 36 U.S.C. §70901 et seq.
21 List is according to the National Coordinating Council for Career and Technical Student Organizations (NCC-
CTSO), http://www.ctsos.org.
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CTE at the Secondary Level
Secondary school level CTE provides students with opportunities to explore a career while
learning a set of technical and employability skills that integrate into or complement their
academic studies. Secondary school level CTE is meant to connect with and lead to
postsecondary programs of study or additional training after high school, which may include
more specialized technical instruction.22 Occupational CTE at the secondary level may prepare an
individual for immediate labor market entry after high school completion, or postsecondary
education may be required before the individual is prepared to enter the labor market. CTE is
seldom offered at the elementary school level.
Secondary schools often offer occupational and non-occupational CTE, the latter of which
includes family and consumer sciences education and general labor market preparation. Family
and consumer sciences education prepares students for roles outside the paid labor market, while
general labor market preparation teaches skills such as word processing and introductory
technology skills. Occupational education prepares individuals for specific fields.
Secondary CTE providers include
 public and private comprehensive high schools,23 including Bureau of Indian
Education (BIE) schools;
 career academies that are within comprehensive high schools and organize a
multiyear academic and CTE curriculum around a particular career theme;
 area CTE schools, which are specialized schools or departments of secondary or
postsecondary schools, used exclusively or principally for the provision of CTE;
 CTE-specific schools that teach core academics in the context of specific career
pathways;
 juvenile justice facilities; and
 cooperative programs with technical or community colleges.
CTE was offered by the overwhelming majority (98%) of public school districts according to a
nationally representative survey conducted in 2017,24 but the delivery models for these programs
varied widely. Most (83%) CTE programs were offered at the district’s regular comprehensive
high school, while 12% of districts offered programs at CTE-focused high schools that students
attended full-time. CTE program opportunities also varied by geography. For example, urban
districts were more likely to offer work-based learning than rural districts.
According to the most recent available data tracking over 23,000 9th-grade students from 2009 to
2013, 77% of all high school students earned at least one credit in CTE.25 White students were the

22 U.S. Department of Education, Bridging the Skills Gap: Career and Technical Education in High School, September
2019, at https://www2.ed.gov/datastory/cte/index.html#WHATISCTE.
23 Comprehensive high schools are the most common type of high school. They generally focus on academics but
maintain a flexible and diverse curriculum to accommodate the needs and interests of most students.
24 The public school data were based on the 2017 survey reported in L. Gray, L. Lewis, and J. Ralph, Career and
Technical Education in Public School Districts: 2016-2017; National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of
Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC, 2018.
25 Results are from 2013 data found in the National Center for Education Statistics’ High School Longitudinal Study
(HSLS) of 2009. Data collection for a new and updated HSLS began in fall 2022 (see https://surveys.nces.ed.gov/hsb22
for more information). CTE participants are those earning at least one credit. CTE concentrators earn at least two
credits in a single CTE career cluster.
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racial/ethnic group most likely to participate (80%), while Asian students were the least likely to
participate (71%). Female students were less likely to participate than male students (73%
compared to 80%). Though most students participated in CTE, 37% decided to concentrate in
CTE. American Indians/Alaska Native students were the racial/ethnic group most likely to
concentrate (45%), while Asian students were the least likely to concentrate (27%). Female
students were less likely to concentrate than male students (33% compared to 40%).26
CTE in Postsecondary Education
CTE at the postsecondary level consists of subbaccalaureate postsecondary programs designed to
impart relevant knowledge and skills that relate to the requirements of specific occupations or
careers. CTE students may pursue an associate’s degree, an IRC or other certificate, noncredit
courses to improve knowledge and skills or signal knowledge to employers, noncredit training
customized for a particular employer, or continuing education credits to maintain licensure or
certification.
Postsecondary CTE providers include
 technical colleges (public and private less-than-two-year);
 community colleges (public two-year) and private two-year colleges;
 public and private four-year universities;
 employers, labor organizations, and industry groups through pre-apprenticeships,
apprenticeships, and other training programs;
 regional training centers (RTCs), which are public or nonprofit centers
coordinating workforce development, education, and training;
 adult workforce education centers, which provide customizable, labor market-
driven, postsecondary workforce education and training services; and
 detention centers and correctional facilities.
Some CTE programs are terminal, while others may be used as a stepping stone to obtain a more
advanced credential (i.e., stackable credentials). While a terminal CTE program is designed to
lead directly to employment, many highly specialized courses are not transferable for credit
toward a more advanced credential.27 In contrast, DOL defines a stackable credential as “part of a
sequence of credentials that can be accumulated over time to build up an individual’s
qualifications and help them to move along a career pathway or up a career ladder to different and
potentially higher-paying jobs.”28 For example, an associate’s degree in respiratory therapy can
lead to employment as a respiratory therapist, or it may be transferred toward a bachelor’s degree
in respiratory therapy.29

