Defense Primer: International Armaments Cooperation
June 9, 2023
Defense Primer: International Armaments Cooperation
What is International Armaments
laboratories, program offices, and other components of the
Cooperation?
RDT&E and acquisition enterprises.
International armaments cooperation (IAC) refers to an
array of research, development, testing, and evaluation
In addition, other organizations in DOD or the U.S.
(RDT&E), procurement, and sustainment partnerships
government may support a particular IAC effort. For
between the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) and
instance, activities involving classified information subject
foreign governments, militaries, or commercial entities.
to foreign disclosure limitations may require the
IAC encompasses a broad array of activities, ranging from
involvement of the interagency National Disclosure Policy
the exchange of basic RDT&E information to multi-billion
Committee.
dollar joint procurement programs. DOD considers IAC to
be a form of security cooperation intended to accomplish
IAC Projects
operational, economic, technological, political, and
The scale, objectives, and management of IAC activities
industrial objectives.
vary considerably. Broadly speaking, DOD and its partners
may initiate an IAC effort through a bilateral or multilateral
Legal and Policy Framework
agreement (often called a Memorandum of Understanding,
or MOU) that specifies contributions, responsibilities,
Statutory Authorities
participant organizations, and timelines. Unlike Foreign
The statutory authorities for IAC activities are contained
Military Sales (FMS), IAC activities are not structured
within Titles 10 and 22 of the U.S. Code. Title 10, Chapter
around a buyer-seller relationship. Instead, all participants
138 contains provisions that authorize: international cross-
typically provide resources (i.e., funds, personnel, facilities,
servicing agreements; international RDT&E agreements
or information) in return for a share of the project’s
and projects; international acquisition agreements and
outcomes (e.g., new or improved technologies). See Figure
projects; international logistic support agreements;
1 below for a notional overview of the process by which an
acceptance of foreign financial contributions for
IAC project is developed and executed.
cooperative projects; and international test facility
agreements. Title 22, Chapter 39 contains provisions that
Figure 1. Notional IAC Process
authorize the President to establish international
cooperative projects and enter into international loan
agreements for research and development purposes.
IAC Governance and Stakeholders
DOD Directive 5132.03 establishes policy and
responsibilities relating to security cooperation activities.
The Undersecretary of Defense for Policy is designated as
the principal staff assistant to the Defense Secretary for
overall security cooperation policy and oversight. The
Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment
(USD (A&S)) is responsible for “establish[ing] and
Source: CRS graphic based on analysis of DOD information.
maintain[ing] policies for the effective development of
Notes: This process may vary depending on the type of project,
international acquisition, technology, and logistics
organizations involved, and other considerations.
programs, including international armaments cooperation.”
The secretaries of the military departments (MILDEPS) are
responsible for “conduct[ing] international armaments
Within the office of USD (A&S), the Director for
cooperation with eligible allied and partner nations.”
International Cooperation has identified a number of broad
goals for IAC programs, including:
Each MILDEP has a designated office responsible for
• Reducing U.S. RDT&E, procurement, and
oversight of IAC projects. For the Department of the Army,
sustainment costs;
this is the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for
Defense Exports and Cooperation (DASA DE&C); for the
• Enhancing interoperability with allied and partner
Department of the Navy, this is the Navy International
militaries;
Programs Office (NIPO); and for the Department of the Air
Force, this is the Secretary of the Air Force, International
• Improving access to foreign technology and
Affairs (SAF/IA). Within each MILDEP, participating
industrial capacity for the U.S. military and
organizations in IAC projects may include research
defense industrial base; and
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Defense Primer: International Armaments Cooperation
• Expanding the operator base for U.S.-origin
weapons and equipment.
Considerations for Congress
DOD does not currently maintain a comprehensive,
Joint production arrangements to support Ukraine. In
publicly available list of IAC efforts; three examples of
response to Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, the United
recent projects are discussed below.
