Seabed Mining in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone
Summary
Seabed Mining in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone
Seabed deposits containing critical minerals occur across the global ocean, including in the international Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ). The International Seabed Authority (ISA) issues seabed mining contracts to parties to the U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). As a non-party to UNCLOS, the United States issues licenses and permits through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). U.S. seabed mining activities may conflict with the ISA framework.
U.S. Licenses and Permits
NOAA issues licenses and permits to U.S. companies under the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act (30 U.S.C. ยงยง1401 et seq.).
Lockheed Martin holds two U.S. exploration licenses (USA-1 and USA-4), issued by NOAA in 1984.
NOAA is currently reviewing applications submitted in 2025. Many of the 2025 requested exploration blocks (hashed areas) overlap with ISA contract areas assigned to (T) Tonga and (N) Nauru.
ISA-Issued Contracts
The ISA, an autonomous organization established in 1994, issues seabed mining contracts in areas beyond national jurisdiction to companies sponsored by UNCLOS parties. In addition to contracts, ISA designates APEIs as no-mining zones to protect biodiversity and habitats in the CCZ and reserved areas to ensure developing countries have access to mineral resources.
Both the ISA and NOAA have authorized seabed exploration in the CCZ. NOAA-issued licenses may not be internationally recognized, as demonstrated by ISA's action to designate part of USA-1 an APEI in 2021. The ISA has stated that "virtually all" countries with ISA contracts "strongly rejected the possibility of acting outside [international law]." Should NOAA and ISA approvals vary in some measure, the pathway for resolving such geopolitical conflicts is unclear.
ISA began issuing exploration contracts in 2001.
Sponsoring states of the IOM are Bulgaria, Cuba, the Czech Republic, Poland, Russia, and Slovakia.
Seabed mining licenses, permits, and contracts do not have to be contiguous blocks.
Polymetallic Nodules (PMNs)
PMNs potato-shaped rocks lying on the deep seafloor. They form over millions of years as minerals from seawater and sediment pore water accrete around a hard nucleus (e.g., shark tooth), forming concentric layers. PMNs in the CCZ contain cobalt, copper, manganese, nickel, and other minerals.
While some have proposed harvesting PMNs as an option for diversifying critical mineral supply chains, particularly for energy transition and military technologies, others have expressed concerns about seabed mining's cost and environmental impact. Some may consider seabed mining unnecessary should emerging technologies rely on fewer critical minerals found in PMNs.
Nodule image: Smithsonian Institution.
Sources: NOAA, "Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Mining," https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/deep-seabed-mining/; and ISA, www.isa.org; International Energy Agency, Global Critical Mineral Outlook, 2025. Map: U.S. areas based on map in NOAA, Deep Sea Mining: A Report to Congress, 1995, p. 6, and materials accompanying NOAA, "Deep Seabed Mining: Notice of Receipt of Applications for Deep Seabed Mining Exploration Licenses and Announcement of Public Comment Period and Virtual Public Hearings," 90 FR 60064, December 23, 2025; ISA areas based on ISA data; ESRI.
Information as of February 4, 2026, prepared by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti, Specialist in Natural Resources Policy; Emma Kaboli, Analyst in Energy Policy; Calvin DeSouza, Geospatial Information Systems Analyst; and Amber Wilhelm, Visual Information Specialist.