26 U.S. Department of Education, Bridging the Skills Gap: Career and Technical Education in High School, September
2019, accessed March 28, 2022, at https://www2.ed.gov/datastory/cte/index.html#WHATISCTE.
27 The ability to transfer courses is determined by the school based on curricula. Unless one school specifically states
that certain courses from certain schools are transferrable within specified limits, there is no guarantee that a course is
transferable to another program.
28 Assistant Secretary Jane Oates, Training and Employment Guidance Letter No. 15-10, U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration, Advisory System, TEGL 15-10, Washington, DC, December 15, 2010,
http://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL15-10.pdf.
29 In one study of students in Virginia, earning two or more stackable community college certificates or degrees
increased employment by four percentage points and increased quarterly wages by 4%. See Katharine Meyer, Kelli A.
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Figure 4 presents the top 10 most popular subject areas in which CTE graduates received
associate’s degrees or subbaccalaureate certificates from IHEs that participated in Higher
Education Act (HEA) Title IV federal student financial aid programs during the 2019-2020
academic year.30 The figure does not include subbaccalaureate certificates earned at other
educational institutions or training establishments. The largest proportion (over 20%) of graduates
completed programs in the health professions and related fields, followed by the 14% of
graduates completing programs in business, management, and marketing. These 10 fields
represented 83% of all associate’s degrees and certificates awarded.
Figure 4. Percentage of Associate’s Degrees and Subbaccalaureate Certificates
Awarded in the 10 Most Popular Subject Areas, by Classification of Instructional
Programs (CIP) Codes
July 1, 2019, to June 30, 2020

Source: Figure prepared by CRS based on data downloaded from the U.S. Department of Education’s
Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) on institutions in the 50 states, the District of
Columbia, and Puerto Rico that participated in the federal student aid programs authorized by Title IV of the
Higher Education Act (HEA), as amended.
Notes: Numbers indicate the total numbers of degrees and certificates awarded. The fol owing CIP codes that
represent the liberal arts (non-CTE) were excluded from the graph: Liberal Arts and Sciences—General Studies
and Humanities; Social Sciences; English Language and Literature/Letters; Theology and Religious Vocations;
History; Area, Ethnic, Cultural, Gender, and Group Studies; Foreign Languages, Literatures, and Linguistics; and
Philosophy and Religious Studies. Precision production trades include occupations such as woodworking; heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) services; and metalworking. The data do not reflect completions at
institutions that are not Title IV-participating and are distinct from the data presented in Figure 3, as these are
credentials awarded instead of initial enrol ment.

Bird, and Benjamin L. Castleman. “Stacking the Deck for Employment Success: Labor Market Returns to Stackable
Credentials.” EdWorking Paper 20-317 (2020), at https://www.edworkingpapers.com/sites/default/files/ai20-317.pdf.
30 The federal student financial aid programs are authorized by Title IV of the HEA, as amended, and include such
programs as federal Pell Grants and Stafford loans. For more information, see CRS Report R43351, The Higher
Education Act (HEA): A Primer.
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Figure 5 shows the types of IHEs at which individuals completed CTE programs during the
2019-2020 academic year. Individuals who completed programs through trade schools,
apprenticeships, RTCs, workforce education centers, correctional facilities, and other
postsecondary institutions are not reflected in the figure. The vast majority (90%) of CTE
associate’s degrees and subbaccalaureate certificates were awarded by public two- or four-year
institutions and private not-for-profit four-year institutions. For-profit institutions (either four-
year, two-year, or less-than-two-year) made up 8% of awards.
Figure 5. Percentage of CTE Program Completions for Associate’s Degrees and
Subbaccalaureate Certificates, by Institution Control
Degrees and Certificates Awarded from July 1, 2019, to June 30, 2020

