Infrastructure and the Economy

July 1, 2021 – November 29, 2021 R46826

Infrastructure and the Economy
November 29, 2021
Infrastructure investment has received renewed interest of late, with both President Biden and
some Members of Congress discussing the benefits and costs of such spending and what
Lida R. Weinstock
investments should be considered part of infrastructure. Infrastructure investment or
Analyst in Macroeconomic
infrastructure reform can describe a wide array of activities in policy discussions, depending on
Policy
the context. In general, infrastructure has historically referred to longer-lived, capital-intensive

systems and facilities, such as roads, bridges, and water treatment facilities. Partly owing to the
amorphous definition of infrastructure, there is no set method for measuring infrastructure

investment. For public infrastructure, economists often use a measure called government
investment.
Infrastructure is a critical factor in the modern economy, enabling private businesses and individuals to produce goods and
services more efficiently. With respect to overall economic output, increased public infrastructure spending generally leads to
higher economic output in the short term by stimulating demand and in the long term by increasing overall productivity. The
short-term impact on economic output largely depends on the type of financing (whether deficit-financed or deficit-neutral
investment) and the state of the economy (whether in a recession or expansion). The long-term impact on economic output is
also affected by the method of financing, due to the potential for “crowding out” of private investment when investments are
deficit financed. Economists also expect the type of infrastructure—whether in roads, railways, airports, utilities, or public
buildings—to affect the impact on economic output.
Nondefense gross government investment (federal, state, and local) in the United States has largely been in decline since the
1960s, falling from above 4% of GDP to about 2.7% in 2019. Direct federal investment, or spending that occurs at the federal
level rather than transfers to state and local governments, has gradually declined over the past several decades, falling from
about 1.4% of GDP in 1966 to about 0.7% of GDP in 2019. Transfers from the federal government to state and local
government for capital investments have exceeded direct federal spending since the mid-1950s. State and local investment
has followed a similar pattern over time as investment at the federal level but generally made up a higher share of GDP. State
and local investment peaked in 1939 at 3.64% of GDP before shrinking dramatically during and shortly after World War II,
then increasing back to about 3% of GDP in the late 1960s. State and local investment has trended downward somewhat
since, falling to 2% of GDP by 2019.
Changes in economic output are expected to affect employment; as such, infrastructure investments are likely to increase
short-term employment as well. Recent research suggests that increased infrastructure investment modestly reduces the
unemployment rate, though the effect can greatly vary depending on the method of financing and the state of the economy.
Deficit-neutral investments are less likely to affect employment, whereas deficit-financed investments are expected to reduce
unemployment in the short term. Additionally, recent economic research suggests that during an economic expansion, with a
relatively strong labor market, infrastructure investments are unlikely to have any sustained impact on the unemployment
rate. During a recession, the same investment is likely to reduce the unemployment rate to some degree.
On November 15, 2021, President Biden signed into law the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58), which
authorizes $550 billion in new infrastructure spending over the next five years. Economists generally agree that this
investment will produce small but positive gains to growth in the U.S. economy over the next decade.
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Infrastructure and the Economy

Introduction
Infrastructure generally refers to long-lasting structures or systems that facilitate economic
activity. This simple definition, however, belies a lack of consensus over what specific structures
or systems should be considered infrastructure. Some things (e.g., roads, bridges, and ports) are
broadly considered infrastructure, while others (e.g., intellectual property and government
buildings, such as schools and hospitals) are more debatable. Federal, state, and local government
plays a significant role in investments to build new and maintain existing infrastructure, although
government investment has generally decreased over the past several decades in the United
States. Recently, the Biden Administration and Congress have been in talks about potential
infrastructure investment spending packages.
Many economists believe that under the right economic conditions, public investment in
infrastructure will contribute to long-term growth. However, if the investment is financed through
government debt or made during an economic expansion, this could dampen or even negate the
impact. This report discusses the potential benefits and drawbacks of public infrastructure
investment, the state of public infrastructure investment in the economy, and potential future
plans for additional public infrastructure investment. While the report focuses on public
infrastructure investment, we note there is a significant amount of private infrastructure
investment in this country as well.1
Definitions of Infrastructure
There is not one set definition of infrastructure, and it can be difficult to measure investment in
infrastructure. Government agencies and researchers use various types of data to measure
infrastructure, and it can be challenging to find two sources of research that are exactly
comparable. Most definitions of infrastructure include investment in physical structures and
equipment that are used in the production process. Infrastructure investment is generally meant to
spur productivity growth—one of the main determinants of long-term economic growth—by
making the production process more efficient. Not all infrastructure projects will end up
increasing productivity growth, and those that do will differ in impact. This section addresses the
difficulties in measuring infrastructure investment, the various measures that economists and
researchers use, and the different types of infrastructure (and how this can play into questions of
measurement).
Types of Infrastructure
Infrastructure tends to be organized into specific buckets. One of the key distinctions many
economists and policymakers make is between so-called core infrastructure and all other
infrastructure. Core infrastructure generally refers to physical structures and equipment that have
the potential to directly improve productivity, as they are closely associated with the cost of
producing goods and services. Examples include roads, railways, airports, and utilities, among

