Defining Low-Income, Low-Access Food Areas (Food Deserts)
link to page 1 link to page 1 link to page 1 
June 1, 2021
Defining Low-Income, Low-Access Food Areas (Food Deserts)
In the Food Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 (P.L.
Figure 1 shows 2019 data for low-income, low-access
110-246, §7527), Congress directed the U.S. Department of
(LILA) areas that are LI areas in urban census tracts where
Agriculture (USDA) to identify “characteristics and factors
urban residents live more than 1 mile and where rural
causing and influencing food deserts”—referred to as an
residents live more than 10 miles from a supermarket.
area “with limited access to affordable and nutritious food,
These data suggest that 6% of the U.S. population (about 19
particularly such an area composed of predominantly
million people) live in LILA areas and that every U.S. state
lower-income neighborhoods and communities.” USDA
and the District of Columbia has LILA areas.
identifies areas of low food access based on certain low-
income and low-access criteria. These criteria base food
Figure 1. Low-Income, Low-Access Areas, 2019
access largely on the distance to a supermarket, consistent
with the 2008 farm bill’s Statement of Managers calling on
USDA to identify “geographically isolated neighborhoods
and communities with limited or no access to major chain
grocery stores” (Figure 1). Despite references in the 2008
farm bill, food desert currently is not defined in statute.
Researchers have criticized USDA’s methodology to
identify low-food-access areas, and some community
food advocates want to discontinue use of food desert
and adopt alternative terminology.
Congressional interest continues in regard to access to
healthy foods in the United States. The Healthy Food
Access for All Americans Act (H.R. 1313/S. 203),
Source: CRS using Food Access Research Atlas. Green= low-income
reintroduced in the 117th Congress, would establish tax
census tracts where urban residents live more than 1 mile or rural
where residents live more than 10 miles from a supermarket.
credits and grants to certain food providers in areas
considered to be food deserts (as defined therein). Other
Notes: County-level data are at https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-
products/food-access-research-atlas/download-the-data/.
proposed legislation in the 116th Congress would have
established state revolving funds to provide loans for
USDA’s earlier effort―Food Desert Locator
establishing and operating grocery stores in underserved
series―referenced food deserts. Although USDA’s Food
communities (H.R. 8531) or supported the expansion of
Access Research Atlas does not explicitly reference food
salad bars in schools in food desert communities (H.R.
deserts, various stakeholders continue to use these data for
2688). Some of these bills would define a food desert using
research and work related to food deserts. USDA data often
a geographic basis similar to the 2008 farm bill.
differ compared with other independent, more localized
mapping initiatives in terms of identifying areas considered
USDA’s Food Access Data
to be low income and to have low food access.
USDA’s data and methodology for identifying geographic
areas that may have limited food access have evolved since
Criticism of USDA’s Methodology
the 2008 farm bill. Although the 2014 farm bill (P.L. 113-
Some academic researchers have raised concerns about
79, §7517) repealed the 2008 farm bill provision (§7527),
USDA’s LILA criteria and the use of these data to depict
USDA continues to develop and report such data. Current
food access. In 2012, the U.S. Conference of Mayors Food
USDA estimates for 2019 are available in its Food Access
Policy Task Force noted that USDA’s methodology did not
Research Atlas data. USDA data are for populations within
“capture the reality” of food access in many cities. Some
census tracts, which are statistical subdivisions of a county,
researchers have also been adopting alternate data and
with a population size between 1,200 and 8,000 people or
methodologies to more precisely estimate food access.
an average of 4,000 people. Criteria for low-income and
USDA’s use of income and distance to nearby supermarkets
low-access census tracts shown in Figure 1 reflect
as the leading indicators of food access using available
low-income (LI): poverty rate of 20% or greater, or
census tract data may omit other factors that some cities and
median family income at or below 80% of the statewide
communities may regard as important under alternative
or metropolitan area median family income; and
definitions, such as race or local geographic conditions.
low-access (LA): a low-income tract with at least 500
Another criticism is reliance on the use of census tracts,
people or 33% of the tract’s population living more than
1 mile (urban areas) or more than 10 miles (rural areas)
which might be too large of a measurement scale and could
from the nearest supermarket or grocery store. (USDA
result in inaccuracies—possibly under- or overcounting
LA data are also available assuming different measures
LILA areas. Another limitation is considering only
of distance, ranging 0.5 miles to 20 miles.)
supermarkets, supercenters, and grocery stores as providing
https://crsreports.congress.gov
link to page 2 link to page 2
Defining Low -Income, Low -Access Food Areas (Food Deserts)
access to food. This may discount the role of other food
box presents selected criticisms regarding the current use of
sources, such as convenience stores, farmers’ markets, food
food desert terminology.