Source: Figure prepared by CRS based on data downloaded from the U.S. Department of Education’s
Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) on institutions in the 50 states, the District of
Columbia, and Puerto Rico that participated in the federal student aid programs authorized by Title IV of the
Higher Education Act (HEA), as amended.
Notes: Numbers indicate the total numbers of degrees and certificates awarded. The fol owing CIP codes that
represent the liberal arts (non-CTE) were excluded from the graph: Liberal Arts and Sciences—General Studies
and Humanities; Social Sciences; English Language and Literature/Letters; Theology and Religious Vocations;
History; Area, Ethnic, Cultural, Gender, and Group Studies; Foreign Languages, Literatures, and Linguistics; and
Philosophy and Religious Studies. Precision production trades include occupations such as woodworking; heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) services; and metalworking. The data do not reflect completions at
institutions that are not Title IV-participating and are distinct from the data presented in Figure 3, as these are
credentials awarded instead of initial enrol ment.
CTE Program Challenges
This section discusses challenges that CTE program providers have experienced with program
delivery, increasing student access, and replicating evidence-based practices, as well as resources
that have been used to address these challenges.
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Delivery, Access, and Replication Challenges
In FY2021, Congress requested that GAO conduct interviews with state officials, CTE program
providers, and other stakeholders, including representatives from business and industry, to
determine existing challenges with CTE at both the secondary and postsecondary levels.31 These
included challenges with providers delivering CTE programs, students accessing these programs,
and states and providers replicating best practices in the programs.
Delivery challenges at both the secondary and postsecondary levels included
 securing adequate funding, especially for leading edge technology and replicating
effective program models32;
 staff capacity issues, particularly for rural schools with fewer staff to provide
career counseling, navigate employer partnerships, and pursue federal grants;
 difficulty recruiting diverse teachers with experience in hard-to-staff subjects
such as computer science and math;
 retaining industry-experienced CTE teachers once hired, as they often earn lower
wages while also needing training to support the transition from industry to the
classroom; and
 negative perceptions of CTE, specifically that CTE is only for students who
underperform academically, or that CTE will lead to low-wage jobs.
Access challenges included
 a lack of transportation for work-based learning33;
 language barriers, such as state websites only being available in English;
 a lack of support services such as childcare;
 inflexible scheduling34;
 program screening criteria, such as tests that act as barriers to enrollment; and
 financial challenges, such as accessing federal financial aid for postsecondary
nondegree education.
Replication challenges centered on
 limitations with long-term outcome data, making it difficult to examine whether
students who progress through a career pathway eventually work in that field;
and

31 GAO, Career and Technical Education: Perspectives on Program Strategies and Challenges, GAO-22-104544,
March 2022.
32 One such model is Washington State’s Integrated Basic Education Skills and Training (I-BEST) program, which
allows adults to complete their training program faster and was found to be effective at increasing credential
completion, earnings, and employment, according to three rigorous studies that meet the standards of the What Works
Clearinghouse. For more information, see https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/InterventionReport/706.
33 One school district administrator used Perkins V funding to hire a work-based learning coordinator to help students
find transportation. For more information on Perkins V, see CRS Report R47071, Strengthening Career and Technical
Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V): A Primer.
34 According to stakeholders, online instruction provided greater flexibility to students with scheduling and
transportation issues.
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 limited information on evidence-based strategies, such as not knowing how many
hours a student should participate in work-based learning in order to have a
quality experience.
Some state and CTE program officials struggled to link data across state systems in order to
follow students through their education and career trajectories. Program providers wanted more
information on evidence-based strategies to reach specific student populations, including students
with disabilities.35 Rigorous studies on such topics are limited.36
CTE Teacher Staffing Shortages
There is little reliable data on the extent of CTE teacher shortages, as states are only required to
identify areas for which there are shortages to ED and do not have to specify the number of empty
positions.37 Furthermore, rather than reporting a teacher shortage, a CTE provider may instead
change its program offerings in response to teacher vacancies by eliminating programs of study.
Advance CTE,38 the longest-standing national nonprofit organization that represents state CTE
directors and state leaders responsible for secondary and postsecondary CTE, conducted an
annual survey of its members on the issue of CTE teacher shortages from 2008 to 2017 (this
survey represents the most recent available data). The survey found the largest reported shortages
in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), health sciences, and
manufacturing, with over 50% of state CTE directors reporting shortages in these areas every
year. Similar to limitations with official ED data, the survey did not ask directors to quantify the
number of vacant positions.
Resources and Strategies Used to Address Challenges
To address the above challenges with delivery, access, and replication, ED supports CTE
programs through the administration of grants, technical assistance to states and CTE program
providers, partnerships with DOL, and research and dissemination of evidence-based strategies.
According to the 2022 GAO report, key ED grants that CTE providers reported using included
 Adult Education State Grants39;
 Student Support and Academic Enrichment Grants40;