1 Federal, state, and local governments often share the cost of public infrastructure investments, with the majority of
direct spending coming from state and local governments. The federal government contributes to infrastructure
investments in the form of both direct spending and grants to state and local governments. For more information, see
CRS In Focus IF10592, Infrastructure Investment and the Federal Government, by William J. Mallett.
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others.2 Some research suggests that core infrastructure tends to have a larger impact on private-
sector economic output than all types of infrastructure taken together.3
Another type of categorization of infrastructure has to do with who funds it and who owns it.
Infrastructure investment can be made by the government, the private sector, or a combination of
the two. Infrastructure is often categorized as public, private, or a public-private partnership.
While it may seem at first that infrastructure investment by the government would be on public
infrastructure projects, and likewise for private and public-private, this is not necessarily the case.
Public infrastructure refers to infrastructure that is publicly owned, and private infrastructure
refers to infrastructure that is privately owned. However, the government can still invest in
privately owned infrastructure just as the private sector can invest in public infrastructure.4
Measurement
Given that there is no official definition of infrastructure, government agencies do not actually
publish data on “infrastructure investment.” Instead, various agencies publish data on different
types of government and private investment. While there is a significant amount of private-sector
investment in infrastructure, this type of investment can be more difficult to proxy using publicly
available and centralized data; therefore, this report focuses on investment made by the
government. The majority of the analysis in this report uses gross government investment, as
measured by the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), as a proxy for public infrastructure
investment. Some analysis also uses federal investment, as measured by the Congressional
Budget Office (CBO). The following subsections discuss both methodologies in detail.5 For other
research mentioned in this report, a discussion of methodology is included at that time.
Gross Government Investment (BEA)
Due to the ambiguous definition of infrastructure, tracking government spending on
infrastructure investments can be difficult. One of the more comprehensive sources of data that
track government spending in various categories is BEA.6 BEA divides government spending into
consumption expenditures and gross investments.7 Consumption expenditures consist of spending
by the government to produce and provide goods and services to the public, such as paying
census workers to survey households, and would generally not include infrastructure. By contrast,
government gross investment consists of government spending on fixed assets, or capital, used to
benefit the public for more than one year, such as roads, bridges, computers, and government
buildings.8 Investment is then further divided into three categories: (1) structures, which include

2 For more information about core infrastructure and other definitions, see CRS In Focus IF10592, Infrastructure
Investment and the Federal Government, by William J. Mallett.
3 Pedro Bom and Jenny Ligthart, “What Have We Learned from Three Decades of Research on the Productivity of
Public Capital?,” Journal of Economic Surveys, vol. 28, no. 5 (December 2015), pp. 889-916.
4 U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO), Budgeting for Federal Investment, April 2021, https://www.cbo.gov/
publication/57142#_idTextAnchor006.
5 For more information on the definitions of infrastructure investment by various agencies, see CBO, Budgeting for
Federal Investment, Chapter 1, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/57142#_idTextAnchor006.
6 Data on infrastructure investment at the federal level are also available from the Historical Tables produced by the
Office of Management and Budget (OMB). These sources do not include data on state and local infrastructure
spending.
7 Because BEA measures the output of goods and services, it does not include government transfers or subsidies in the
standard measure of government spending, unlike the federal budget definition of spending.
8 BEA, Concepts and Methods of the U.S. National Income and Product Accounts, November 2017, pp. 9-1 to 9-26,
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many of the classic examples of core infrastructure (e.g., water systems, highways, bridges); (2)
equipment (e.g., computers, military hardware); and (3) intellectual property products (e.g.,
software, research and development).
Depending on how infrastructure is defined, BEA government investment data can act as a proxy
for infrastructure investment, although perhaps an imperfect one.9 Furthermore, it is common to
limit analysis of infrastructure investments to nondefense investments, as national defense
investments are generally not available to the public to assist in the production of goods and
services. (For context, in 2019, about 55% of federal investment was directed to national defense
purposes, whereas about 45% was directed to nondefense purposes.)10
Federal Investment (CBO)
CBO’s federal investment is another common metric for measuring government infrastructure
investment. CBO considers federal investment to consist of government spending in three broad
areas: physical capital, research and development, and education and training. Physical capital
includes structures; major equipment; and software, information systems, and technology. CBO
stipulates that to qualify as federal investment, physical capital must have a useful life of at least
two years. Research and development includes spending on basic research, applied research, and
the development of new products and technologies. Education and training investment includes
spending on early childhood through post-secondary education and job and vocational training.
CBO does not include any programs or systems that can be immediately consumed, even if those
programs might indirectly improve future productivity, such as health care or school lunches.11
CBO’s measurement is similar to BEA’s, although BEA’s does not include spending on
education and training. However, the methodology for tracking and calculating the data is not the
same, and therefore CBO’s federal investment less education and training does not necessarily
equate to BEA’s gross government investment.
The Economy and Public Infrastructure Investment
Economists generally agree that infrastructure is a critical factor of economic well-being,
enabling private businesses and individuals to produce goods and services in a more efficient
manner. For businesses, infrastructure can help to lower fixed costs of production, especially
transportation costs, which are often a central determinant of where businesses are located.12 For
households, a wide variety of final goods and services are provided through infrastructure
services, such as water, energy, and telecommunications.13 Infrastructure tends to benefit the

