Women, Peace, and Security: Global Context and U.S. Policy
March 15, 2023
Women, Peace, and Security: Global Context and U.S. Policy
In 2000, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
settings. Such violence negatively and disproportionately
unanimously adopted Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace,
affects women’s health, safety, and community
and Security. The resolution calls on U.N. member states
participation. In 2021, the United Nations identified nearly
to, among other things, take steps to increase women’s
3,300 cases of conflict-related sexual violence (800 more
participation in peace processes and to protect women from
than in 2020). For every documented case, experts estimate
sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). Resolution
10-20 are unreported.
1325 and nine follow-up resolutions adopted in subsequent
years collectively provide a global foundation for what is
The U.N. Security Council and WPS
generally referred to as “Women, Peace, and Security”
Adoption of UNSC Resolutions. Resolution 1325 calls on
(WPS), a broad policy framework that supports the
governments and organizations to take measures to address
participation and full involvement of women in all efforts to
several issues, including (1) improving women’s
achieve peace and security. The United States played a lead
participation in all institutions and in conflict and post-
role in the adoption of Resolution 1325, and there has
conflict mechanisms; (2) protecting women and girls from
generally been broad support in Congress for WPS. The
SGBV, particularly in conflict and humanitarian situations;
115th Congress enacted the Women, Peace and Security Act
(3) preventing SGBV, including by strengthening women’s
of 2017 (WPS Act; P.L. 115-68), which aims to integrate
rights under international law and supporting local
WPS objectives into U.S. foreign policy. Members of the
women’s peace initiatives; and (4) advancing relief and
118th Congress may continue to conduct oversight of WPS
recovery efforts to include a gender perspective. In 2004,
Act implementation, monitor U.S. funding for WPS
the UNSC issued a Presidential Statement encouraging
activities, and assess global efforts to implement Resolution
member states to develop national action plans (NAPs) to
1325.
implement Resolution 1325. (Over 100 countries created
NAPs, including the United States. The scope and contents
Background and Context
of NAPS vary depending on the country.) Between 2008
Role of Gender Inequality. Historically, women have been
and 2021, the UNSC adopted nine additional resolutions
generally viewed as victims or passive observers in security
that affirmed and expanded on Resolution 1325. Of these,
situations rather than as active participants or leaders. This
Resolution 1820, adopted in 2008, was the first UNSC
reflects the broader exclusion of many women from full
resolution to recognize sexual violence as a weapon and
participation in their families, communities, and
tactic of war and to note that rape and other forms of sexual
governments. In some societies, long-standing power
violence can constitute a war crime.
imbalances between men and women have led to pervasive
gender stereotypes and behaviors that contribute to
UNSC Debates. Most UNSC resolutions addressing WPS
discrimination. Gender imbalance is especially prevalent in
have been adopted by consensus; however, negotiations
peace talks and post-conflict resolution processes, where
have become increasingly contentious, leading some
men are disproportionately represented at all levels.
observers to question the future of WPS in the Council. For
According to the Council on Foreign Relations, from 1992
example, despite agreeing to previous resolutions on WPS,
to 2019 women represented 13% of negotiators, 6% of
Russia and China (two of the five permanent members of
mediators, and 6% of signatories in peace processes.
the UNSC, or “P-5”) continue to question whether the
Council is the appropriate forum for addressing gender
Links Between Women’s Well-Being and Security.
issues in the U.N. system. Other countries, including the
Many experts and policymakers have increasingly
United States (also a P-5 member), have at times objected
recognized a growing body of research which finds that
to certain issues. Resolution 2467 (2019) on sexual violence
women can play an important role in creating and
in conflict became the first WPS resolution to be adopted
sustaining peace and security. Studies have found that when
without consensus. China and Russia abstained due to
women participate in peace processes, they are more likely
concerns about the resolution potentially expanding the
than men to build coalitions, speak up for marginalized
Council’s WPS activities through a new working group. In
groups, and promote human rights and national
addition, the United States threatened to veto the resolution
reconciliation. Women’s involvement can also lead to more
because initial drafts included text on sexual and
sustained and peaceful outcomes; for instance, the United
reproductive health that U.S. officials believed could imply
Nations reports that peace agreements are 20% more likely
access to abortion. (The language was removed and the
to last at least two years, and 35% more likely to last for
United States voted for the resolution.)
more than 15 years, when women are involved.
Global Implementation and Challenges
Some experts have also recognized the importance of
Implementation. Experts largely agree that while there
protecting women from SGBV in conflict and post-conflict
have been some successes, implementation of Resolution
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link to page 2 Women, Peace, and Security: Global Context and U.S. Policy
1325 by U.N. member states has been inconsistent and at
priorities: (1) supporting women’s meaningful participation
times has stalled or backtracked. Overall, despite the
in decisionmaking processes; (2) protecting women from
breadth and scope of global WPS commitments, there is a
human rights abuses, including SGBV; (3) adjusting
large gap between WPS rhetoric and action. For example,
internal capabilities and programs to improve women’s
the United Nations reports that despite global support for
equality; and (4) supporting partnerships to improve
including women in peace negotiations, 7 in 10 peace
women’s participation. In a 2022 report to Congress on the
processes in 2021 did not include women as mediators or
strategy, President Biden called WPS “a cornerstone of U.S
signatories. In 2021, women participated as negotiators or
... efforts geared to averting and preventing conflict.”
delegates in all 18 U.N.-led peace processes; yet women’s
representation was just 19% (compared with 23% in 2020).