35 One longitudinal Washington State study with a sample of 5,133 10th grade students who received special education
services during either the 2009-2010 or 2010-2011 school years found that those who earned four or more CTE credits
in high school were 3%-4% more likely to be graduate from high school, 3%-4% more likely to be employed after
graduation, and 6% more likely to attend college than those who did not concentrate in CTE (defined as earning four or
more credits). See Roddy J. Theobald, et al. “Career and technical education, inclusion, and postsecondary outcomes
for students with learning disabilities.” Journal of Learning Disabilities 52.2 (2019): 109-119.
36 According to ED officials cited in GAO, Career and Technical Education: Perspectives on Program Strategies and
Challenges, GAO-22-104544, March 2022.
37 Shortage areas nationally and by state can be accessed at https://tsa.ed.gov/#/home/.
38 More information is available at https://careertech.org.
39 These grants can be used for integrated education and training that includes literacy activities and workforce training.
For more information, see CRS Report R43789, Adult Education and Family Literacy Act: Major Statutory Provisions.
40 School districts can use these grants for a variety of activities, including career preparation activities. For more
information, see CRS In Focus IF10910, Student Support and Academic Enrichment (SSAE) Grants.
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 Supporting Effective Instruction State Grants41; and
 Perkins Innovation and Modernization Grants.42
Technical assistance to states and CTE program providers includes resources through the Perkins
Collaborative Resource Network (PCRN),43 such as webinars on different CTE topics. The PCRN
is a virtual hub for CTE programs, with a learning center, reports, and other resources to assist
with implementation of CTE programs. For state policymakers, the PCRN offers information on
other states’ plans and outcomes via the Perkins Data Explorer as well as strategies for collecting
data on work-based learning opportunities.
Partnerships between ED and other departments and agencies include
 youth apprenticeships and other workforce initiatives, such as monthly calls with
DOL’s Employment and Training Administration staff to discuss activities
related to career pathways;
 community-based rehabilitation programs with the Department of Justice,
including a diversion project to help redirect young adults from arrest,
prosecution, sentencing, or incarceration to community-based rehabilitation
programs; and
 cybersecurity training via a professional development initiative for secondary
CTE teachers, developed with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, the
National Institute of Standards and Technology, and the National Security
Agency.
To address the limitations of existing CTE research, particularly research focused on evidence-
based strategies, ED’s Institute of Education Sciences is undertaking new studies of work-based
learning,44 career development, and counseling strategies, with publication expected by 2025.
This work is to be included as part of a national evaluation of CTE.45
To address CTE teacher shortages, states and localities can leverage Perkins V funding to recruit,
train, and retain qualified teaching staff.46 ED has pursued a variety of strategies to address
teacher shortages, though these initiatives have not specifically targeted CTE subject areas.47

41 School districts can use these grants to provide professional development for teachers on strategies to integrate
academic content, CTE, and work-based learning. For more information on supporting effective instruction, see CRS
Report R45977, The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as Amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act
(ESSA): A Primer.
42 For more information, see CRS Report R47071, Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century
Act (Perkins V): A Primer.
43 For more information, see https://cte.ed.gov.
44 Work-based learning has been linked to higher wages as well as greater career satisfaction according to analysis from
Strada Education Network; accessed April 25, 2022, at https://cci.stradaeducation.org/pv-release-march-16-2022/. This
analysis relies on the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B) using data from a cohort of over 10,000
students who completed their bachelor’s degree in 2015–2016 and were followed in 2017 and 2020. B&B is a
nationally representative longitudinal study of students who completed the requirements for a bachelor’s degree in a
given academic year. For more information, see https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/b&b/.
45 GAO, Career and Technical Education: Perspectives on Program Strategies and Challenges, GAO-22-104544,
March 2022.
46 These have historically been allowable activities under Perkins Acts. For more information on allowable activities
under Perkins V, see CRS Report R47071, Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act
(Perkins V): A Primer.
47 For more information, see https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-education-secretary-miguel-cardona-calls-
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Benefits of CTE Credentials
This section describes the benefits to students of participating in and completing CTE programs.
The first section describes broad education and labor market returns with a discussion of the
median annual wages for occupations that require a postsecondary CTE nondegree award,
followed by the latest evidence on wage returns to nondegree certificates. The second section
discusses the findings of state-level secondary studies that track students over time.
Education, Wages, and Employment
There is a robust evidence base for the economic returns of earning a bachelor’s degree.48
Earnings generally increase with educational attainment. A bachelor’s degree holder earns in
excess of 1 million dollars more on average over their lifetime compared to a high school diploma
or GED holder.49 Although wages are substantially lower for nondegree certificate holders than
for those with bachelor’s degrees or higher, wages for nondegree certificate holders are still
higher than wages for high school degree or GED holders.
According to the most recent available data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), higher
education continues to be related to higher average pay and a reduction in unemployment. In
2021, workers age 25 and over who attained less than a high school diploma had the lowest
median weekly earnings ($626) and the highest unemployment rate (8.3%). Workers with some
college, such as a nondegree certificate, made $90 more weekly on average and had 0.7% higher
employment than those with only a high school diploma, as shown in Figure 6.

states-districts-higher-ed-institutions-address-nationwide-teacher-shortage-and-bolster-student-recovery-american-
rescue-plan-funds.
48 See, for example, the usual weekly earnings by educational attainment at https://www.bls.gov/charts/usual-weekly-
earnings/usual-weekly-earnings-by-quartiles-and-selected-deciles-by-education.htm.
49 According to the Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce analysis of the U.S. Census
Bureau, American Community Survey (ACS), 2009-2019, https://cew.georgetown.edu/cew-reports/the-college-payoff/.
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Figure 6. Earnings and Unemployment Rates by Educational Attainment, 2021
Median Usual Weekly Earnings ($) and Unemployment Rate (%)