https://www.bea.gov/sites/default/files/methodologies/nipa-handbook-all-chapters.pdf.
9 Investment in defense is generally not considered infrastructure. Even when only considering nondefense government
gross investment, this measure will not fit everyone’s definition of infrastructure, and it may therefore be prudent to
look at several sources of data to study a full array of investment that both directly and indirectly could affect
productivity and long-term growth. Furthermore, this and other data in this report do not account for private
investment, which is significant in the United States. Without considering private infrastructure investment, it may be
difficult to ascertain a full picture of the state of infrastructure in the United States or compare infrastructure investment
in the United States to infrastructure investment in other countries.
10 CRS calculations based on data from BEA.
11 CBO, Budgeting for Federal Investment.
12 Ward Romp and Jakob de Haan, “Public Capital and Economic Growth: A Critical Survey,” Perspektiven der
Wirtschaftspolitik, vol. 8, no. 51 (April 2007), pp. 6-52.
13 Stephane Straub, “Infrastructure and Development: A Critical Appraisal of the Macro-Level Literature,” Journal of
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economy overall, as it allows more goods and services to be produced with the same level of
inputs, fostering long-term economic growth.
Many observers debate the optimal amount of government infrastructure investment. All
infrastructure investments are not the same; the impact of these investments is likely to depend on
a few key considerations, including the way in which the investments are financed and the timing
of the investments with respect to the business cycle. This section of the report focuses on the
ways in which additional infrastructure investments by the government affect economic output
and employment and examines how certain factors are likely to amplify or limit its economic
impact.
Effects on Economic Output
An increase in the stock of public capital, such as new or improved transportation and water
systems, generally results in higher long-term levels of economic output.14 It allows individuals
and businesses to be more productive in the long term by freeing up time and resources that can
be put toward generating additional economic output or used to enjoy more leisure time. For
example, a new bridge may greatly shorten travel distances for truck drivers, allowing them to
deliver goods to consumers more quickly and at a lower cost. These changes result in productivity
growth for the economy as a whole, which is the most important determinant of long-term
economic growth.
The extent to which public infrastructure investment results in long-term output growth depends
in part on how productive a given infrastructure project is. As mentioned previously, core
infrastructure will tend to increase productivity more so than other types of infrastructure;
however, an infrastructure project that does not increase productivity would not contribute to
long-term growth, even if it is a core infrastructure project. For example, building a road between
two cities may increase productivity substantially, whereas building a second road may increase
productivity only slightly, and building a third road may not increase productivity at all. Or, if
both cities are sparsely populated and separated by difficult terrain, building a six-lane highway
connecting the two might not be an efficient investment.
Ample research has attempted to estimate the impact of public infrastructure investment on
economic output. For example, a 2014 literature review15 found that a 1% increase in the public
capital stock16 (about $157 billion in 2019 in the United States) would increase private-sector
economic output by 0.083% in the short term (about $14.7 billion).17 The same 1% increase
would increase the long-term level of private-sector economic output by 0.122% (about $21.6
billion in 2019).18 Meanwhile, CBO estimates that a 1% increase in public capital would increase
the long-term level of private-sector output by 0.06% (about $10.6 billion in 2019).19 It is
important to note that the estimated impact is exclusively for private-sector economic output

Developmental Studies, vol. 47, no. 5 (May 2011), pp. 683-708.
14 Valerie A. Ramey, The Macroeconomic Consequences of Infrastructure Investment, National Bureau of Economic
Research (NBER), Working Paper no. 27625, July 2020.
15 Even though not all studies considered share the same definition of infrastructure, public capital stock is generally
defined somewhat more narrowly.
16 Public capital stock refers to government-owned assets that are used in the production process.
17 Bom and Ligthart, “What Have We Learned from Three Decades of Research on the Productivity of Public Capital?”
18 Bom and Ligthart, “What Have We Learned from Three Decades of Research on the Productivity of Public Capital?”
19 CBO, The Macroeconomic and Budgetary Effects of Federal Investment, June 2016, pp. 24-25, https://www.cbo.gov/
publication/51628.
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rather than total economic output, as the impact would likely be larger if total economic output
were being evaluated. Additionally, these are only average estimates, and the economic impact
depends on how the investment is financed, broader economic conditions when the investment is
made, and the type of infrastructure investment.
Timing related to when infrastructure investments are made and when benefits are realized is
another consideration. Many economists believe that public infrastructure investment is not an
effective short-term stimulus tool, although there is some debate surrounding this idea. A recent
National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) working paper—which focuses its analysis on
public capital investment—finds that short-run stimulus multipliers20 from infrastructure
investment are smaller than those from other types of government spending, due mainly to the
relatively long time frame for building core infrastructure as well as public infrastructure
investment crowding out more private spending as compared to other types of government
spending, according to the authors’ model.21 Other studies, however, do find that infrastructure
investment can have positive short-term impacts on gross domestic product (GDP),22 provided
certain economic conditions and methods of financing. For example, the Penn Wharton Budget
Model (PWBM)—which does not define infrastructure but rather analyzes specific proposed or
enacted legislation—found that an additional $300 billion of federal infrastructure grants in 2020
would have increased GDP by up to $360 billion per year for 2020 and 2021.23
Financing24
Government investment is financed (or funded) in two distinct ways: deficit financing or deficit-
neutral financing. The short-term and long-term impact of infrastructure investment can differ
depending on the type of financing used. Investments are considered deficit financed if there is no
decrease in government spending or increase in tax revenue to offset the new spending.
Investments are considered deficit neutral if there is a decrease in other government spending or
an increase in revenues through taxes, user fees, or others to offset the new spending.
Deficit Financing
The total economic impact of deficit financing for infrastructure investment involves opposing
forces with respect to economic output. In the short term, additional public investment is likely to
boost economic output both directly and indirectly. As the government spends additional funds on
infrastructure projects, this directly increases economic output as the government purchases