Legislation. In 2017, Congress enacted the WPS Act (P.L.
In 2021, 32% of peace agreements included provisions
115-68), which aims to promote the meaningful
taking into account the needs of women and girls, which
participation of women in overseas conflict prevention,
represents an increase from 26% in 2020 but is barely
management, and resolution. The act, among other things,
above the 20-year average.
calls for a new U.S. WPS strategy; incorporates WPS into
certain U.S. government employee training; establishes
Selected Challenges. One of the foremost challenges to
guidelines on collaboration and consultation with global,
WPS implementation is pervasive gender discrimination
regional, and local organizations in conflict prevention and
and inequality. Some experts argue that substantive
mitigation; and requires annual reporting to Congress.
progress on WPS cannot be achieved or sustained unless
the root causes of gender imbalance are addressed, with
Since FY2021, Congress appropriated between $130-$150
many observers noting the importance of further involving
million annually to WPS in Department of State, Foreign
men in WPS efforts. Some also note that implementation of
Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) Appropriations
WPS is dependent on progress on cross-cutting issues such
Acts (Table 1). Some National Defense Authorization Acts
as women’s equal access to health care, education, and
also provide guidance to DOD on WPS Act implementation
economic opportunities. The COVID-19 pandemic
(e.g., §1334 of P.L. 117-81). In FY2021, DOD spent $5.5
exacerbated many of these issues, reversing global progress
million to implement the act, hire and train personnel, and
on gender equality, including WPS.
integrate WPS into training and education.
Some experts have also found that insufficient WPS
Table 1. SFOPS WPS Appropriations ($ millions)
funding and resources remain a persistent challenge. A
2020 U.N. report found that while funding for programs
FY13
FY14-FY20
FY21
FY22
FY23
that support WPS has increased globally since 2000,
50
Not specified
130
135
150
“inadequate and unpredictable financing remains a major
roadblock.” In addition, many government WPS
Source: SFOPS Acts and committee reports.
commitments are often not sufficiently linked to budgets or
Notes: From FY14-FY20, Congress directed that funds be used for
accountability mechanisms (including verifiable indicators
WPS but did not specify a dol ar amount.
of progress), and WPS recommendations by women-led
organizations are often “left unheeded or deprioritized.”
Congressional Considerations
WPS Act Implementation. Members of Congress oversee
U.S. Policy
U.S. implementation of the WPS Act, including progress on
U.S. Agencies and Programs. The key U.S. agencies
agency implementation plans. Members may also consider
responsible for global WPS activities are the Department of
how, if at all, U.S. WPS programs complement or relate to
State, U.S. Agency for International Development
U.S. efforts to address other global women’s issues,
(USAID), and Department of Defense (DOD). U.S. WPS
national security priorities, or country-specific situations
programs vary by agency but generally focus on training,
(such the status of women in Afghanistan).
engaging civil society, and promoting WPS with foreign
partners. For example, in FY2021 USAID supported the
WPS Funding. Members may consider the level and status
participation of over 77,000 women in leadership, conflict
of WPS funding, including whether, if at all, to condition
mediation, and other processes. The State Department
assistance to governments based on WPS progress.
addresses women’s leadership and SGBV responses
Members may also track how funds are allocated across
through humanitarian assistance, public diplomacy,
agencies. For example, a 2022 USAID report to Congress
engaging civil society, and promoting WPS bilaterally and
on WPS identified “lack of flexible and core funding” as a
multilaterally. DOD’s international security cooperation
key challenge, stating that it is difficult to provide “rapid
programs support women’s participation in partner
dedicated WPS monies” for programming and staffing to
government defense institutions and security forces.
implement the WPS Act and Strategy in real time.
U.S. Action Plans and Strategies. In 2011, the Obama
WPS in the UNSC. As a permanent member of the UNSC,
Administration released (and in 2016 updated) the first U.S.
the United States can play a key role in shaping Council
NAP on WPS, which aimed to integrate WPS into U.S.
actions on WPS. Congress may monitor executive branch
foreign policy. In 2020, the Trump Administration
priorities and activities in the Council, including the
published a new U.S. WPS Strategy as required by the WPS
implementation of WPS resolutions by U.N. entities and the
Act (see “Legislation” paragraph). The strategy, which
status of WPS negotiations or discussions.
supersedes the NAP, outlines four U.S. foreign policy
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Women, Peace, and Security: Global Context and U.S. Policy
IF12346
Luisa Blanchfield, Specialist in International Relations
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