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, https://www.bls.gov/emp/chart-
unemployment-earnings-education.htm
Notes: Data are for persons age 25 and over. Earnings are for ful -time wage and salary workers.
People with less educational attainment can earn more. For instance, 23.1% of those with only
some college, such as a nondegree certificate, earn more than the median bachelor’s degree
holder. 28.2% of those with associate’s degrees earn more than the median bachelor’s degree
holder.50
Proponents of CTE as occupational preparation point to the high wages and growth of some CTE
occupations, which can exceed the wages of some bachelor’s degree holders. Proponents of CTE
also note that not everyone wants to or has the capacity to pursue a bachelor’s degree. On the
other hand, others point to downsides to earning nontransferable CTE credits, particularly if
students earn credits in lower wage or non-growth occupations.
Median Wages for Postsecondary Nondegree Recipients
Though the median wage returns to bachelor’s degrees—whether in CTE or a non-CTE field—
are higher than sub-baccalaureate degrees, certificates may allow graduates to realize positive
labor market returns at a fraction of the cost, and they can be completed within a relatively short
time frame. These returns may be particularly robust and durable over time in fields with high
growth potential and high median wages, though not all of these fields employ high numbers of
workers.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics categorizes occupations that typically require a postsecondary
nondegree award and provide median annual wages, as shown in Table 1. The fastest-growing
among such occupations include several in the health science career cluster (medical assistants
and phlebotomists) as well as in human services (makeup artists, manicurists, and massage
therapists). The largest projected growth in job openings, in terms of percentage change, is for

50 According to the Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce analysis of the U.S. Census
Bureau, American Community Survey (ACS), 2009-2019, https://cew.georgetown.edu/cew-reports/the-college-payoff/.
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wind turbine service technicians, while the highest median wage among these occupations is
earned by makeup artists. Both of these occupations employ a relatively small number of
workers, however, and the fields with the largest numbers of workers with CTE nondegree
credentials (e.g., personal services such as cosmetologists) have median annual wages below
$30,000.
Table 1. Median Wages for Occupations Requiring a Postsecondary Nondegree
Award and Estimated to Have the Highest Employment Growth from 2020 to 2030
(employment numbers in thousands; sorted by percentage change)
2020
2030
Employment
Employment
Percentage
Occupation
(Actual)
(Projected)
Change
Median Wage
Wind turbine
6.9
11.7
68.2
$56,230
service technicians
Makeup artists,
3.1
4.2
37.0
$106,920
theatrical and
performance
Manicurists and
123.0
163.1
32.6
$27,870
pedicurists
Massage therapists
144.6
191.1
32.2
$43,620
Skincare specialists
68.7
88.4
28.8
$36,510
Computer
27.1
34.5
27.4
$57,740
numerically
control ed tool
programmers
Audio and video
73.9
93.3
26.2
$47,920
technicians
Phlebotomists
129.6
158.4
22.2
$36,320
Hairdressers,
569.6
680.1
19.4
$27,380
hairstylists, and
cosmetologists
Medical assistants
720.9
853.5
18.4
$35,850
Source: Employment Projections program, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 8, 2021, available at
https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/occupational-projections-and-characteristics.htm.
Notes: Wage data are from the Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics program, U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics. These data cover non-farm wage and salary workers and do not cover the self-employed, owners and
partners in unincorporated firms, or household workers. Median wages are for all workers in a given
occupational category.
Nondegree Certificate Wage Returns
Compared to the robust evidence on the wage returns of bachelor’s degrees, there are fewer
rigorous studies on the wage returns of nondegree certificates. Findings vary widely depending on
institutional sector, geographic area, program length, and program of study. Overall, vocational
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certificates are more sensitive to economic fluctuations across industries and occupations than
associate’s or bachelor’s degrees.51
A synthesis of findings across eight studies conducted in Kentucky, Michigan, North Carolina,
California, Ohio, Virginia, Washington, and Arkansas revealed an average annual earnings gain of
$2,120 for male students and $2,960 for female students who completed any certificate program.
However, different types of certificates in different states yielded different returns. The length of
certificate programs in these studies also varied widely, making it difficult to generalize across
certificate programs and types.52
For example, one of the above studies conducted in Virginia and North Carolina examined first-
time community college students from 2006-2009 (comprising 165,884 students in North
Carolina and 67,735 students in Virginia). The authors defined short-term certificates as those
taking less than one year of full-time study to complete, and long-term certificates as taking one
year or more of full-time study to complete. Findings were not consistent between these two
states. In North Carolina, short-term certificates were related to a $1,112 annual increase in
earnings, but in Virginia, the increase was $612. Long-term certificates yielded larger gains—
$3,812 in North Carolina and $800 in Virginia. Associate’s degrees yielded even higher returns—
$5,024 in North Carolina and $3,092 in Virginia.
These results also varied widely by program of study. In North Carolina, allied health long-term
certificate holders saw large earnings gains of $7,296 annually even as information science,
communication, and design long-term certificate holders in the same state saw a decline of $3,272
compared to students who attended community colleges but exited without earning any
credential.53 Considering these wide variations, it is difficult to draw any conclusions about the
wage returns of certificates nationally without examining specific programs of study and local
labor market conditions.
For-Profit Institutions Versus Public Institutions
Findings are more consistent when directly comparing for-profit to nonprofit certificate-granting
institutions as “the vast majority of studies on employment and earnings gains for students in for-
profits find worse outcomes for for-profit students relative to similar students in other sectors,”
particularly relative to community colleges.54
One often-cited 2019 study that included nearly all federally aided students who exited a for-
profit postsecondary institution between 2006 and 2008, as well as nondegree students in other
sectors, found that certificate-seeking students at for-profit institutions were 1.5% less likely to be
employed than certificate-seeking students at public institutions.55 Those who were employed had
11% lower earnings than students who attended public institutions. These results incorporated all