20 A multiplier measures the effect of a policy on output. For example, if the government decreased taxes by $1 and
output increased by $0.50, the tax decrease would be said to have a multiplier of 0.5.
21 Ramey, The Macroeconomic Consequences of Infrastructure Investment, pp. 41-42.
22 Gross domestic product is a measure of the value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given
period of time.
23 Jon Huntley, Zheli He, and Kody Carmody, “Short-Term Economic Effects of a ‘Phase 4’ Infrastructure Response to
Coronavirus,” PWBM, April 16, 2020.
24 The specific financing mechanism—for example, direct government spending, tax incentives, loan guarantees,
creating public-private partnerships—may also have important ramifications for the economic impact of government
investment. In general, most literature on the subject focuses on instances in which either national or regional
governments spend on infrastructure directly, as this is the more common approach historically, though other options
for financing infrastructure have been included as possible options in current debates. However, for brevity and clarity
given the current uncertainty regarding which, if any, alternative financing mechanisms may be included in future
legislation, this report focuses on the economic impact of spending undertaken directly by the government. For a
discussion of some of the other infrastructure financing mechanisms, see CRS Report R43308, Infrastructure Finance
and Debt to Support Surface Transportation Investment, by William J. Mallett and Grant A. Driessen.
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goods and services from contractors.25 Moreover, deficit-financed investments may indirectly
increase economic output even further via the multiplier effect.26 The multiplier effect suggests
that $1 of government spending may increase economic output by more than $1, particularly
during economic downturns. For example, as the government hires contractors to complete new
infrastructure projects, the employees and suppliers utilized by the contractors now have
additional money as well and will likely spend at least some of it on goods and services provided
by other businesses. The successive flow of funds, first from the government to contractors, then
to employees and suppliers, may result in a larger GDP increase than the original spending by the
government. However, government spending affects aggregate demand only once the funds are
actually distributed. For many infrastructure projects it may take an extended period of time for
funds to actually be spent, as projects must first be selected, competing bids reviewed, and so on.
Thus, the short-term impact of infrastructure investment may take longer to materialize than the
impacts of other types of government spending that can be implemented faster, such as cash
transfers to individuals.
Although deficit-financed investment may increase short-term economic output, the medium- to
long-term impact may be reduced due to the “crowding out” of private investment. Government
borrowing generally results in higher interest rates. As a result, private investment and interest-
sensitive consumer spending tends to decrease. CBO estimates that a $1 increase in the federal
deficit decreases private investment by about 33 cents.27 The replacement of private investment
with public investment is often of concern to economists because, on average, private investment
is thought to be more productive than public investment.28 So although deficit-financed
investment is more likely to produce short-term gains in economic output, it may impose long-
term costs to economic output as it replaces some amount of private investment.
Deficit-Neutral Financing
Alternatively, deficit-neutral infrastructure investment is unlikely to significantly affect economic
output in the short term. When investment is offset by reducing other spending, it has no
immediate impact on aggregate demand because government spending remains level. Moreover,
because the government is not borrowing additional money, interest rates are unlikely to change
in the short term. However, depending on what types of spending are cut or taxes are raised,
offsets could have positive or negative effects on long-term output that would need to be weighed
against the long-term benefits of additional infrastructure spending. Although deficit-neutral
public investment is not expected to have any significant impacts on short-term economic output,
it is less likely to result in crowding out of private investment. As such, additional deficit-neutral
investment is expected to have a larger positive impact on long-term economic output than
deficit-financed investment does, all else equal.
Comparison
A number of studies have attempted to estimate the magnitude of the effect of the different types
of infrastructure investment financing. Due to the complexity of making such estimates and the
large effect a study’s economic modeling and the availability of data can have on results, different