banks/pantries, community gardens, bodegas, or other retail
food outlets. Undercounting where people might purchase
Criticisms of Food Desert Terminology
healthy food might overestimate the number of LILA areas
Negative Connotation, Implying Barren Landscape.
and reduce the efficiency of targeted responses. A related
Some claim the term food desert views an area through a
criticism is measuring food access based on distance only
“deficit” lens, focusing only on what a community lacks and
(e.g., 1 or 10 miles from a grocery store depending on if it
evokes an image of a place barren of food, people, and life.
is an urban or rural area), which might not reflect the true
Not a Natural Occurrence, Implying Intentionality.
distance a person would travel to purchase food. In some
Some argue food desert implies a natural phenomenon rather
cases, there may be food outlets near where a person works
than a social and economic occurrence and fails to
or where their child attends school or where they may (or
acknowledge underlying structural inequities that led to
may not) have access to public transportation or personal
unequal access, such as racial discrimination and poverty.
use of a vehicle. This approach also does not account for
Overemphasis on Distance, Implying the Need for
the actual travel time necessary to get food. USDA’s LILA
More Grocery Stores. Some claim policies designed to
approach also does not explicitly take into account if the
address food access tend to rely on distance to food as the
available food is nutritious and affordable.
leading determinant of food access, which “overemphasizes
space” and oversimplifies access. Some have raised concerns
Figure 2 illustrates how other data and methods employed
that this contributes to policy solutions focused on providing
may yield different outcomes than USDA, using Baltimore
for more supermarkets, rather than attention to other policy
City as an example. As shown, USDA LILA data for
options (e.g., expanding domestic food program benefits or
Baltimore do not readily match up with results identifying
incentives for farmers’ markets or addressing nonspatial
Healthy Food Priority Areas (HFPAs) obtained by the
barriers such as income, employment, education, and mobility).
Baltimore Farm Alliance and Johns Hopkins University.
HFPA criteria differ from USDA: HFPAs are based on
Some researchers are rethinking use of food desert and are
measures of median household income at or below 185% of
adopting alternative terminology in an effort to
the federal poverty level and distance to a supermarket of
acknowledge diverse perspectives and aspects of the
more than a quarter of a mile. HFPA data also include
problem. Some local governments have adopted alternative
criteria from surveys used to obtain a Healthy Food
language (e.g., Baltimore City government refers to such
Availability Index score for all food stores. Figure 2 shows
areas as HFPAs). Some community advocates call for
how use of alternative data and criteria applied on a
alternative terminology that takes into account not only
smaller, more targeted scale might better identify areas
income and geography but also perceived social and racial
known to have low food access. It also shows that USDA
inequalities and discriminatory systems that make it
data may be identifying areas not considered to have low
difficult for people in low-income areas to access healthy
access to food.
affordable food.
Figure 2. USDA 2019 LILA Areas and 2018-Reported
Some communities prefer terms that focus on access to
Healthy Food Priority Areas (Baltimore City)
supermarkets and grocery stores. One term—supermarket
redlining—highlights the concern that, in some areas of the
country, major chain grocery stores may be relocating from
urban to suburban areas and divesting in low-income
neighborhoods and communities of color. Some
communities are using the term food apartheid, which
draws attention to structural conditions that limit food
access (including access to land and resources) and
emphasizes discriminatory conditions (such as predatory
marketing). Other terms include food mirage, food swamp,
and food hinterland. These terms refer to areas with limited
Source: Map on left (CRS from USDA’s Food Access Research
access to healthy, affordable food that do not match
Atlas, https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-access-research-
USDA’s methodology or account for other factors (such as
atlas/); and map on right (Baltimore Farm Al iance, Story Map and
prices) or differential access within a community.
Report, December 2018, https://farmal iancebaltimore.org/a-farm-
al iance-webinar-briefing-farmers-feeding-baltimore/).
Considerations for Congress
Notes: Map on left: green = LILA at 1 and 10 miles; orange = LILA at
0.5 and 10 miles. Map on right: blue = concentrations of African
Food desert is commonly used to describe areas with
American population; pink = Designated Healthy Food Priority Areas.
populations that lack access to healthy, affordable food.
When debating policy related to food access, Congress may
Criticism of Food Desert Terminology
consider critiques of USDA’s methodology for estimating
Some community food advocates have become increasingly
the number and locations of such areas, as well as criticism
critical of the term food desert to describe areas of low
of the use of food desert.
access to affordable, nutritious food, arguing for the
Renée Johnson, Specialist in Agricultural Policy
adoption of alternative terminology. They argue food desert
Nyah Stewart, Research Associate
does not adequately capture all the factors related to food
access and has negative connotations. They say other terms
IF11841
better describe low-income and low-access areas. The text
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Defining Low -Income, Low -Access Food Areas (Food Deserts)
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permissio n of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF11841 · VERSION 1 · NEW
June 1, 2021
Defining Low-Income, Low-Access Food Areas (Food Deserts)
In the Food Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 (P.L.