51 According to Clive R. Belfield and Thomas R. Bailey, “The Labor Market Value of Higher Education: Now and in
the Future,” Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, 2019, pp. 373-414.
52 Clive R. Belfield and Thomas R. Bailey, “The Labor Market Value of Higher Education: Now and in the Future,”
Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, 2019, pp. 373-414.
53 Di Xu and Madeline Trimble, “What About Certificates? Evidence on the Labor Market Returns to Nondegree
Community College Awards in Two States,” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 38, no. 2 (2016), pp. 272-
292.
54 Stephanie Riegg Cellini, “For‐Profit Colleges in the United States: Insights from Two Decades of Research,”
Annenberg Institute at Brown University, 2021, https://edworkingpapers.com/sites/default/files/ai21-398.pdf.
55 Stephanie Riegg Cellini and Nicholas Turner, “Gainfully Employed? Assessing the Employment and Earnings of
For-Profit College Students Using Administrative Data,” Journal of Human Resources, vol. 54(2), 2019, pp. 342-370.
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certificate-seeking students, including students pursuing non-CTE certificates and those who
dropped out. The top 10 most popular fields, representing 83.7% of all enrollment at for-profit
institutions, were in CTE.
Wage returns for those pursuing health diagnostic certificates at for-profit institutions were the
lowest among the top 10 fields of study,56 resulting in $6,021 less in annual earnings compared to
health diagnostic certificate earners at public institutions. Dental support certificate earners
earned $3,736 less. Among the top 10 most popular fields, higher earnings at for-profit
institutions compared to those earned at public institutions were experienced only by students in
cosmetology, who saw a $271 annual wage increase. Beyond this exception, wage returns were
higher for students who attended public certificate-granting institutions.
State-Level Studies of CTE in Secondary Education
This section briefly reviews the findings of selected states that have leveraged longitudinal data
systems to examine the effects of CTE over time. The federal government has incentivized the
creation of state longitudinal data systems through two grant programs: the Workforce Data
Quality Initiative and the Statewide Longitudinal Data Systems Grant Program.57 The goal of
these grants is to collect and analyze the data necessary determine the impact and efficacy of CTE
investments over time.
This section is not a comprehensive literature review; instead, it focuses on studies with large
sample sizes that have been published since 2016. There are limitations to the estimates presented
because students typically are not randomly assigned to enroll in CTE programs, and studies do
not typically employ experimental designs. The results may not be replicable under differing
circumstances with different students. Furthermore, the definition of CTE concentrator varies
across these studies.
Overall, these studies find positive relationships between CTE concentration and graduation,
enrollment, employment, and earnings outcomes, although the results are not always particularly
large in magnitude. In some cases, positive outcomes are limited to male students only.
Arkansas
Arkansas provides an interesting case study of CTE policies because of statewide changes made
effective in 2014 that require all high school students to take six units of “career focus”
coursework to graduate, which they can fulfill with CTE. The number of students taking CTE
increased in anticipation of the 2014 requirement; most students (89%) across the three cohorts
that graduated in 2012, 2013, and 2014 took at least one CTE course in high school.
An examination of over 100,000 9th grade students across these three cohorts58 revealed CTE
concentrators59 were 21% more likely to graduate from high school, 1% more likely to enroll in a

56 The top 10 fields for certificate study in for-profit schools were health and medical assisting, cosmetology, health
administration, vehicle maintenance, therapeutic services, dental support, practical nursing, health diagnostics, culinary
arts, and HVAC repair.
57 For more information, see CRS Report R43398, The Education Sciences Reform Act; and https://www.dol.gov/
agencies/eta/performance/wdqi.
58 These students graduated in 2012, 2013, and 2014, as noted above, and were followed until one year after their
anticipated high school graduation.
59 CTE concentrator was defined in this study as earning three or more credits in a formal, coordinated program of
study.
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two-year college, 1% more likely to be employed, and better compensated by $45 per quarter in
the year after high school compared to comparison groups of similar non-concentrators. Male
students saw slightly larger wage benefits than female students—a difference of $89 quarterly.60
Connecticut
Similar to Arkansas, Connecticut’s longitudinal data system enabled the tracking of nearly all
(95%) 8th graders who applied to a technical high school from 2006 to 2014. The 16 stand-alone
CTE high schools within the Connecticut Technical High School System (CTHSS) use a strict
cutoff score when deciding which applicants to admit. This scoring process allowed researchers
to compare admitted students with scores just above the threshold to non-admitted students whose
scores were just below it.
Among 57,658 8th grade students from 2006 to 2014, male students who were admitted to the
CTHSS were 10% more likely to graduate from high school, and they had average quarterly
earnings that were 32% higher61 than those who just missed the minimum admissions score. A
key critique of CTE is that it provides specific skills at the expense of general skills, meaning that
labor market gains may be temporary. But for CTHSS graduates, these large earnings gains
persisted for male students in the sample who were age 23 or older. However, female students
saw no earnings increases.62
Indiana and Minnesota
In both Indiana and Minnesota, the state education agency, state higher education agency, and
state workforce agency partnered with the Regional Educational Laboratory Midwest to examine
whether public high school graduates in each state had different college and workforce outcomes
depending on whether they concentrated in CTE. Across 333,380 graduates in Indiana and
350,191 graduates in Minnesota from 2013 to 2018, the study found that high school CTE
concentrators63 were more likely to enroll in two-year rather than four-year colleges.64 For the
2012-2013 cohort, six years after their high school graduation date, concentrators earned a
bachelor’s degree at a lower rate than the comparison group of graduates with similar