States and many other countries have provided the
Ukrainian military with a large and diverse quantity of
F-35 Lightning II
defense articles. The scale of this assistance has diminished
The F-35 Lightning II is a fifth-generation fighter aircraft,
existing U.S. stocks and put strain on domestic U.S.
also called the Joint Strike Fighter, operated by the U.S. Air
production capabilities, particularly for munitions. DOD
Force, Navy, and Marine Corps, as well as the militaries of
and its international counterparts have sought ways to
16 other countries (including 3 with pending programs).
cooperatively address production and supply chain
From the program’s beginning, DOD planned for IAC
constraints. Congress may study and identify ways to
activities: international participation commenced in 1995
expand executive branch IAC authorities to increase
with a U.S.-UK MOU that provided for British participation
production capacity and efficiency for high-priority systems
in setting requirements and design. After system
while reducing the impact to U.S. readiness.
development and design began in 2001, DOD invited seven
other nations to contribute resources in return for access to
IAC programs in support of AUKUS. In 2021, the United
the platform itself as well as program management input,
States, the United Kingdom, and Australia announced a
technology access, and coproduction opportunities. Partner
tripartite defense partnership referred to as AUKUS. The
country involvement operated on a tiered system – based on
partnership includes two broad lines of effort (called
the financial value of contributions, the eight international
‘pillars’). Pillar 1 aims to provide Australia with nuclear-
participants were designated Level I (the United Kingdom),
powered submarines. Pillar 2 aims to foster security
II (Italy and the Netherlands), or III (Australia, Norway,
cooperation across eight technological and functional areas.
Denmark, Canada, and Turkey (Türkiye); Turkey was
As both pillars may involve considerable IAC activities,
expelled from the program in 2019) partners. For more
Congress may consider the extent to which dedicated
information, see CRS Report RL30563, F-35 Joint Strike
oversight and additional appropriations may be necessary,
Fighter (JSF) Program.
both to support the efficacy of AUKUS efforts and to limit
negative impacts on U.S. readiness (particularly given
Mark 48 Heavyweight Torpedo
current capacity limitations of the U.S. submarine industrial
The Mark 48 heavyweight torpedo is a primarily
base) or other congressional priorities.
submarine-launched weapon designed for use against
surface ships and submarines. Since 2003, the U.S. Navy
Legal and administrative challenges. The U.S. export
and the Royal Australian Navy have cooperatively
control regime—especially the International Traffic in
developed, produced, tested, and provided in-service
Arms Regulations (ITAR)—has been criticized by some
support for the Mark 48 torpedo and successive capability-
analysts and policymakers (including some Members of
enhancing modifications (including improved sonar,
Congress) who argue that existing restrictions impede IAC
guidance and control, and signal processing). These
efforts by delaying project development and execution,
cooperative efforts are managed through a bilateral MOU
creating administrative burdens, and deterring U.S. and
that establishes the broad activities, costs, and timelines of
partner organizations from initiating projects. On the other
this collaboration. The MOU also establishes a fixed ratio
hand, proponents of current export restrictions argue that
according to which each country will contribute resources.
they protect critical technology and prevent defense
For the most recent publicly available MOU (in effect from
transfers that could harm U.S. interests. At least two bills
2009 through 2019), the total estimated cost of both parties’
have been introduced in the 118th Congress that aim to
contributions to Mark 48 was $407 million (contributed on
modify defense export controls by relaxing legal and
a ratio of 85:15, United States: Australia).
administrative requirements for certain security cooperation
activities (H.R. 1093 and S. 1471).
M982 Excalibur
The M982 Excalibur is a 155mm precision-guided, cannon-
Luke A. Nicastro, Coordinator, Analyst in U.S. Defense
fired projectile used for extended range fire support that
Infrastructure Policy
was initially developed through an IAC partnership
Christina L. Arabia, Analyst in Security Assistance,
between the United States and Sweden. In 1999, the U.S.
Security Cooperation and the Global Arms Trade
Army and the Swedish Defense Materiel Administration
began cooperative RDT&E efforts aimed at developing
Alexandra G. Neenan, Analyst in U.S. Defense
trajectory correctable munitions. Both parties contributed
Infrastructure Policy
existing artillery and munitions technology, as well as
IF12425
funding, personnel, and facilities. Following the completion
of planned RDT&E activities in 2002, the bilateral IAC
partnership continued into the procurement process.
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Defense Primer: International Armaments Cooperation
Disclaimer
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