Figure 1 shows 2019 data for low-income, low-access
110-246, §7527), Congress directed the U.S. Department of
(LILA) areas that are LI areas in urban census tracts where
Agriculture (USDA) to identify “characteristics and factors
urban residents live more than 1 mile and where rural
causing and influencing food deserts”—referred to as an
residents live more than 10 miles from a supermarket.
area “with limited access to affordable and nutritious food,
These data suggest that 6% of the U.S. population (about 19
particularly such an area composed of predominantly
million people) live in LILA areas and that every U.S. state
lower-income neighborhoods and communities.” USDA
and the District of Columbia has LILA areas.
identifies areas of low food access based on certain low-
income and low-access criteria. These criteria base food
Figure 1. Low-Income, Low-Access Areas, 2019
access largely on the distance to a supermarket, consistent
with the 2008 farm bill’s Statement of Managers calling on
USDA to identify “geographically isolated neighborhoods
and communities with limited or no access to major chain
grocery stores” (Figure 1). Despite references in the 2008
farm bill, food desert currently is not defined in statute.
Researchers have criticized USDA’s methodology to
identify low-food-access areas, and some community
food advocates want to discontinue use of food desert
and adopt alternative terminology.
Congressional interest continues in regard to access to
healthy foods in the United States. The Healthy Food
Access for All Americans Act (H.R. 1313/S. 203),
Source: CRS using Food Access Research Atlas. Green= low-income
reintroduced in the 117th Congress, would establish tax
census tracts where urban residents live more than 1 mile or rural
where residents live more than 10 miles from a supermarket.
credits and grants to certain food providers in areas
considered to be food deserts (as defined therein). Other
Notes: County-level data are at https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-
products/food-access-research-atlas/download-the-data/.
proposed legislation in the 116th Congress would have
established state revolving funds to provide loans for
USDA’s earlier effort―Food Desert Locator
establishing and operating grocery stores in underserved
series―referenced food deserts. Although USDA’s Food
communities (H.R. 8531) or supported the expansion of
Access Research Atlas does not explicitly reference food
salad bars in schools in food desert communities (H.R.
deserts, various stakeholders continue to use these data for
2688). Some of these bills would define a food desert using
research and work related to food deserts. USDA data often
a geographic basis similar to the 2008 farm bill.
differ compared with other independent, more localized
mapping initiatives in terms of identifying areas considered
USDA’s Food Access Data
to be low income and to have low food access.
USDA’s data and methodology for identifying geographic
areas that may have limited food access have evolved since
Criticism of USDA’s Methodology
the 2008 farm bill. Although the 2014 farm bill (P.L. 113-
Some academic researchers have raised concerns about
79, §7517) repealed the 2008 farm bill provision (§7527),
USDA’s LILA criteria and the use of these data to depict
USDA continues to develop and report such data. Current
food access. In 2012, the U.S. Conference of Mayors Food
USDA estimates for 2019 are available in its Food Access
Policy Task Force noted that USDA’s methodology did not
Research Atlas data. USDA data are for populations within
“capture the reality” of food access in many cities. Some
census tracts, which are statistical subdivisions of a county,
researchers have also been adopting alternate data and
with a population size between 1,200 and 8,000 people or
methodologies to more precisely estimate food access.
an average of 4,000 people. Criteria for low-income and
USDA’s use of income and distance to nearby supermarkets
low-access census tracts shown in Figure 1 reflect
as the leading indicators of food access using available
low-income (LI): poverty rate of 20% or greater, or
census tract data may omit other factors that some cities and
median family income at or below 80% of the statewide
communities may regard as important under alternative
or metropolitan area median family income; and
definitions, such as race or local geographic conditions.
low-access (LA): a low-income tract with at least 500
Another criticism is reliance on the use of census tracts,
people or 33% of the tract’s population living more than
1 mile (urban areas) or more than 10 miles (rural areas)
which might be too large of a measurement scale and could
from the nearest supermarket or grocery store. (USDA
result in inaccuracies—possibly under- or overcounting
LA data are also available assuming different measures
LILA areas. Another limitation is considering only
of distance, ranging 0.5 miles to 20 miles.)
supermarkets, supercenters, and grocery stores as providing
https://crsreports.congress.gov
link to page 2 link to page 2
Defining Low -Income, Low -Access Food Areas (Food Deserts)
access to food. This may discount the role of other food
box presents selected criticisms regarding the current use of
sources, such as convenience stores, farmers’ markets, food
food desert terminology.