25 Economic output, as measured by GDP, necessarily increases as the government spends money, because government
expenditures are included as a component of GDP.
26 Nicoletta Batini et al., Fiscal Multipliers: Size, Determinants, and Use in Macroeconomic Projections, International
Monetary Fund (IMF), September 2014, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/tnm/2014/tnm1404.pdf.
27 CBO, The Macroeconomic and Budgetary Effects of Federal Investment, p. 9.
28 CBO, The Macroeconomic and Budgetary Effects of Federal Investment, p. 2.
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estimates have been found across studies. Nevertheless, examining some of these studies can be
informative.
In an attempt to account for how different financing mechanisms may affect public investment’s
impact on output, International Monetary Fund (IMF) researchers estimated these impacts
separately for deficit-financed and deficit-neutral investment. The authors considered government
investment in public capital for advanced economies. The authors found that an increase in
deficit-financed public investment of 1 percentage point of GDP tends to increase overall GDP by
0.9% within the first year and by 2.9% after four years, but the authors found no significant
change in GDP when investments were deficit neutral.29 Meanwhile, a 2016 analysis by the CBO
of hypothetical federal investments also suggested that deficit-neutral investment would result
little short-run growth and deficit-financed investment resulted in a short-term boost. However,
this study projected further out in time and found that deficit-neutral investment resulted in higher
long-run growth than did deficit-financed investment. CBO found that a deficit-financed increase
in public investment of $100 billion would increase GDP by about $22 billion in each of its first
two years and resulted in the level of annual GDP being about $1 billion higher after 10 years
compared with a baseline. When deficit neutral, the same investment would not increase GDP in
the short term but would result in the level of GDP being about $4 billion higher after 10 years
compared with a baseline.30
Much of the difference between the results produced by the CBO and IMF researchers is due to
differing estimates of how public capital impacts productivity and the degree to which public
investment crowds out private investment and also the fact that the IMF considers several
advanced economies in its assessment while CBO limits its analysis to the United States. CBO
assumes that public capital is less effective at increasing productivity and is more likely to crowd
out private investment than the IMF researchers assumed.
An additional possible downside of deficit-financed investment is the potential increase in the
debt-to-GDP ratio. Elevated debt-to-GDP ratios may impede economic growth if they lead to
macroeconomic instability, such as rising interest rates on government debt.31 The U.S. debt-to-
GDP ratio has increased significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic, rising to over 100% in
FY2020, and is projected to continue rising rapidly in FY2021 and beyond.32 Interest rates on this
debt have remained relatively low, suggesting that investors are confident in the United States’
ability to continue meeting its debt obligations.33 The already elevated ratio of debt to GDP may
give pause to some when considering deficit-financed infrastructure investment. However,
deficit-financed investment may not necessarily increase the debt-to-GDP ratio, as the increase in
economic output may be greater than the increase in debt.34 Some research has suggested that

29 Abdul Abiad, Davide Furceri, and Petia Topalova, The Macroeconomic Effects of Public Investment: Evidence from
Advanced Economies, IMF Working Paper, vol. WP/15/95, May 2015, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2015/
wp1595.pdf.
30 CBO, The Macroeconomic and Budgetary Effects of Federal Investment.
31 Carmen Reinhart, Vincent Reinhart, and Kenneth Rogoff, Debt Overhangs: Past and Present, NBER, Working
Paper no. 18015, April 2012, https://www.nber.org/papers/w18015.
32 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and OMB, “Federal Debt Held by the Public as Percent of Gross Domestic
Product,” https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/FYGFGDQ188S.
33 For further information about COVID-19 and current deficit and debt patterns, see CRS Report R46729, Federal
Deficits, Growing Debt, and the Economy in the Wake of COVID-19, by Lida R. Weinstock.
34 For more discussion of this topic, refer to CRS Report R44383, Deficits, Debt, and the Economy: An Introduction, by
Grant A. Driessen.
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deficit-financed investment has no impact on the debt-to-GDP ratio and can even decrease it,35
whereas other research has suggested that such investment will likely increase the ratio.36 As
discussed in the following section, the magnitude of the increase in economic output will
additionally depend in part on the business cycle.
Business Cycle Timing
The business cycle timing of additional public investment is likely to alter the impact of public
investment on short-term economic output. Current economic theory suggests that in the short
term, if public investment is made during a recession, the impact on economic output will be
larger than if the same investment were made during an economic expansion.37 When the
economy is in recession, the short-term economic boost from additional public spending is
expected to be larger, because various economic inputs are being underutilized and can be called
up for production relatively quickly. For example, during a recession large numbers of
unemployed workers are generally available, and factories are running below capacity, allowing
production to ramp up quickly when the government begins offering new contracts to companies.
Alternatively, when the economy is expanding healthily, the boost to short-term economic activity
may be smaller because there is less excess capacity in the economy. Additionally, if undertaken
at full employment, additional spending may result in higher rates of inflation, or the Federal
Reserve might raise interest rates to counter rising inflation, which would decrease the impact on
short-term output.
Recent empirical research has largely confirmed this assumption. A recent article estimated that
the impact could be about 1.5 times larger during a recession than during an expansion,
suggesting that a 1% increase in public investment would boost economic output by 3.4% during
a recession and about 2.3% during an expansion.38 A recent article published by the IMF
suggested an even smaller impact during an expansion. The authors consider public investment
and the stock of public capital as a proxy measure for infrastructure. The authors found that
during a recession, an increase in investment spending of 1 percentage point of GDP would
potentially increase economic output by 1.5% in the first year and by 3% after four years,
whereas there was no significant change in short-term output when public investment was made
during an expansion.39
The U.S. economy is still recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic. It is hard to know whether
the United States is still technically in a recession or not, and it may be some time before NBER
publishes information regarding the exact timing of the recession caused by the pandemic. In any
case, there are still portions of the economy that are depressed compared to a pre-pandemic
baseline; thus, it is possible that public infrastructure investment undertaken at this point would
have a relatively large multiplier effect in the short run. The fiscal and monetary response to the
pandemic was unprecedented, and some economists and policymakers have expressed concern
that more spending at this point would likely overheat the economy.40