60 Shaun M. Dougherty, Career and Technical Education in High School: Does It Improve Student
Outcomes?, Thomas B. Fordham Institute, April 2016, https://fordhaminstitute.org/national/research/career-and-
technical-education-high-school-does-it-improve-student-outcomes. Estimates are of the effects of concentrating,
compared to otherwise identical students based on characteristics such as gender, race/ethnicity, free lunch eligibility,
disability, and English language learner status, as well as measures of standardized test performance and attendance in
the 8th grade, who were in the similar income group, and who took the same number of courses but did not concentrate
in a single program of study.
61 These earnings occur during the time frame of six quarters after expected high school graduation until the quarter
prior to turning age 23.
62 E. Brunner, S. Dougherty, and S. L. Ross, The effects of career and technical education: Evidence from the
Connecticut Technical High School System, National Bureau of Economic Research, No. w28790, May 2021,
https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w28790/w28790.pdf.
63 Definitions of CTE concentrator differed slightly between Indiana and Minnesota. In Indiana, concentrators were as
defined in Perkins V (two or more CTE credits completed). In Minnesota, concentrators were defined as students who
completed at least 150 hours of instruction (the approximate amount of instruction time for a full-year course that meets
51 minutes every day and five days per week; roughly equivalent to two semester credits) in CTE courses in one of the
state’s 79 career pathways.
64 Jim Lindsay et al., Indiana and Minnesota Students Who Focused on Career and Technical Education in High
School: Who Are They, and What Are Their College and Employment Outcomes?, Regional Educational Laboratory
Midwest, REL 2021-090, June 2021, https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/rel/regions/midwest/pdf/REL_2021090.pdf.
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demographics who did not concentrate in CTE. However, concentrators were more likely than
non-concentrators to earn a certificate or an associate’s degree.
In both states, CTE concentrators had higher employment rates and earnings than non-
concentrators during the first five years after high school graduation. CTE concentrators earned
$2,631 more in Indiana and $1,536 more in Minnesota annually than non-concentrators, and they
were 3.2% and 4.1% more likely to be employed, respectively.
North Carolina
In North Carolina, eligible high school students can earn credentials and college credits tuition-
free from North Carolina colleges and universities through Career & College Promise (CCP), a
statewide dual enrollment program.65 Participating students choose among three CCP pathways:
1. College Transfer, where students take dual enrollment classes that lead to an
associate’s degree to meet the general education requirements of a four-year
college;
2. CTE, where students take dual enrollment classes to earn college credits leading
to credentials or workforce-based careers; or
3. Cooperative Innovative High Schools, where students earn an associate’s degree
or two years of college credit at an approved high school partnered with a college
or university.
A study of 525,000 students in grades 11 and 12 compared students who participated in North
Carolina’s CCP CTE Pathway from the 2012-2013 to 2018-2019 school years with those who did
not participate. Students who participated in CCP over seven years earned six times more college
credits than the comparison group, were 2% more likely to graduate from high school, and were
9% more likely to enroll in any college. These graduation and enrollment gains were slightly
larger (3% and 11%, respectively) for economically disadvantaged students. Female students
were slightly more likely than males to participate in CTE dual enrollment during the 2018-2019
school year; 10% of all female students participated compared to 8% of all males.

