Biometric Technologies and Global Security




Updated January 30, 2023
Biometric Technologies and Global Security
Biometric technologies use unique biological or behavioral
In the future, biometric technologies could be integrated
attributes—such as DNA, fingerprints, cardiac signatures,
into lethal autonomous weapon systems (LAWS), or
voice or gait patterns, and facial or ocular measurements—
weapons capable of selecting and engaging targets without
to authenticate an individual’s identity. Although biometric
the need for manual human control or remote operation.
technologies have been in use for decades, recent advances
Such weapons could potentially feature a database
in artificial intelligence (AI) and Big Data analytics have
containing the biometric identifiers of preapproved human
expanded their application. As these technologies continue
targets; the weapons could then use the database to
to mature and proliferate, largely driven by advances in the
autonomously locate, select, and engage human targets in
commercial sector, they will likely hold growing
communications-degraded or -denied environments where
implications for congressional oversight, civil liberties, U.S.
traditional systems may not be able to operate.
defense authorizations and appropriations, military and
intelligence concepts of operations, and the future of war.
Some analysts have argued that this technology application
could increase precision in targeting, and thus improve
How are biometric technologies being
adherence to international humanitarian law (e.g., avoid
used today?
killing civilians), while others have argued that it is
Biometric technologies are currently used for a number of
inherently unethical and could violate international
congressionally authorized or mandated security
humanitarian law. The United States does not currently
applications throughout the U.S. government. For example,
possess and is not known to be developing LAWS;
the Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001 (P.L.
however, there is no prohibition on their development or the
107-71) granted the Transportation Security Administration
incorporation of biometric technologies into autonomous
the authority to employ biometrics for passenger screening
weapon systems. Weapons manufacturers in both China and
and airport access control. Similarly, the Intelligence
Russia have stated that they are developing these systems,
Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-
which could include biometric features.
458) required the Department of Homeland Security to
operate a biometric entry and exit data system to verify the
Biometric technologies could also be integrated into
identity of foreign nationals seeking to enter or exit the
localized or national data collection and surveillance
United States. These applications are intended to expedite
networks. For example, as Center for Security and
screening processes and reduce human error rates.
Emerging Technology analyst Dahlia Peterson has noted,
“[Chinese] officials maintain national DNA databases and
Biometric technologies are also used by law enforcement
extensive video surveillance networks”—augmented by AI-
agencies, such as the Secret Service and Federal Bureau of
enabled voice and facial recognition technology—to
Investigation, to assist in the investigation of crimes and to
monitor and track individuals within China. These systems
identify missing persons and persons of interest. In
could continue to be linked and supplemented with private
addition, the Department of Defense (DOD) has used
information such as medical, travel, and purchase history.
biometric technologies “to identify, target, and disrupt
enemy combatants and terrorists” in Iraq, Afghanistan, and
Although the Chinese government claims that these
elsewhere. According to the Government Accountability
biometric applications contribute to predictive policing and
Office, between 2008 and 2017, DOD used biometric
public safety, some analysts have argued that they provide a
technologies “to capture or kill 1,700 individuals and deny
means of imposing censorship and social control and could
92,000 individuals access to military bases.” DOD
enable human rights violations. Reports indicate that China
Directive 8521.01E establishes DOD policy and
has employed biometric surveillance to monitor ethnic
bureaucratic responsibilities for biometric technologies.
minorities in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and
facilitate their detention and internment in “re-education”
How could biometric technologies be
centers. (Some analysts note that China’s application of
used in the future?
biometric surveillance systems has not been uniform
DOD is exploring a range of emerging biometric
throughout China, and thus the Xinjiang model is not
technologies and biometric applications, including AI
necessarily representative of China’s national plans.
techniques that could identify individuals in low-light or
Regardless, this model could be deployed nationally in
otherwise obscured conditions and laser techniques that
other countries.)
could identify individuals at distances of around 200
meters. Such techniques could be employed in covert and
Biometric surveillance systems also could hold implications
clandestine operations without an individual’s knowledge
for traditional military and intelligence operations.
or consent.
According to former CIA Deputy Director for Science and
Technology Dawn Meyerriecks, around 30 countries have