35 Aseel Almansour et al., World Economic Outlook: Legacies, Clouds, Uncertainties, IMF, October 2014, pp. 75-114,
http://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2016/12/31/Legacies-Clouds-Uncertainties.
36 CBO, The Macroeconomic and Budgetary Effects of Federal Investment.
37 Alan J. Auerbach and Yuriy Gorodnichenko, “Measuring the Output Responses to Fiscal Policy,” American
Economic Journal, vol. 4, no. 2 (May 2012), pp. 1-27.
38 Auerbach and Gorodnichenko, “Measuring the Output Responses to Fiscal Policy.”
39 Almansour et al., World Economic Outlook, pp. 75-114.
40 For example, see Lawrence H. Summers, “Opinion: The Biden Stimulus Is Admirably Ambitious. But It Brings
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Employment Effects
Changes in economic output tend to occur alongside changes in employment; as the economy
produces more goods and services, it generally requires more people to produce those goods and
services. A long-standing economic rule of thumb called Okun’s Law suggests that increased
economic growth generally leads to increased employment and vice versa.41 This relationship is
most obvious during economic downturns, when a decrease in economic growth generally occurs
alongside a decrease in employment and a rising unemployment rate. The same is generally true
during times of economic growth, with rising employment and a decreasing unemployment rate.
Assuming that increased public investment spurs additional economic output, there will likely be
some change in employment as well. In addition, faster productivity growth is expected to reduce
the long-term unemployment rate, allowing the economy to sustainably operate at lower levels of
unemployment without increasing the rate of inflation.42
Another way to look at the relationship between economic output and employment involves a
basic understanding of how economic output is accounted for. The most prominent measure of
economic output is GDP, which sums the cost of all goods and services produced during a
specific time period. An alternative way to measure total economic output is as the total income
received within all sectors of the economy in a given period. These two measures will
theoretically produce the same amount, as any money paid for goods and services is eventually
paid to other individuals in the form of, for example, salaries, wages, dividends, and rental
payments. Therefore, any increase in GDP is also an increase in aggregate incomes. These
increased incomes may be paid out in the form of new jobs or increased pay for existing jobs; it is
thus not clear how much an increase in GDP may actually boost overall employment.
While current research surrounding the employment impact of additional public investment
generally uses different measures of employment, including overall labor demand, employment
levels, and the unemployment rate, some broad characterization of that research is possible. In
general, estimates of the impact of public investment on employment range from a positive
impact to no impact. IMF research suggests that among OECD countries, an increase in public
investment of 1 percentage point of GDP generally decreases the unemployment rate by 0.11% in
the short term and 0.35% in the medium term.43 Alternatively, researchers estimated the impact of
increased public capital on labor demand, finding that in the United States a 1% increase in public
capital would increase labor demand by 1.13% in the short term, 1.07% in the medium term, and
0.08% in the long term.44 As defined by the authors, an increase in labor demand constitutes an
increase in wages, employment, or both; therefore, it is difficult to draw concrete examples of
how public capital may affect employment levels.

Some Big Risks, Too,” Washington Post, February 4, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/02/04/
larry-summers-biden-covid-stimulus.
41 Edward S. Knotek, “How Useful Is Okun’s Law?,” Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City Economic Review, vol. 92,
no. 4 (Fourth Quarter 2007), pp. 73-103.
42 Laurence Ball and Gregory Mankiw, “The NAIRU in Theory and Practice,” Journal of Economic Perspective, vol.
16, no. 4 (Fall 2002), pp. 115-136.
43 Abiad, Furceri, and Topalova, The Macroeconomic Effects of Public Investment.
44 Panicos O. Demetriades and Theofanis P. Mamuneas, “Intertemporal Output and Employment Effects of Public
Infrastructure Capital: Evidence from 12 OECD Economies,” The Economic Journal, vol. 110, no. 465 (July 2000),
pp. 687-712.
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Financing
In the short term, the method of financing additional public investment is likely to alter its impact
on employment. If additional public spending is deficit neutral, economists estimate that the
impact on overall output is likely to be minimal in the short term. Therefore, they conclude that
investment will likely not generate new jobs but rather shift jobs to construction and other areas
connected to infrastructure projects. However, economists estimate that a deficit-financed
increase in public investment is expected to affect short-term demand and therefore increase
employment as demand for labor rises. Researchers with the IMF looked at the impact of
increased public investment on the unemployment rate depending on the mode of financing,
finding a significantly larger impact on short-term unemployment when the spending was deficit
financed rather than deficit neutral. The researchers found that an increase in public investment of
1 percentage point of GDP would potentially decrease the unemployment rate by nearly 2%45
over four years when it was deficit financed but found no impact on the unemployment rate when
deficit neutral.46
Business Cycle Timing
Similar to public investment’s effect on production discussed above, the ability of public
infrastructure investment to generate additional employment is likely to differ based on whether
the economy is in recession or expansion, with a larger boost to employment occurring during a
recession. In the midst of a recession, the economy is generally operating below its potential with
numerous unemployed workers, and increased infrastructure investment is likely to have a larger
impact on employment. Conversely, during an economic expansion, there are fewer unemployed
individuals, and additional infrastructure investments are less likely to generate new jobs and
rather would shift jobs toward occupations related to infrastructure, such as construction and
architecture.
Researchers at the IMF estimated the impact of additional public investment on employment
depending on the state of the economy. The authors found that during an expansion, there was no
significant impact on employment. However, during a recession, an increase in public investment
of 1 percentage point of GDP decreased the unemployment rate by 0.5% after one year and
0.75% after four years.47 As of April 2021, the unemployment rate was 6.1%, above the 3.5% rate
in February 2020, before the pandemic began. Much of the increased unemployment is a result of
increases in unemployment in specific industries that have been particular affected by the
COVID-19 pandemic, such as the hospitality industry.48 There is anecdotal evidence to suggest
that employers are having trouble filling positions, which would normally be a sign of a
tightening labor market.49 Additionally, it is not clear whether the types of workers that are still
unemployed would be able to easily transition into the kinds of jobs infrastructure investment
might create. In sum, the extent to which public infrastructure investment might affect
employment in the short run is largely uncertain at this point.