banks/pantries, community gardens, bodegas, or other retail
food outlets. Undercounting where people might purchase
Criticisms of Food Desert Terminology
healthy food might overestimate the number of LILA areas
Negative Connotation, Implying Barren Landscape.
and reduce the efficiency of targeted responses. A related
Some claim the term food desert views an area through a
criticism is measuring food access based on distance only
“deficit” lens, focusing only on what a community lacks and
(e.g., 1 or 10 miles from a grocery store depending on if it
evokes an image of a place barren of food, people, and life.
is an urban or rural area), which might not reflect the true
Not a Natural Occurrence, Implying Intentionality.
distance a person would travel to purchase food. In some
Some argue food desert implies a natural phenomenon rather
cases, there may be food outlets near where a person works
than a social and economic occurrence and fails to
or where their child attends school or where they may (or
acknowledge underlying structural inequities that led to
may not) have access to public transportation or personal
unequal access, such as racial discrimination and poverty.
use of a vehicle. This approach also does not account for
Overemphasis on Distance, Implying the Need for
the actual travel time necessary to get food. USDA’s LILA
More Grocery Stores. Some claim policies designed to
approach also does not explicitly take into account if the
address food access tend to rely on distance to food as the
available food is nutritious and affordable.
leading determinant of food access, which “overemphasizes
space” and oversimplifies access. Some have raised concerns
Figure 2 illustrates how other data and methods employed
that this contributes to policy solutions focused on providing
may yield different outcomes than USDA, using Baltimore
for more supermarkets, rather than attention to other policy
City as an example. As shown, USDA LILA data for
options (e.g., expanding domestic food program benefits or
Baltimore do not readily match up with results identifying
incentives for farmers’ markets or addressing nonspatial
Healthy Food Priority Areas (HFPAs) obtained by the
barriers such as income, employment, education, and mobility).
Baltimore Farm Alliance and Johns Hopkins University.
HFPA criteria differ from USDA: HFPAs are based on
Some researchers are rethinking use of food desert and are
measures of median household income at or below 185% of
adopting alternative terminology in an effort to
the federal poverty level and distance to a supermarket of
acknowledge diverse perspectives and aspects of the
more than a quarter of a mile. HFPA data also include
problem. Some local governments have adopted alternative
criteria from surveys used to obtain a Healthy Food
language (e.g., Baltimore City government refers to such
Availability Index score for all food stores. Figure 2 shows
areas as HFPAs). Some community advocates call for
how use of alternative data and criteria applied on a
alternative terminology that takes into account not only
smaller, more targeted scale might better identify areas
income and geography but also perceived social and racial
known to have low food access. It also shows that USDA
inequalities and discriminatory systems that make it
data may be identifying areas not considered to have low
difficult for people in low-income areas to access healthy
access to food.
affordable food.
Figure 2. USDA 2019 LILA Areas and 2018-Reported
Some communities prefer terms that focus on access to
Healthy Food Priority Areas (Baltimore City)
supermarkets and grocery stores. One term—supermarket
redlining—highlights the concern that, in some areas of the
country, major chain grocery stores may be relocating from
urban to suburban areas and divesting in low-income
neighborhoods and communities of color. Some
communities are using the term food apartheid, which
draws attention to structural conditions that limit food
access (including access to land and resources) and
emphasizes discriminatory conditions (such as predatory
marketing). Other terms include food mirage, food swamp,
and food hinterland. These terms refer to areas with limited
Source: Map on left (CRS from USDA’s Food Access Research
access to healthy, affordable food that do not match
Atlas, https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-access-research-
USDA’s methodology or account for other factors (such as
atlas/); and map on right (Baltimore Farm Al iance, Story Map and
prices) or differential access within a community.
Report, December 2018, https://farmal iancebaltimore.org/a-farm-
al iance-webinar-briefing-farmers-feeding-baltimore/).
Considerations for Congress
Notes: Map on left: green = LILA at 1 and 10 miles; orange = LILA at
0.5 and 10 miles. Map on right: blue = concentrations of African
Food desert is commonly used to describe areas with
American population; pink = Designated Healthy Food Priority Areas.
populations that lack access to healthy, affordable food.
When debating policy related to food access, Congress may
Criticism of Food Desert Terminology
consider critiques of USDA’s methodology for estimating
Some community food advocates have become increasingly
the number and locations of such areas, as well as criticism
critical of the term food desert to describe areas of low
of the use of food desert.
access to affordable, nutritious food, arguing for the
Renée Johnson, Specialist in Agricultural Policy
adoption of alternative terminology. They argue food desert
Nyah Stewart, Research Associate
does not adequately capture all the factors related to food
access and has negative connotations. They say other terms
IF11841
better describe low-income and low-access areas. The text
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Defining Low -Income, Low -Access Food Areas (Food Deserts)
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permissio n of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF11841 · VERSION 1 · NEW