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Biometric Technologies and Global Security
already deployed biometric surveillance systems that are
Some U.S. defense agencies are seeking to develop
capable of autonomously tracking foreign military
biometric presentation attack detection technologies. For
personnel and intelligence operatives. Some estimates
example, the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects
suggest that China alone has exported components of these
Agency program Odin seeks to provide an automated
systems to over 80 countries, including authoritarian
means of both detecting known presentation attacks and
regimes, such as Venezuela, and U.S. allies, such as the
identifying unknown vectors of attack.
United Kingdom.
Recent legislative activities
Fully integrated, large-scale biometric surveillance
Congress has considered the implications of biometric—
networks have not yet been realized; however, as
specifically facial recognition—technologies in a number of
component technologies continue to mature and proliferate,
recent legislative provisions. For example, Section 5104 of
such networks could threaten the privacy or jeopardize the
the FY2021 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA)
safety of targeted individuals or disrupt U.S. clandestine
(P.L. 116-283) tasks the National AI Advisory Committee
operations or human intelligence gathering. As a result,
with advising the President on “whether the use of facial
U.S. military and intelligence agencies may continue to
recognition by government authorities ... is taking into
develop alternative tradecraft and concepts of operation.
account ethical considerations and ... whether such use
should be subject to additional oversight, controls, and
How could biometric technologies fail?
limitations.” In addition, Section 5708 of the FY2020
Biometric technologies have a number of vulnerabilities
NDAA (P.L. 116-92) expresses the sense of Congress that
that underscore the ethical concerns over their employment
the discriminatory use of facial recognition technologies “is
and could result in the failure of the technology to perform
contrary to the values of the United States” and that “the
as anticipated. For example, researchers have repeatedly
United States Government should not engage in the sale or
found that AI-trained facial recognition programs fail
transfer of facial recognition technology to any country that
disproportionately when used for women and people of
is using such technology for the suppression of human
color due to both the models and the data on which the
rights.” The section also tasks the Director of National
programs were trained. Data poisoning, in which an
Intelligence with submitting to the congressional
adversary or bad actor seeks to surreptitiously mis-train an
intelligence committees a report on the intelligence
opponent’s AI, could present additional challenges for AI-
community’s use of facial recognition technologies. Other
trained biometric technologies. If unaddressed, these
biometric technologies are not addressed.
challenges could result in system failure, potentially leading
to violations of civil liberties or international humanitarian
Potential questions for Congress
law.
 How should the potential national security benefits of
biometric technologies be balanced with civil liberties
Biometric technologies are also vulnerable to presentation
and the requirements of international humanitarian
attacks (or spoofing), in which a targeted individual uses
law? What domestic or international limits, if any,
makeup, prosthetics, or other measures to prevent a
should be placed on the use of biometric technologies
biometric system from accurately capturing their biometric
or biometric data collection?
identifiers or adjudicating their identity (see Figure 1). This
 Are biometric technologies being sufficiently tested to
could enable individuals such as terrorists or foreign
ensure their accuracy and to ward against presentation
intelligence operatives to thwart biometric security systems.
attacks and other countermeasures?

Figure 1. Facial Recognition Technologies:

To what extent are potential U.S. adversaries
How Do They Work?
developing biometric technologies? Are U.S. military
and intelligence agencies sufficiently addressing the
implications of biometric technologies for tradecraft
and concepts of operations?
Related CRS Products
CRS In Focus IF11634, Biometric Entry-Exit System: Legislative
History and Status
, by Abigail F. Kolker.
CRS Report R46586, Federal Law Enforcement Use of Facial
Recognition Technology
, coordinated by Kristin Finklea.
CRS Report R46541, Facial Recognition Technology and Law

Sources: @tahkion (image); https://arxiv.org/pdf/2006.05074.pdf.
Enforcement: Select Constitutional Considerations, by Kelsey Y.
Santamaria.
Note: Facial recognition technology authenticates identity by
examining the perceived placement of an individual’s facial features,

such as the eyes, nose, mouth, and jawline (identified in red—
correctly on the left; incorrectly on the right). Evasive measures (e.g.,
makeup pattern) can cause some facial recognition algorithms to
Kelley M. Sayler, Analyst in Advanced Technology and
misidentify these features, in turn leading to a failure to correctly
Global Security
adjudicate the individual’s identity.
IF11783
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Biometric Technologies and Global Security


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