45 In this scenario, a 2% decrease in the unemployment rate will result in less than a 2 percentage point decrease. For
example, if unemployment is 10% and decreases by 2%, the resulting rate would be 9.8%.
46 Abiad, Furceri, and Topalova, The Macroeconomic Effects of Public Investment.
47 Abiad, Furceri, and Topalova, The Macroeconomic Effects of Public Investment.
48 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “The Employment Situation—April 2021,” news release, May 7, 2021,
https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0.htm.
49 Greg Ip, “The Job Market Is Tighter Than You Think,” Wall Street Journal, April 21, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/
articles/the-job-market-is-tighter-than-you-think-11619006400.
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Infrastructure Investment in the United States
Nondefense gross (i.e., federal, state, and local) government investment in the United States has
largely been in decline since the 1960s, falling from above 4% of GDP to about 2.7% in 2019.
Overall, nondefense gross investment, as a percentage of GDP, was even higher for a number of
years in the 1930s before decreasing significantly during and shortly after the end of World War II
as gross government investment shifted to defense-related spending and GDP grew quickly.
Nondefense gross investment in the 1960s then rose to pre–World War II levels and then began
slowly declining over time.
Direct nondefense federal investment, which refers to spending that occurs at the federal level
rather than transfers to state and local governments, peaked in the 1930s as a percentage of GDP
and again in the 1960s before beginning to gradually decline over the next several decades,
falling from about 1.4% of GDP in 1966 to about 0.7% of GDP in 2019, as shown in Figure 1.50
Direct nondefense federal investment in structures also peaked in the 1930s, reaching above 1.0%
of GDP briefly, then again to a lesser extent in the late 1940s and 1960s at around 0.4% of GDP.
It has hovered around 0.1% of GDP since 2000. Direct nondefense federal investment in
equipment has been relatively small as a share of GDP since 1929. It peaked at 0.4% in 1935 and
has generally trended at or below 0.1% of GDP since the 1940s. Direct nondefense federal
investment in intellectual property products peaked at about 1.0% of GDP in 1966 and has
generally trended downward since, to 0.5% in 2019. Of note, the prices of some categories, such
as software, have tended to decrease over time, making it difficult to determine the extent to
which decreases in investment in dollar terms are a result of decreases in the amount of
investment versus price effects.
Figure 1. Annual Federal Nondefense Investment, 1929-2019
(as a share of GDP)

Source: CRS calculations based on data from the Bureau of Economic Analysis.

50 Direct federal investment is limited to funds spent directly by the federal government on investment projects. Funds
that are transferred to state and local governments for investment by the federal government are recorded as state and
local investment, as they are the entities that directly spend the funds on investment projects.
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Transfers from the federal government to state and local government for capital investments have
exceeded direct federal spending since the mid-1950s. Transfers to state and local governments
for capital investments began in the 1930s and increased through the 1960s to about 0.6% of
GDP. These transfers then began to decline through the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s before rising
rapidly in the 2010s, with much of the increase in 2009 attributable to the American Recovery
and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-5). Transfers, as a percentage of GDP, have now declined
to levels similar to those in the 1980s and 1990s, around 0.4% of GDP.
According to data from CBO,51 in 2018, the flow of federal nondefense investment was about
$297 billion (1.5% of GDP) via both direct spending and transfers to state and local
governments.52 Of the $297 billion, roughly $110 was spent on physical capital (largely
analogous to core infrastructure). By physical capital budget function, the largest sum was
invested in transportation, accounting for about $64 billion, as shown in Figure 2. The next
largest source of investment was natural resources and the environment, which accounted for
about $10 billion in 2018. Depending on the budget function, the mix of investments through
direct federal spending and grants to state and local governments varies considerably. Within
transportation, about 92% of federal investments are made through grants to state and local
governments, whereas within energy, almost 50% of federal investments are made through direct
federal spending.

51 CBO, Federal Investment, 1962 to 2018, June 2019, p. 9, https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2019-06/55375-
Federal_Investment.pdf.
52 As discussed earlier in this report, CBO measures federal investment differently than BEA does. Therefore, this data
may not be comparable to the other data presented in this section.
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Figure 2. Physical Capital: Federal Nondefense Investment by Budget Function, 2018
(in billions of dollars)

Source: Congressional Budget Office, Federal Investment, Exhibit 11, June 27, 2019.
Notes: “Other” includes the fol owing budget functions: Energy; General Government; General Science, Space,
and Technology; International Affairs; Health; Education, Training, and Employment Services; Agriculture; and
Social Security.
State and local investment53 has followed a similar pattern over time as investment at the federal
level but has generally made up a higher share of GDP. State and local investment peaked in 1939
at 3.64% of GDP before shrinking dramatically during and shortly after World War II then
increasing back to about 3% of GDP in the late 1960s, as shown in Figure 3. State and local
investment has trended downward somewhat since, falling to 2% of GDP by 2019. Unlike direct
federal investment, state and local investment has consistently been largest in the category of
structures. In 2019, state and local spending on structures accounted for 1.6% of GDP as
compared to 0.2% for both equipment and intellectual property products.