65 This is a statewide dual enrollment curriculum program in partnership with all North Carolina community colleges
leading to a certificate or diploma aligned with a particular high school career cluster. Students earn college credits
leading to technical credentials or workforce-based careers. For more information, see https://cteresearchnetwork.org/
sites/default/files/2022-02/CCP-CTE-Infog-508_1.pdf.
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Appendix. Career Clusters and Career Pathways
Table A-1. Career Clusters and Career Pathways
Career Cluster
Description
Career Pathways
Agriculture, Food &
The production, processing, marketing,
Food Products and Processing
Natural Resources
distribution, financing, and development of
Systems
agricultural commodities and resources including
Plant Systems
food, fiber, wood products, natural resources,
horticulture, and other plant and animal
Animal Systems
products/resources.
Power, Structural & Technical
Systems
Natural Resources Systems
Environmental Service Systems
Agribusiness Systems
Architecture &
Careers in designing, planning, managing,
Design/Pre-construction
Construction
building, and maintaining the built environment.
Construction
Maintenance/Operations
Arts, Audio/Video
Designing, producing, exhibiting, performing,
Audio and Video Technology and
Technology &
writing, and publishing multimedia content
Film
Communications
including visual and performing arts and design,
Printing Technology
journalism, and entertainment services.
Visual Arts
Performing Arts
Journalism and Broadcasting
Telecommunications
Business Management Careers in planning, organizing, directing, and
General Management
& Administration
evaluating business functions essential to efficient
Business Information Management
and productive business operations.
Human Resources Management
Operations Management
Administrative Support
Education & Training
Planning, managing and providing education and
Administration and Administrative
training services, and related learning support
Support
services.
Professional Support Services
Teaching/Training
Finance
Planning, services for financial and investment
Securities & Investments
planning, banking, insurance, and business
Business Finance
financial management.
Accounting
Insurance
Banking Services
Government & Public
Planning and performing government functions
Governance
Administration
at the local, state, and federal levels, including
National Security

governance, national security, foreign service,
planning, revenue and taxation, and regulations.
Foreign Service
Planning
Revenue and Taxation
Regulation
Public Management and
Administration
Congressional Research Service

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Career and Technical Education: A Primer

Career Cluster
Description
Career Pathways
Health Science
Planning, managing, and providing therapeutic
Therapeutic Services
services, diagnostic services, health informatics,
Diagnostic Services
support services, and biotechnology research
and development.
Health Informatics
Support Services
Biotechnology Research and
Development
Hospitality &
Preparing individuals for employment in career
Restaurants and Food/Beverage
Tourism
pathways that relate to families and human
Services
needs such as restaurant and food/beverage
Lodging
services, lodging, travel and tourism, recreation,
and amusement and attractions.
Travel & Tourism
Recreation, Amusements &
Attractions
Human Services
Preparing individuals for employment in career
Early Childhood Development &
pathways that relate to families and human
Services
needs such as counseling and mental health
Counseling & Mental Health
services, family and community services,
Services
personal care, and consumer services.
Family & Community Services
Personal Care Services
Consumer Services
Information
Building linkages in IT occupations for entry
Network Systems
Technology
level, technical, and professional careers related
Information Support and Services
to the design, development, support and
management of hardware, software, multimedia,
Web and Digital Communications
and systems integration services.
Programming and Software
Development
Law, Public Safety,
Planning, managing, and providing legal, public
Correction Services
Corrections &
safety, protective services and homeland
Emergency and Fire Management
Security
security, including professional and technical
Services
support services.
Security & Protective Services
Law Enforcement Services
Legal Services
Manufacturing
Planning, managing, and performing the
Production
processing of materials into intermediate or final
Manufacturing Production Process
products and related professional and technical
Development
support activities such as production planning
and control, maintenance and
Maintenance, Installation & Repair
manufacturing/process engineering.
Quality Assurance
Logistics & Inventory Control
Health, Safety, and Environmental
Assurance
Marketing
Planning, managing, and performing marketing
Marketing Management
activities to reach organizational objectives.
Professional Sales
Merchandising
Marketing Communications
Marketing Research
Science, Technology,
Planning, managing, and providing scientific
Engineering and Technology
Engineering &
research and professional and technical services
Science and Math
Mathematics
(e.g., physical science, social science, engineering)
including laboratory and testing services, and
research and development services.
Congressional Research Service

23

Career and Technical Education: A Primer

Career Cluster
Description
Career Pathways
Transportation,
Planning, management, and movement of people,
Transportation Operations
Distribution &
materials, and goods by road, pipeline, air, rail,
Logistics Planning and
Logistics
and water and related professional and technical
Management Services
support services such as transportation
infrastructure planning and management, logistics
Warehousing and Distribution
services, mobile equipment and facility
Center Operations
maintenance.
Facility and Mobile Equipment
Maintenance
Transportation
Systems/Infrastructure
Planning, Management, and
Regulation
Health, Safety, and Environmental
Management
Sales and Service
Source: National Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium, Career Clusters &
Pathways, downloaded from https://careertech.org/career-cluster.

Congressional Research Service

24

Career and Technical Education: A Primer

Author Information

Adam K. Edgerton

Analyst in Education Policy

Acknowledgments
Portions of this report were drawn from a previous report authored by Cassandria Dortch, CRS Specialist in
Education Policy. Special thanks also to Paul Romero, CRS Research Assistant, for preparing Figure 1 and
Figure 2.

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

Congressional Research Service
R47166 · VERSION 1 · NEW
25

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Education Policy

Report Type: CRS Report

Source: CRSReports.Congress.gov

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