53 State and local governments directly invest significantly more in general than the federal government does; however,
some of the direct investments made by state and local governments are the result of transfers from the federal
government. In 2018, state and local governments directly invested funds equivalent to about 2% of GDP, but the
federal government also transferred funds equivalent to about 0.4% of GDP to state and local governments for capital
investments in that year. Some or all of those transferred funds could be a part of that 2%.
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Figure 3. Annual State and Local Investment, 1929-2019
(as a share of GDP)

Source: CRS calculations based on BEA data.
The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act
The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58) was signed into law on November 15,
2021. It mandates new investment in transportation, broadband, electric grid and power, and
water, among others. Transportation is one of the largest categories of investment and includes
spending on roads and bridges, public transit, and Amtrak.54
The act authorizes $550 billion in new infrastructure spending over the next five years.55
According to CBO, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act will increase 2021-2031 deficits
by $256 billion. Over the same time period, it would decrease direct spending by $110 billion,
increase revenues by $50 billion, and increase discretionary spending by $415 billion.56 The law
was passed on a bipartisan basis, with 50 Senate Democrats, 215 House Democrats, 19 Senate
Republicans, and 13 House Republicans voting in favor. Proponents of the law argue that the
increased investment in infrastructure is both necessary and economically sound.57 Some critics

54 See, for example, Kevin Major, Patrick Miller, and Juan Reyes III, “Breaking Down the Infrastructure Investment
and Jobs Act,” JDSupra, November 10, 2021, https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/breaking-down-the-infrastructure-
1466732/; and Adie Tomer et al., America Has an Infrastructure Bill. What Happens Next? Brookings Institution,
November 9, 2021, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/the-avenue/2021/11/09/america-has-an-infrastructure-bill-what-
happens-next.
55 The White House, Updated Fact Sheet: Bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, August 2, 2021,
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/08/02/updated-fact-sheet-bipartisan-
infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act/.
56 CBO, Senate Amendment 2137 to H.R. 3684, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Cost Estimate, August 5,
2021, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/57406.
57 For example, see Sen. Rob Portman, “Senators’ Statement on Historic Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act Being
signed into Law,” press release, November 15, 2021, https://www.portman.senate.gov/newsroom/press-releases/
senators-statement-historic-infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-being; and Rep. Peter Defazio, “Thanks to President
Biden, Infrastructure Is Bipartisan Again—It Needs to Stay That Way,” The Hill, November 23, 2021,
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of the law argue that the amount of the spending is neither necessary nor advisable given the
already relatively high federal deficit.58 Other critics have argued that there is not enough
spending in the law and that it will not sufficiently address the nation’s infrastructure needs.59
Regarding the bills potential economic impact, many economists agree that the Infrastructure
Investment and Jobs Act will result in some long-term gains, although the magnitude of those
gains is a matter of debate.60 One prominent analysis of the macroeconomic consequences of the
law, performed by economists at Moody’s Analytics,61 found that, when compared with a baseline
scenario and other scenarios that would include additional legislation, the effects on growth over
the 2021-2013 period are small but positive (see Figure 4).
Figure 4. Projected Impact of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, 2020-2031

Source: Mark Zandi and Bernard Yaros, Macroeconomic Consequences of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act
and Build Back Better Framework, November 4, 2021, https://www.moodysanalytics.com/-/media/article/2021/
macroeconomic-consequences-of-the-infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-and-build-back-better-
framework.pdf.
Notes: Real GDP measured using 2012 dol ars.

https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/politics/582858-thanks-to-president-biden-infrastructure-is-bipartisan-again-it.
58 Sen. Pat Toomey, “Toomey Opposes ‘Too Expensive, Too Expansive, and Too Unpaid For’ Infrastructure Proposal,”
press release, August 11, 2021, https://www.toomey.senate.gov/newsroom/press-releases/toomey-opposes-too-
expensive-too-expansive-and-too-unpaid-for-infrastructure-proposal.
59 Rachel Looker and Amy Nakamura, “Who Are the 6 House Democrats Who Voted Against the Infrastructure Bill?,”
USA Today, November 8, 2021, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2021/11/08/aoc-ilhan-omar-democrats-
who-voted-no-infrastructure-bill/6339739001/.
60 Josh Mitchell, “Infrastructure Law Seen Having Small, Positive Impact on Growth,” Wall Street Journal, November
6, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/infrastructure-law-seen-having-small-positive-impact-on-growth-11636191000?
mod=djemCentralBanksPro&tpl=cb.
61 Mark Zandi and Bernard Yaros, Macroeconomic Consequences of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act amd
Build Back Better Framework, November 4, 2021, https://www.moodysanalytics.com/-/media/article/2021/
macroeconomic-consequences-of-the-infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-and-build-back-better-framework.pdf.
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Author Information

Lida R. Weinstock

Analyst in Macroeconomic Policy

Acknowledgments
This report has been adapted from a report authored by Jeffrey Stupak, former CRS Analyst in
Macroeconomic Policy.

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
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